LiquidfltEtion 228

Chapterseven
Liquid Filtration
7.I, INTRODUCTION
The separation of solidsfrom a suspension in a tiquid by means of a porousmediurnor pass is screen which retains the solidsand aliowsthe liquid to tcrmedfilhation. ln general, tle pores of ihe medium are larger than the palticles which are to be iemoved, and thc filtcr works cflicicntly only aller an initial deposit has been trapped in fhe medium. ln fte labontory, filtration is oiler canied out using a folnl of Buc}ner funnel,and thc liquid is suckcdtbroughtbc thin laycr of parliclcsusing a sourceof vacLrum. the suspension In cven simplercases is porred into a conicalfLrnncl litted widr a fiiter paper.In the industdalcquivalcnt, dimcultiesarc encountercd in the mcchanical handlingof much larger quantities and solids.A thickcr layer of solids of suspension has to form and, in order to achievea high rate of passase of liquid throush the solids, higherpressures arc nceded, and a far grcater areahasto bc providcd. A rypicalfilt|ation operation is illustrated iD Figure7.1, which showsthe filter medium,iD this casea cloth, iis support and the layer of solids, or lilter cakc, which has already formed. Volumes of the suspensions to be handled vary fron the extemely large quantitics involved in water purification and ore handling in ihe mining industry to rclativciy small quantities,as in thc fu1echemical industry where the variery of solids is considerable.h most industrial applications it is the solids thai are required aM their physical size and properties are of paramount importancc. Thus, the main factors to be consideredwhen selecting equipment and opemting conditions arei (a) The propertiesofthe fluid, particularly its viscosily, density andcolrosive Fope ies. (b) The natureof thc solid its padiclesizeand shape, sizedistribution, and packing characteristics. (c) The concentration of solidsin suspcnsion. (d) The quantity of material to be hardled, and its value. (e) whetherihe valuable productis the so1id, the flujd, or both. (0 Whetherit is ncessary to washthe filteredsolids. (g) Wherher verJ slisht contaminationcausedby contact of the suspensionor filtrate with the various componentsof the equipmentis detimental to the product. (h) Wlether the feedliquor may be heated. (i) whether any form of pretreaimenrmight be he1ptul. Filtration is essentially a mechanical operation and is less demanding in cncrgy ihan evaporation or dryingwherethe high latentheatofihe liquid,which is usuallywater,has to be provided. In the rypicalopration shownin Figure7.1,the cakegradually buildsup

229ChemilEngineering Processes

Slurry

,1,
lisure 7 L Pimiple ofnlhdon

on the medilun and the resistarceto flow progressivelyincreases. Dudng ihe initial period offlow, particles are depositedin lhe sudacelayers of the cloth to form the true filtering medium. This initial deposii may be formcd from a specialinitial flow of precoatmaterial which is discussedlater. The most important factors on which the rate of filtation ihen depeMswill be: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) The drop in pressurefrom the feed to the far side of thc filter medium. The area of the filtering surfacc. The viscosity of tle filtraie. The resistanceof the 6lter cake. The resistanceof the fiIter medium and hitial layers of cakc.

lwo basrcry?e5ol filrmrtonproce.se( na) be idenlifico. altbougbrbereare cases wbere the two E/pes appearto merye. ln the first, frequently refened to as cakefhrution, the particlesfrom the suspension, which usually has a high proporrior of solids, me deposited on the swface of a porous septumwhich should ideally ofler only a small resistanceto itow. As the solids build up on the septum, the iniiial laycrs folm the effective 6lter medium, preventiry thc particles ftom embedding themselves ir the filtef cloth, and ensuringthat a particle-free filtrate is obtained ln the seco t)?e offilhatlon, depth or deep-bedfltratior, the pariicles penehateinto the pores of the filter medium, where impacts between the particles and the surface of the medium are largely responsiblefor their removal and retention. This configuration is comnonly used for the rcmoval of fine particles ilom very dilute suspensions, where the recovery of the paiticles is not of primary importance.T)?ical exampleshere include air and water filtation. The filter bed gradually becomesclogged with particles, and ils resistance to flow eventually reachesan unacceptably high level. For continued operatio& it is threfore necessaryto remove the accumulatedsolids, and it is importart that this can be feadily achievd.For this reason,the filter conrmonly consistsof a bed of particulate solids, such as sand, which can be cleanedby back-flushing,often accompanied by

