Logotherapy (first lecture) Kenneth Woodroofe Finding Meaning in Life One of the books that has influenced me very

deeply is a little volume I picked up in San Francisco about twenty years ago bearing the lurid title, "From Death Camp to Existentialism" written by an Austrian psychiatrist named Viktor Frankl. At that time I had never heard of him but since then he has become internationally famous as the exponent of a psychological theory known as logotherapy. What fascinated me at that time was his account of the way in which he personally faced the devastating experience of being a prisoner in a German concentration camp and managed to continue to find life meaningful and worthwhile. Frankl was virtually stripped of everything. His father, mother, brother and his wife died in camps or were sent to gas ovens. Excepting for his sister, his entire family perished. As Professor Gordon Allport, of Harvard University. asked in his preface to Frankl's book, "How could he - every possession lost, every value destroyed, suffering from hunger, cold and brutality, hourly facing extermination - how could he find life worth preserving? A psychiatrist who personally has faced such extremity is a psychiatrist worth listening to." And so I have found him to be. A visit to Tokyo by Mr. Joseph Fabry, a student of Frankl's and executive director of the Institute of Logotherapy in Berkeley, California, rekindled my interest in Frankl's philosophy and has inspired me to refer to him in my talk today. Frankl's experience in the German concentration camp proved a testing ground for the philosophy of life he had already formulated before he was imprisoned, a philosophy and psychological theory which as I have already mentioned, he designated logotherapy, a term based on the Greek word logos, which he translated as meaning. The essence of his point of view is that what man needs above all is a sense that his life has meaning. As a matter of fact the book entitled "From Death Camp to Existentialism" was subsequently published under the title of "Man's Search for Meaning." I suspect that that was Frankl's original title and that the more sensational title was chosen by the publisher as he thought it would attract wider attention among the general public! In his own experience and in that of his comrades in the concentration camp Frankl found ample confirmation of his deep conviction. In his book he describes how "under the influence of a world which no longer recognised the value of human life and human dignity, which had robbed man of his will and had made him an object ot be exterminated 'having planned, however, to

make full use of him first - to the last ounce of his physical resources) - under this influence the personal ego finally suffered a loss of value --." A man's character became involved to the point that he was caught in a mental turmoil which threatened all the values he held and into doubt." In such a situation, as Frankl observed, many a man simply gave up. Usually this happened quite suddenly. "We all feared this moment - not for ourselves which would have been pointless, but for our friends," Frankl said, "Usually it began with the prisoner refusing one morning to get dressed and wash or to go out on the parade grounds. No entreaties, no blows, no threats had any effect. He just lay there hardly moving. If this crisis was brought about by an illness, he refused to be taken to the sick bay or do anything to keep himself. He simply gave up." Such is the close connection between body and mind that it was not long before the man died. Occurrences of such as this provided negative confirmation of Frankl's conviction that man mu7st find a meaning in his life. As a doctor and a psychiatrist, he was face with the problem of how to save men from psychological and spiritual collapse. He recalled Nietzche's words: "He who has a why to live for can bear with almost any how," which so aptly summarised his own philosophy of life and which he has said could be the guiding motto for all psychotherapeutic efforts regarding prisoners. "Whenever there was an opportunity for it," he says, "one had to give them a why - an aim - for their lives in order to strengthen them to bear the terrible how of their existence. Woe to him who saw no more sense in his life, no aim, no purpose, and therefore no point in carrying on. He was soon lost. The typical reply with which such a man rejected all encouraging arguments was 'I have nothing to expect from life any more.'" "What sort of an answer can be given to that?" asks Frankl. In his book he tells us the answer that he found. "What was really needed," he says "was a fundamental change in our attitude toward life. We had to learn ourselves, and, furthermore, we had to teach the despairing men, that it did not really matter what we expected from life but rather what life expected from us. We needed to stop asking about the meaning of life and instead to think of ourselves as those who were being questioned bu life - daily and hourly. Our answer must consist, not in talk and meditation, but in riht action and right conduct. Life ultimately means taking the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and fulfil the tasks which it constantly sets for each individual." Frankl recognises that these tasks, and therefore the meaning of life differ from man to man, and from moment to moment. Thus it is impossible to define the meaning of life in a general way. Questions about the meaning of life can never be answered by sweeping statements. Life does not mean