Liqt'id fltration230

fluidisafiol ln this chapter,the emphasisis on cake filhation although deep-bedfiltration, which hasbeendiscussed in detailby IvES(r.':) is considered in the section or bedfilters. There are two pdDcipal modcs under which decp bed filtmtion may be caded out. Irr he tust, dead-e d fltratian ||hich is illustated in Figure 7.1, the slunl is filtered in such a way that it is fed perpendicularlyto the fi1ter medium and there is littl flow parallel to the surface of the medium. ln the second,iermed .r'oss-Jla, Jiltration which is discussed in Section 7.3.5.andwhich is usedparticularly for very dilute suspensions, the slurry is contiruously recirculatedso that it flows essentiallyacrossthe surfaceof the filter medium at a rate conslderablyin exccssof thc frowratc through the 6lter cake.

7.2.FILTR,{TIONTHEORY
7.2.1.IntrodLlction Equations aregiven in Chapter 4 for the calculation ofthe Iate offlow ofa fluid through a bed of granular material, and ihcsc arc nolv applicd to thc flow of filtrate through a in gcncralbehaviour may bc cxpcctcd. however,because filter cake.Somedifferences the casesso far consideredrelate to unifom fixed beds, whereasin filtration the bed is steadily growiry in thickness. Thus, if tle filtration pressureis constant, the mte of whcrcas. if the flowratcis to bc maintained flow progressively dimjnishes constant, the pressuremust be $adually increased. The mecha cal details of the equipment, particularly of the flow channel and ihe supporl for the medium, innuencethe way th cake is built up and the easewith which it may be removed. A uniform structure is vry desirablefor good washing and cakes present problems. formedfrom paficles ofvery mixedsizes andshapes special Although iilter cakesarc codplex in their structurc and camot fiuly be regardedas composedof rigid ron-deformable pafiicies, the method of relating the flow parametercdevelopedin Chapter 4 is useful in describing the flow within the filier cakc.Thc general thcory of 'r. filtrarion ard iLsimpodance in design hasbeen co'r.ide_ed bi S. | ll ma) be nolcd that there are nvo quite diferent methodsof operatinga batch filter. lf thc prcssurois kept constant then the rate of flow progressively whercas diminishcs, if the flownte is kept constant thenthe pressurc mustbe gradually incrcascd. Bccausc thc particles formingthe cake are small and the flow through the bed is s1ow,streamline conditions are almost invariably obtained,and, at any instant, the flowrate ofthe filtrate may be represented by the followins forrnula I e1 aP

(7.r)

wherey is the volumeoffilirate which haspassed in time r, ?4is the totalcrcss-sectional areaofthe filter cake, r. is the superficial velocity of the filtrate, I is lhe cake thickness, p is the viscosiry S is the specific surface ofthe palticies, e is the voidage, ofthe filtrate, and AP is the appliedpressure difference. ln deriving this equation ii is assumedthat the cake is uniform and that the voidage is constant thoughout. ln the dposition of a filter cakethis is unljkcly to be the case and the voidage, e will dependon the nature of thc support, including its geometry and

231Chemical Engineefing Processes

surfacesfucture, and on the rate ofdeposition. The idtial stagesin the fomation of the cake are therefore of special importancefor the ibllowing reaions: (a) For any filtration pressure,the rate offlow is greatest at the begiDningofthe plocess since the resistanceis then a minimum. (b) High initial ratesoffilrration may rcsu1t in pluggtng of the poresofrhe filter cloth and cause a very high resistance to flow. (c) The orientation of the particle in the inirial layers may appreciably influerce the sfucture of ihe whoie fitrer cake. l-ilrer cakcs maybe dividcd Lflorwoclds.cs incompressible cales.Itrd compre.sible cakes, In the caseofan incompressible cakc,the resistance ro flow of a givenvolumeof calr jr norippreciably aflecred ejrher by he pre.sure d Fcrence a"ros,L]i cake or b] rhe mreotdeposirion ol md'er;dt. On rbeorhcjhcnd.$irh a compre\sible cake,incre"sc of the pressuredifference or of the rate of flow causesthe formation of a densercake with a higherresistance. For incompressible cakes e in equation 7_l may be takenas constant andth.quantiry 3lI5(1 - r)2S21 is thena property ofrhe particle;formingthe cakeand should be constantfor a given material.

Thus:

ldv Adt

rpl
5(1 - )'zS'?

(7.2) (7.3)

't

It may be noted thai, when therc is a hydrostatic pressurecomponent such as with a horizontal filter sudace, this shouldbe ircludedir the calculatio;of _Ap. Equation 7.2 is the basic filtrationequation andr is termed the specific rcsistance which . rs secn ro depcnd on-e_aDd S. lof incomo-essib,e cales. r is takcn a5con5t t. a,lhough rt depctrds on -aleof depo.iLion. lbe nanfe of thc panic'er, snd on rbe lotce.benre;n the particles. r has the dimensionsof L : and the units m-2 in the Sl system.

7.2.2.Relation betweentlricknessofcake and volume of ltrate In equation 7.2, the variablesI and y arc connected, and the relatior betweenthem may be obtainedby making a material balancebetwcenthe solids in both the slurry and th cake as foliows. Massof soiidsin filter cak: (t - e),41p", wherepI is ihe densi, of the solids Massofliquid retaircdin the filrer cake= rAlp, wherep is the dinsity ofthe fitrrate. If "/ is the massfractionof solidsin the originalsuspension thenl

t_aa,,:yl:!!)!!
or: (1 J)(l

1_J e)Alp": JVp + AeJIp A1(1- t)(I - e)ps- Jepl

('7.4)

Liquidiiltralion 232

and:

Ip"O-e)(r-J)-epJlAI

Q.s) t
(7.6)

Il D is the volulne of cake depositedby unit volume of filtrate ther

u:
alld iom equahon7.5:

lA V

or I:i

uv

(r-t)(1-e)p"-Jfp
Substituting for , in equatiotr7.2:

\.

(1.7)

I dv _ (-aP) A A d! rp l)v dv
dt

A'z(-^P)
TLLL,V

(7.8)

Equation 7.8 may be regaxdedas the basic rclatioll between - AP, y, alrd l. Two the Fessure diffeleDceis maintained constant important twes of operationare: (i) \'r'here alld fi wherc the mte offiltation is rnaintaircd constatrt. For afltration at constantrate

dvv
so that:

v
t t v

A,eLP)
rttvl) rpx ,, A2t LP)

(7.9\ (7.10)

to V. and -AP is directlyproportional yessuredffercnce For afltration at constant

v2 _ AZ(-LP)i rtt1) 2 t

(7.11)

f|t u

2Ar(_LP),

Q.r2)

Thus for a constant pressurefiltration, there is a linear rclatiotr between V' and , or benreen t/Y and V. Filtration at cofftant pressrre is morc ftequendy adopted in pmctic, although the Fessure diference is nomally gadualy built up to its ultimate value. ff this takes a time tr duing which a volume yl of filtrate passes,thetr integatiotr of equation 7.12 gives: I . ^ Azt-LPl -(v._vi):Llt 2 r&u tt)

(7.13)

233Chemical Engineenng Processes fpt 242( LP) .,r .,. . twv) A2\ LP)

('7.14)