something vague but something very real and concrete, just as life's tasks are also very real and concrete. They form man's destiny which is different and unique for each individual. No man and no destiny can be compared with any other man or any other destiny. It is Frankl's conviction that human life under any circumstances never ceases to have a meaning, and that this infinite meaning of life includes suffering and dying, privation and death. In fact, his system of logotherapy is based on three tenets: 1. Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones. 2. Every persoon has an innate desire to find meaning and this will to meaning is man's principal motivation for living. 3. Every person has the freedom to find meaning. According to Frankl, life can be meaningful in three ways. First, trough what we give to the world in and through what we do, what we contribute, what we add to life, what we create. These Frankl calls creative values. Secondly, through what we take from life and what life gives us, what we experience. These are realised in receptivity toward the world - for example, in surrender to the beauty of nature or art, and above all in experiencing human beings in their uniqueness for to experience a human being in his uniqueness is to love him. These Frankl calls experiential values. But what of those who are deprived of the opportunity to find meaning in a deed, or in work, or in love, and are faced with an unalterable fate (such as the situation in the concentration camp or an incurable disease, or going to blind, for example)? A third doorway of meaning is open to them in the attitude they take towards their situation, one choice remains that no one can take away from us - the choice of our attitude toward it. Frankl quotes, Goethe as saying: "There is no predicament that we cannot ennoble either by doing or enduring." And he has also cited a statement of Yehudi Bacon, a man who as a boy was imprisoned in Auschwitz and loft it when he was still a boy. Bacon declared "Suffering can have a meaning if it changes you for the better." In this way, as Frankl has said, life can have meaning to the last breath. A Jewish Rabbi, Rabbi Easl A. Grollman has described bow he once received a call from a woman dying of an incurable disease. "How can I meet the thought and reality of death?" she asked. The rabbi introduced many of the concepts of immortality found in their faith and as an afterthought he also

mentioned the attitudinal value concept of Frankl. "Much of the theological discussion made little impression upon her," the rabbi said, "but attitudinal values invited her curiosity - especially she learned that the founder of the concept was a psychiatrist who was incarcerated in concentration camp. This man and his teaching captured her imagination for he knew more than just the theoretical application of suffering. She resolved them and there if she could not avoid the inescapable suffering, she would determine the manner and mode in which she would meet the illness. She became a tower of strength to these around her, whose hearts were lacerated with pain. At first it was a 'bravado' but with passage of time the act became invested with purpose. She confided in me. "Perhaps my single act of immortality might be the way I face this adversity. Even though my pain at times is unbearable, I have achieved an inner peace and contentment that I had never known before. She died in dignity and is remembered in our community for her indomitable courage." Frankl's philosophy has not only meaning for those in concentration camps or for those faced with unalterable situations. He has a message for all of us. As he has said, the meaning of life differs from man to man, from day to day, from hour to hour. What matters is not the meaning of life in general but rather the specific meaning of the moment in and through the demands of the moment. Frankl would agree with the assertion of Carlyle: "The situation that has not its duty, its ideal, was never yet occupied by man. Yes, here, in this poor miserable, hampered, despicable actual, wherin thou even now standest, here or nowhere is thy ideal. Work it out therefrom and working believe, live, be free." Logotherapy (second lecture) What Life Offers Us The talk I gave last time on Viktor Frankl's psychological theory of logotherapy aroused so much interest that I have decided to devote further consideration to some of the implication of his philosophy. I propose therefore in my next talks to discuss in some detail the ways in which according to Frankl, life can become meaningful. You may recall that according to logotherapy we can discover the meaning in life in three different ways. 1. Through what we receive from life, what we take from life, what life gives us, what we experience (Experiential values)

2. Through what we give to the world in and through what we do, what we contribute, what we add to life, what we create (Creative values) 3. Through the attitude we take when we are faced with situations in which we can do absolutely nothing as in the case of an incurable disease, or being stricken with blindness, or losing a leg, Frankl contends that nevertheless one choice remains and that is the choice of our attitude toward it. Frankl calls this the last of human freedoms the capacity to choose one's attitude in a given set of circumstances. Frankl declares that the noblest appreciation of meaning is reserved to those people who faced with what looks like an unalterable situation, by the very attitude they choose to take to the predicament, rise above it and grow beyond themselves. What matters, he says, is the stand they take, a stand which allows for transmuting their predicament into achievement, triumph and heroism. (Attitudinal values) Today, I am going to talk about what he calls experiential values, what we experience, what life gives to us and what we receive from it. This is the area of life where we receive things that we have not earned, where life gives us free gifts. Religious people call this grace, something that is freely given to us, that we have not earned, deserved, merited, worked for, achieved. There are many things of value that come to us in this way. Harry Emerson Fosdick has pointed out three examples of such things. First of all, natural beauty: Sunset and sunrise, mountains and the sea, flowers and trees, "all that we behold of this green earth," all these are bestowed on us freely without money and without price. Then, there are the great spirits who have preceded us, and who have given enlightenment and inspiration to the human race - the great teachers and prophets like Buddha, Jesus, Socrates and Lao-tzu - the great painters in both East and West, - the great writers and poets and composers. They have given of themselves freely. We could not of ourselves have earned or achieved what they have to offer. Yet it is ours for the taking. Thirdly, our most beautiful human relationships are a free gift. Fosdick points out that we did not pay in advance for the motherhood that bore us all or the love that nourished us. All this was poured out freely. Moreover, all fine friendships and true love are free bestowals. In such experiences of beauty, truth, and love we can find meaning. "The fullness of meaning which such values bring to human life must not be underestimated," Frankl declares. "The higher meaning of a given moment in human existence can be fulfilled by the mere