Thus,therewhereis a linearrelatlor berween lz, and r and between(t _ ^)/(V _ Vt) and (y vr), where (r - rr) reFesents rhe time of ihe constantprc""*e ntt otion aoa (y - Vr) the co[esponding volumeof filtrateobtained. Ruru et al(a- 7)have mademcasurements on the flow in a filtcr cakeandhave concluded t that the resistance is somewhatgreaterthan ihat hdicated by equation 7. I . It was assuned that pmt of the pore spaceis fendered inefective for the florv of filtrate becauseof the adsorption of ions on the surface of the paricles. This is not born out by cRAcE(s)or by HoFFrNc and LocKrARr(e)who determied the relation betweenflowrate and oressure ditrercnce. borf b) mean\ of perneabrli$ Lest. on a fi\ed bedaro by 6lmrionre.r.us.rg suspensions of quartz and diatomaceous earth, Typical values of thc specific resistancer of filier cakes, taken from the wo* ol CArtIraN(]o), aregiven in Table7.1.In the absence of details ofthe physical properties of the particles and of the conditions under which they had been formed, these vilues are approximatealthough they do provide an indication of the orders of masniruale.
Tabh ?.1. TypicalValues of Specific Resislhce,r(roi

x tora 1.6 780 lt0 170 274 780 210 780 274 ?80 27Q 780 214 780 210 780 270 650

cllciu'n cmbonare (pHilnated)

3 . 5x l 0 ' '

1 3x l 0 ' { 8 x I0'r

Celadnous magnesiun bydroxide Celatinou aluninium nydroxide Gelatinous feric lydroxidc

2 , 3x l 0 r 7

7.2.3.Flow ofliquid through the cloth Expcrimental wo* on the flow of the liquid under streamline conditjons(r0)has shown that the flowrate is directly proportional to the pressuredifference. It is the rcsistanceof the cloth plus inltial layers of deposited particles that is important since the latter, not only form the true medirm, but also tend to block the pores ofthe cloth thus increasins

234 Liquid fltration

its resistarce. Cloths Inay have to be discaded becauseof high rcsistancewell before they are mechanically wom. No true analysis of ihe buildup of rcsistance is possible becausethe resistancewill dependon the way in which the pressureis developed and small vanaiions itr suppot geometrycan have an important iniuence. lt is thereforeusual to combine the resistanceof the cloth with that of ihe fint few layers of parhcles and to a thicknessZ of cake as depositedat a later stage.The supposethat this corresponds resistance to flow though the cake aad cloth conbined is now considered.

7.2.4. Flow of ltrate through the cloth and cake combined Ifthe filter cloth and the hitial layers of cake are togetherequivaleni to a thickrcss a of cake as depositedai a later stagein the Focess, and if -AP is the pressuredrcp aqoss the cake and cloth combiDed,then:

l dv A&

(-aP) rLL(l+L)

(7.15)

with equation 7.2. whichmaybe compared Thus: dv dr A(-LP) rtl\A+L)

,,,(,.T)
P\-LP)

A2(-LP)

(:'7.16)

This equationInay be integratedbetweenthe limits, : 0, V : 0 and t : tr, v = q for const nt constantrate fi lfation, and t : t1, V : V1 and t : t, V = V for a subsequent pressurefiltration. For the period of coirsldrt rdtefltrationl

Vr
t1

to\ ,r, (v. *

rp,! Ar(-Ap) ,, YF , fp.L A(-Ar)

..,

LA .. 1)

All- ^P) rtll)

(7.t 1)

corrldr?tpressure For a subsequent fltration: | . LA -'V'- Y'l + -(V 2rfpu lV-vt+zVt)\V " Vt)l'" ., \V - V r )V)-' Alr APr ''' (t tt)

(7.18)

'r-rt rpL AL-AP)

t - tt rpu V t 2 A 2 \ -aP) V

rp'vt ., ''4(-aP)

(7.te)