intensity with which it is experienced and independent of any action. If anyone doubts this, let him consider the following situation. Imagine a music lover sitting in the concert hall where the most noble measures of his favorite symphony resound in his ears. He feels that shiver of emotion which we experience in the presence of the purest beauty. Suppose now that at such a moment we should ask this person whether his life has meaning. He would have to reply that it had been worthwhile living if only to experience this ecstatic moment. For though only a single moment is in question - the greatness of a life can be measured by the greatness of a moment: the height of a mountain range is not given by the height of some valley, but by that of the tallest peak. In life, too, the peaks decide the meaningfulness of the life, and a single moment can retroactively flood an entire life with meaning. Let us ask a mountain climber who has beheld the alpine sunset and is so moved by the splendor of nature that he feels cold shudders running down his spine - let us ask him whether after such an experience his life can ever again seem wholly meaningless." Frankl himself recalls what it meant to him suddenly to see the sunset through the barbed wire in the concentration camp - just such an experience of beauty. But, as Dr. Joseph Fabry, one of the leading exponents of logotherapy, (whose book "The Pursuit of Meaning" incidentally has been translated into Japanese) has pointed out, the greatest experience of all is that of mature love - to know one human being in his or her uniqueness, for as Frankl has said, to experience one human being as unique means to love him or, in the words of Geoffrey Studdert Kennedy, "When we are with a friend or someone we love deeply, we no longer ask why we live or why we were born, we feel we were born for this." We no longer ask why. That is because we know the value of what we are experiencing. We do not need to find reasons. It is not valuable for this, that, or the other reason. It is good in itself and we know it. While it is true that such experiences come to us as free gifts and as I have said are ours for the taking, it depends on us as to whether we take them. All too often life offers as gifts and we do not take them, either through unawareness or insensitivity or being wrapped up in ourselves. We go through life blind and deaf nor aware of what is being offered to us and so we miss "the many splendoured thing." Let me quote here some very wise words of advice taken from "The Betty Book" by Stewart Edward White.

"Most people proceed through life busy with their own thoughts. That is the way ninety-nine times out of a hundred you will find yourself if you go out for a walk. The teeming inner life of your mental activities holds you so that you are cramped within yourself and things outside are half-noticed or perhaps not noticed at all. Now stop short and let things about you into your consciousness, You will be surprised to find how many things actually have had no existence in you. Birds singing, for example. A moment ago you literally did not hear them. The lines of trees on the hill. You sensed vaguely that they were there because you were staring straight at them, but the cast of them against the pile of green away behind. The light on their leaves, the curious moton look of their foliage in mass, those things simply were not. You saw the fields, perhaps, but you did not sense them, The effect of the landscape whatever it might be, was shut out because you were occupied within the narrow confine of yourself. Until you voluntarily threw open yourself to wider influences than those of your self they could not claim you. By this shift of attention I do not mean a detached intellectual appraising of the surroundings, a cataloging, an enumeration of features and species and lines of composition . I mean simply the expansion that is the result of the shift from a busy mental concentration within to a voluntary wide opening to influence from without." Let thing about your entire consciousness shift your attention from preoccupation within to a voluntary wide opening to influence from without - This is the key to a widening and deepening of the area of experiential values in our life - a shift in attention. Simone Weill says "absolute attention is prayer." May Sarton, the American poet, has some interesting comments to make on this statement. She says she has used the sentence often in talking about poetry to students, to suggest that if one looks long enough at almost anything, looks with absolute attention at a flower, a stone, the back of a tree, grass, snow, a cloud, something like revelation takes place. Something is given and perhaps that something is always a reality outside the self. We are aware of God only when we cease to be aware of ourselves, not in the negative sense of denying the self, but in the sense of losing self in admiration and joy. Another write, D.H. Lawrence, has pointed out that in these matters so much depends on our attitude. We can cut ourselves off. One can shut many, many doors of receptivity in oneself or one can open many doors that are shut. It is up to us.

Logotherapy (Third lecture) What We Give to Life As I indicated last time I am proposing to continue to explore further in this series of talks the philosophy of Victor Frankl and psychological theory which he calls "Logotherapy." I wish to preface my talk by a short reading of a passage that I came across recently and which in my view epitomises Frankl's whole philosophy of life. In fact, it might have been written by Frankl himself. The passage is to be found in the anthology "The Choice is Ours," edited by Dorothy Berkley Phillips. I do not know who wrote it as the passage is given as anonymous but I suspect it might have been written by the editor of the anthology herself. Here it is: "Life does not need comfort, when it can be offered meaning, nor pleasure, when it can be shown purpose. Reveal what is the purpose of existence and how he may attain it -- the steps he must take -- and man will go forward again hardily, happily, knowing that an effort, concentration, is the only life deserving the devotion, satisfying the nature and developing the potentialities of a self-conscious being." "Reveal what is the purpose of existence and how he may attain it." This is exactly what Frankl aims at doing. As I mentioned in my last talk Frankl declares that meaning is to be found through 1. what we give to the world (Creative values) 2. what we take from the world (Experiential values) 3. the stand we take toward a fate we cannot change, such as incurable disease, an inoperable cancer (Attitudinal values) Last time I dealt with what we take from the world (Experiential values). Today I am going to talk about what we give to the world (Creative values). From Frankl's point of view meaning is to be found moment by moment. The meaning of Life differs from man to man, from day to day, from hour to hour. Every moment has its particular meaning and the act of living consists on responding to the demand of the moment, whatever it may be. As Dr. Jpseph Fabry, Director of the Institute of Logotherapy suggests, the ultimate meaning of life may remain beyond our reach but the demands of the moment can be attained. He says: "In the concept of logotherapy, each person is a unique individual who from birth to death goes through a series of unique

situations, each of which offers meaning potentials. To recognize the meaning of the moment and respond to it (to be response-able) is to lead a meaningful life." These moments may be experiential or creative. Moments in which we are offered something which we take or not, as the case may be, or moments in which something is demanded or required of us, in which we are being asked to give and contribute. The meaning of the moment may either one in which we are called upon to be open and receptive, or active and creative and contributive, or it may often be a combination of the two. The important thing is to be mindful of the moment, aware of its meaning and to respond fully to it -- to treat each moment as the most important at the moment and to give oneself up to it. Let me give you two examples. On Arturo Toscanini's 80 th birthday, someone asked his son Walter what his father ranked as his most important achievement. The son replied. "For him there can be no such thing. What ever he happens to be doing at the moment is the biggest thing in his life -whether it is conducting a symphony or peeling an orange." After the death of the Hasidic Rabbi Moshe of Kobryn, someone asked one of his disciples -- what had been the most important things for his master. He answered "Always just what he was engaged in at the moment." Frannkl points out that man needs to recognize life is asking him questions, putting challenges to him, and the answer that he gives not with words but with his life. To recognize the demand of the moment and to respond to it wholeheartedly and unreservedly is to live meaningfully. Last time we saw that the key question was: what is life offering us? -- and everything depended upon our awareness of and response to it. Here the key question is: what is life asking of us and everything depends upon our awareness and response to it. As Frankl sees it, life is challenging us with the question: What are you going to do with your life? What are you going to give? "Giving," says Eric Fromm, "is the highest expression of potency. In the very act of giving I experience my strength, my wealth, my power. This experience of heightened vitality and potency fills me with joy. Giving is more joyous than receiving .. because in the act of giving lies the experience of my aliveness." "What does one person give to another? He gives of himself, of the most precious he has, he gives of his life. He gives him of that which is alive in him. He gives of his joy, of his interest, of his understanding, of his knowledge, of his humour, of his sadness, of all expressions and manifestations of what which is alive in him."

It is in such giving that we find life meaningful and worthwhile. The Englishman, L.P. Jacks, himself a leading Unitarian, has stressed that the chief duties of a human being are to get to understand as much of the universe as he can and then on the strength of that knowledge to do his utmost towards making it a better universe than it would have been if he had not happened to be born, by creating some bit of new value, though it be only making two blades of grass where one grew before, or mending the broken leg of a sparrow. "What are your purpose and business?," Jack asks. "Your purpose and business are those of a creator of values. You are here to add value to the world in which you find yourself." It is for each of us to decide in what way, given the powers and gifts that we possess and the situations with which we are confronted, we can add value to the world around us and in doing so discover not in theory but in experience the meaning of life. Logotherapy (fourth lecture) Everything Depends on Our Attitude In this talk I am continuing my discussion of some of the main ideas in logotherapy, the school of psychology founded by Viktor Frankl. As we have seen according to Frankl we can discover meaning in life in three different ways: 1. Through what we receive from life, what we take from life, what life gives us, what we experience (Experiential values) 2. Through what we give to the world, what we do, what we contribute, what we add to life, what we create (Creative values) 3. Through the attitude we take when we are face with situations in which we can do absolutely nothing, as in the case of an inoperable disease, or being stricken with blindness or losing a leg. Frankl contends that one choice remains to us and that is the choice of our attitude towards it. I have previously discussed the experiential and creative values. Today I propose to discuss attitudinal values. In my view Frankl's attitude towards unavoidable suffering is one of the most valuable of his contributions to the art of living. While he had already formulated it before he was imprisoned in a concentration camp it was there that its validity was tested and confirmed and it was there that he was able

to see the living proof of its efficacy in the way in which his fellow prisoners were able to cope with, and rise above, their miserable situation. Everything had been done to deprive them of everything that made life worthwhile, of opportunities of encountering either experiential values or creative values. It was Frankl's great discovery that experiential and creative values are not the only sources of meaning, that even if we are facing a fate which cannot be changed, there is still meaning available in our lives. "When you can no longer change the situation you may change yourself, which means you may change your attitude towards your fate," he says. "Changing yourself in such cases means rising above yourself, going beyond yourself." Frankl has declared that as the director for a quarter of a century of a neurological hospital department he had watched people turning their tragedy into triumph -- girls who yesterday were dancing in discos and today are paralysed from the neck down, young men riding motor cycles and then paralysed. Since my last talk I have received a tape of a recent lecture by Dr. Frankl and so I am in a position to quote from some memorable examples that he gave. One was a case of a twenty-four year old woman who at the age of 18 was injured by a gunshot wound as she walked to the grocery store. She could only accomplish tasks by means of a mouth stick. She feels however that the purpose of her life is quite clear. She watches the newspapers and television for stories of people in trouble and writes to them, typing with the mouthpiece, to give a word of comfort and encouragement. Dr. Frankl also cited a case reported by one of his students. This was that of a thirty-one year old mechanic who had received hundreds of thousands of volts of electricity either gangrenous or already mummified and had to be amputated. Dr. Frankl's student was assigned to him as a special nurse. In her report she said: "The surgeons', physiologists' and nurses' faces were wet with tears, their bodies shuddering with occasional ucontrollable sobs, as they went through the necessary tasks of removing one by one both legs and both arms from the young and healthy body of a fellow human being." When he awakened he had to be told by the nurse that his arms and legs had been removed. She goes on to say in her report: "I searched for thoughts by which I might spark him with a meaning for his life and his predicament. There was a young man who was paralysed from the neck down. He had learned to use his teeth and so forth. I took Bob to visit him. They became friends and looked forward to seeing each other." The nurse the felt that Bob was transcending his human condition She began to ro read to hi for short periods. She read "Man's Search for Meaning." He

would say: "Stop. Read that over again." He would discuss different parts of the book and how they related to his own condition. He was particularly impressed with the meaning one finds in suffering. He memorised some sentences. His favorite quotation was the statement: "It is the spiritual freedom which cannot be taken away, which makes life meaningful and purposeful." "Bob opened a small business and was able to support his family," the nurse reported. "Last summer in a specially equipped car he drove his wife and two children on a tour of the United States and he told me: "I was very empty before my accident. I stayed drunk all the time and was bored to death. Now, I truly know what it means to be happy." "A man who had lost both arms and both legs and after the accident know what it truly means to be happy." Dr. Frankl exclaims on the tape -"Fulfilling a meaning and finding a meaning n suffering. This is true happiness and this is a real triumph." And I may add myself that it is indeed an awe-inspiring example of squeezing meaning out of suffering and turning tragedy into triumph. Dr. Fabry in his book "The Pursuit of Meaning" also gives examples of the same process taking place. He tells, for instance, of a woman who was in despair because she was going blind. With the help of another woman who had been born blind she learned Braille and became so interested in the method that she volunteered to transcribe books in Braille script. Her work brought her into contact with other blind people and they formed a book discussion group for the blind. By the time she had lost her eyesight entirely, she was no longer in despair. As Dr. Fabry points out, logotherapy cannot prevent unavoidable suffering; it can keep people from despair. By Frankl's definition despair is caused by suffering in which the sufferer sees no meaning. "Suffering in itself has no meaning." Dr. Fabry says, "but we can assume meaningful attitudes towards events that in themselves are meaningless." But we need not confine ourselves to specific examples of the application of logotherapy. The truth of the principle enunciated by Dr. Frankl is to be seen at work in people who have never heard of logotherapy but are unwittingly applying its principles. The very day on which I was preparing this lecture an article by Alec Dickson, founder of Community Service Volunteers and Voluntary Service Overseas in England appeared in the Japan Times (March 2, 1981). In it Mr. Dickson cites a striking example very similar to those described by Dr. Frankl. I quote: "When polio struck Isamu Ito, an engineer in Tokyo, he was

determined not to let it mar his enjoyment of winter sports -- and disciplined himself to ski on one leg. Then he wondered if there were others even more disabled whom his experience might help. "So today Miss Sanae Sato, a young spastic unable to walk, careers radiantly down snowclad slopes because Ito, after long experimentation, devised a form of sledge which cradles her wheelchair .." "His technical gifts and personal acquaintance with being handicapped, allied to her zest for life, are one reflection of human value in service," comments Mr.Dickson. But perhaps the most striking example that has come to my notice and one that I shall never forget is the case of Ned Langford, an American soldier who served in the Philippines and who contracted leprosy. His story is told in a book entitled "Who Walk Alone" by Perry Burgess. When a doctor informed him that he was suffering from leprosy he was naturally overwhelmed. The doctor pointed out to him that he might play a special role in the fight against leprosy, saying "Man, if you could have a real part in that fight it would be worth ten ordinary lives like yours and mine." Langford's response was very understandable. "I'm no hero and I don't want to be one. I haven't any hero stuff in my makeup." The doctor looked at him for moment and then made a comment which marked the turning point in Langford's life "You have to do this, soldier, whether you are scared or not. You can take it standing up fighting or you can lie down and let it beat you. And you're the only one who can say about that." The doctor was a true logotherapist without knowing it. Well, Langford did not take it lying down. He tool it standing up fighting. He proved that his own assessment of himself was false. There was hero stuff in his make-up and the account of the twenty-five year fight he put up is one of the most inspiring stories I have read. He fought what he called the good fight not only for himself but for his fellow human beings in the colony, doing everything he possibly could to help them help themselves. Looking back on the twenty-five years of life in the colony he asked himself: "What did it mean? " And within him welled up this answer born of those years: "Life, no matter how it is lived, is always a mystery. To take it as it comes, asking no quarter, fighting to the end, that is the creed the quarter century has brought to me. Balancing the scales at the end of twenty-five years in a lepro colony, the leper knows that he is, first of all, a man. For that man life has been worthwhile." The decisive test was formulated in the statement of Yehuda Bacon, one of Israel's artists, who as a boy survived the Auschwitz death camp. "Suffering can have meaning," he said, "if it changes you for the better."

Frankl confidently affirms on the basis not only the experience of suffering human beings he has himself witnessed, but on the vast amount of evidence provided by the application of logotherapeutic principles in cases of unavoidable suffering, that the sources of meaning in life are inexhaustible. He declares that meaning is available under each and every circumstance to every human being, irrespective of age, sex, character, structure or religion. I must confess that as I read those accounts of the heroic turning of tragedy into triumph I wondered whether if faced with such circumstances, I would be able to respond as they did. I am inclined to feel as Ned Langford did that "I'm no hero" but I take comfort from a statement of psychologist Bonaro Overstreet. She says: "People always do what makes sense to them in terms of what they see. They do not do things which from their point of view, in the moment of action are stupid and uncalled for. They obey the imperative of their own awareness. Behaviour changes only as some expanded awareness makes the individual take into account what he did not notice before." I think this is precisely where logotherapy helps. It helps us to take into account what we did not notice before. It expands our awareness and introduces us to a possibility of meaningfulness for our lives that we might never have glimpsed or conceived before. We are thus enabled to see the possibilities of meaning that may be squeezed from it. In his talk Frankl quoted a memorable saying of Jung's: "Meaning makes many things, perhaps even everything, endurable and bearable." This is saying in another way what Nietsche said: "If you have a why to live for you can put up with almost any how." It is discovery of a why to live for that is the core of the matter. But this applies not only to those who are faced with inescapable suffering. It applies to each of us here and now.

What is Logotherapy? a) Definition

Literally, logotherapy means 'therapy through meaning'. It's an active-directive therapy aimed at helping people specifically with meaning crises, which manifest themselves either ina feeling of aimlessness or indirectly through addiction, alcoholism or depression. Logotherapy also employs techniques useful for phobias, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorders and medical ministry. Other applications include working with juvenile delinquents, career counselling and helping all of us find more meaning in life.

b) Foundations
i) Existentialism It's existentialist becauseit emphasises the freedom of the will and the consequent responsibility.It also, of course, asserts the importance of the meaning of life. Whilst Freud said human's have a will to pleasure and Adler the will to power, Frankl says we have a will to meaning. If it is frustrated, spiritual (noogenic) neuroses result. Frankl argued that the the spiritual (noetic) dimension of man should be added to the physical and psychological dimensions. For Frankl, ultimate meaning does exist andis unique to each person and each situation. Each moment offers 'a sequence of unrepeatable situations each of which offers a specific meaning to be recognised and fulfilled'. Meaning cannot be invented but must be discovered. ii) Stoicism It's Stoic, because it holds that no matter what the state of the world, our attitude can always help us. The Stoic Epictetus held that 'Men are not moved by events but by their interpretations'. Even in

facing death and suffering, by showing courage we can turn a situation into a supremely meaningful one. iii) Frankl's own experiences, in concentration camps and as a psychiatrist "This was the lesson I had to learn in three years spent in Auschwitz and Dachau: other things being equal, those apt to survive the camps were those oriented toward the future - toward a task, or a person, waiting for them in the future, toward a meaning to be fulfilled by them in the future" . But Logotherapy was also the result of Frankl's own ideas and improvisations, not all of which are very obviously connected with his experiences in the camps or the meaning of life. 1.Paradoxical Intention
The therapist encourages the patient to intend or wish for, even if only for a second, precisely what they fear. oUsed for obsessive, compulsive and phobic conditions (not for suicidal or schizophrenic patients). oUseful in cases of underlying anticipatory anxiety, often works very quickly. oMobilises the human capacity for self-detachment, often with a sense of humour oHans Gerz claims that paradoxical intention is successful in 80-90% of cases

The case of the sweating doctor (from Pyschotherapy and Existentialism, p 139) A young doctor had severe hydrophobia. One day, meeting his chief on the street, as he extended his hand in greeting, he noticed that he was perspiring more than usual. The next time he was in a similar situation he

expected to perspire again, and this anticipatory anxiety precipitated excessive sweating. It was a vicious circle We advised our patient, in the event that his anticipatory anxiety should recur, to resolve deliberately to show the people whom he confronted at the time just how much he could really sweat.A week later he returned to report that whenever he met anyone who triggered his anxiety, he said to himself, "I only sweated out a litre before, but now I'm going to pour out at least ten litres !" What was the result of this paradoxical resolution ? After suffering from his phobia for four years, he was quickly able, after only one session, to free himself of it for good. You are the logotherapist In the following cases, what paradoxical intention, if any, would you recommend ? i)A man is fearful that he will die from a heart attack. Physical check-ups reveal him to be in good health. ii) An obsessive-compulsive comes to you because she is concerned about the number of times she washes her hands each day. iii) A young man comes to you for help with stuttering. What do you advice ? iv) A schizophrenic is anxious that the people he sees on the tube are out to get him.

Dereflection
The therapist diverts the patients away from their problems towards something else meaningful in the world. oused specifically for sexual dysfunction. Deflection indicated because (e.g.) the more you think about potency during sex, the less likely you are to achieve it,

oNo use just telling them to stop thinking about something need to substitute something positive ( e.g. insomniac -dont just tell them to stop trying to sleep, tell them to count sheep). oMore generally, logotherapy can be seen as dereflecting the patient away from their presenting problem towards searching for meaning. Patient is dereflected from their disturbance to something other than themselves.

Frankl's advice to Anna, 19-year old art student who displays severe symptoms of incipient schizophrenia. She considers herself as being confused and asks for help. Patient What is going on within me ? Frankl: Don't brood over yourself. Don't inquire into the source of your trouble. Leave this to us doctors. We will steer and pilot you through the crisis. Well, isn't there a goal beckoning you say, an artistic assignment ? Patient: But this inner turmoil . Frankl: Don't watch your inner turmoil, but turn your gaze to what is waiting for you. What counts is not what lurks in the depths, but what waits in the future, waits to be actualised by you. Patient: But what is the origin of my trouble ? Frankl: Don't focus on questions like this. Whatever the pathological process underlying your psychological affliction may be, we will cure you. Therefore, don't be concerned with the strange feelings haunting you. Ignore them util we make you get rid of them. Don't watch them. Don't fight them. Imagine, there are about a dozen great things, works which wait to be created by Anna, and there isno one who could achieve and accomplish it but Anna. No one could replace here in this assignment, They will be your creations, and if you don't create them, they will remain uncreated forever Patient : Doctor, I believe in what you say. It is a message which makes me happy.

3.Orientation towards Meaning

The therapist tries to enlarge the patient's discernment of meaning in the past, present and future, and creatively, experientially and attitudinally.

1. Meaning through creative values

Frankl says that "The logotherapist's role consists in widening and broadening the visual field of the patient so that the whole spectrum of meaning and values becomes conscious and visible to him". A major source of meaning is through the value of all that we create, achieve and accomplish.

2. Meaning through experiential values

Frankl (The Doctor and the Soul) writes "Let us ask a mountain-climber who has beheld the alpine sunset and is so moved by the splendour of nature that he feels cold shudders running down his spine - let us ask him whether after such an experience his life can ever again seem wholly meaningless".

3. Meaning through attitudinal values

Frankl argued that we always have the freedom to find meaning through meaningful attitudes even in apparently meaningless situations. For example, an elderly, depressed patientwho could not overcome the loss of his wife was helped by the following conversation with Frankl. Frankl asked "What would have happened if you had died first, and your wife would have had to survive you". "Oh," replied the patient, "for her this would have been terrible; how she would have suffered ! Frankl continued "You see such a suffering has been spared her; and it is you who have spared her this suffering; but now, you have to pay for it by surviving her and mourning her."The man said no word, but shook Frankl's hand and calmly left his office." (Man's Search for Meaning) Case study of Harold (Chris Wurm)

Harold was a middle-aged Australian whose life was rapidly spiralling out of control As well as a drinking problem he had financial problems- not helped by the amount he spent on drink - and was under considerable stress at work. His wife's sympathy was running out - no wonder he was also having trouble sleeping at night. He went to seeChris Wurm,a GP as well as a logotherapist. Wurm combined a medical approach - for example giving information about the damage drink was doing - with logotherapy. Invery fewsessions Harold's life was turned round, partly by the clarification the role of alcohol in his life and the alternatives. Wurm says"It was possible to discuss the notion that he could make choices and live his life in a variety of ways " ( there we see logotherapy's emphasis on responsibility) " some of which would be more meaningful than others. He was then able to reflect on the choices he had been making (this is the orientation towards meaning and values) , and the possibilities available in the future". "It was dramatic to see how determinedand effective he became, once he saw how his old strategies were backfiring".

3. Assessing Logotherapy
1) Strengths
+ Inspiration of Viktor Frankl's life + Relatively simple to understand, potentially life-changing and enhancing + Addresses dimension of life not addressed by other therapies+ + Optimistic and constructive

b) Limitations
- Too authoritarian ?- Too religious and not sufficiently scientific or rigorous?- Too dependent on Frankl and his intuitions ? - Too narrow ?

4. Developments in Logotherapy
i) Attempts to focus on values and meanings more systematically. James Crumbaugh, co-inventor of the Purpose in Life test, has devised a number of exercises he gives to clients to help orientate them towards meaning and values. (see separate handout). The idea is also to work out the underlying values and how you might fulfil them, in order to lead a more meaningful life. Crumbaugh has also devised 6 lists that are used throughout analysis. 1. Life-long aims, ambitions, goals and interests going back as far as the client can remember, including those s/he no longer considers important. 2. The strong points of circumstances, "good luck". personality, physical and environmental

3. The weak points of personality, failures, "bad luck". 4. Specific problems that cause the client's conflicts. 5. Future hopes (this list may overlap with the first list above but emphasises the future whilst list 1 includes past ambitions). 6. Future plans, immediate and long-range. In my own work, I have incorporated these into a broader framework (called RSVP) which not only tries to find things that might be meaningful and valuable put also tries to establish whether they really are ii)Attempts to put logotherapy on a more scientific footing Wong & Fry'sThe Human Quest for Meaning (1998) represents an attempt by a number of psychologists to create a more testable, rigorous and up-todate meaning-centred therapy.One advance is work on the Life Regards Index to improve on the old Purpose in Life Test, in order to determine which patients are good candidates for logotherapy and to measure their improvement