235 Chemical Engineerifg Pro@sses

yr) and y_yr, as shown in Thus there is a linear relation berween(r-rr)/(y Figurc?.2, and the slope is propodionatto thc speciflcrcsistance, as in the caseof the flow of the filtrate ttuough the filter cake alone given by cquarion 7.14, although the lhe does not now go through the odgin.

ili

V,U (cn3) Figure7.2. A typicatfill.arioncune

The interccpt on the Q ti)/g - V) a\is shoutd enablc l,, rhe equivatent thickness of the cloth, to be calculated although reproducible results are not obtained because this resistance is ffitically dependent on lhe exact mannerin which rhe operationis corlmenced. The time at which measxrement of y and I is commenceddoes not aflect the slope olthe curve, only the intcrcept. It may be noted that a linear relation between / and yi is no longerobtained whenthe cloth resistance is aDDreciable. 7.2.5.Compressible Filter cakes Nearly all iilter cakes arc comFessible to at least some extent althouqh in manv cases rl-edegree ol compres.ibiliiy ir so.nalt loat the cakendy. tof prac;cdl pu?oses. be regardedas incompressible.The evidencefor compressibilit is that the specific resistancc is a firnction ofthc pressurediflerenceacrossthe cakc.Compressibiliy miy be a reversible or an irreversible process.Mosi filter cakesare inelastic and the greaterresistance offered ro flo$ ar h,ghores.ure differences is caured by rhcmore compacr pact<,ng ot lbepdnicles fbrming the filter cake. Thus the specific resisranceof the cake corresoondsto that for I )e big'resr pressure oif|ercnce ro whrcb rhecakeis.ubjecrca. erenrhoJgh rbismarmum pressuredillerence may be maintainedfor only a short time. lt is thereforeimportant thaf the filtration pressureshould not be allowed to exccedthe normal opemting presswe at

Liquid illration236

any stage.h elastic filter cakesthe elasticity is attributableto compressionof the panicles givedseto elasiiccakes. themselves. This is lessusual, although someformsofcarboncan As the filhate flows through the fi1tercake,it exertsa drag force on the pariicles andthis force is iransmitted ltuough successive layers ofpaticles right up to the filter cloth. Tle nagnitude of dis force increasesprogressivelyftom the surface of the fl1ter cake to the filter cloth since at any point it is equalto lhe summationofthe forces on all the panicles progressively up to that point. lf the cakeis compressible, thenits voidagewill decrease in the directionofflow ofthe filrrate,giving rise to a corresponding increase in the local valueofthe specific resistance, r:, ofthe filter cake.The structure gf the cakeis, however, complex and may changeduring the courseofthe filtration process. lf the feed suspension is flocculated,the flocs may becomedeformedwiilin ihe cake,and this may give rise to a in theefectivevalueofthe specific sudace, s. ln addition, thparticles themselves change possiblc, may show a degree of comprcssibility. Whcnevcr cxpcrimcntal mcasurcments shouldbe madeto determinehow the specificresistance variesover the mnge ofconditions which wili be enployedin pncticc. It is usuallypossible to express the voidage.i: at a depthr asa fuction ofthe dilTerence btweenthe pressureat the ftee surfaceofthe cake Pr and the pressureP: ai that depth, that js d: as a functionof (4 - P.). Thc nonenclatuc is as defincdin Figure7.3.

1.1|.v I lt vtu
F"u*"f

tv\r"0'n.

Figure.7.3 Fow through e conpEssible nlter cake

For a compressible cake,equation 7.1 may be written as:

ldv ; dr

dl 1/ dP,\ 5(1 e)'s't \- di /

(7.20)

whered. is now a functionofdepth: from the suface of the cake. In a compressiblecake,the volume u of cake depositedper unit areaas a result ofihe flow ofunit volune offiltrate will not be constant, but will vary duringthe filtrationcycle. Ifthe particles themselves arc not compressible, however, the volume of panicles (!') will be alnosr independentof the conditions under which the cake is formed assuming a dilute feed suspension. Any small variations in D' arisebecause the volumeof filtrate relahedin the cakeis a functionof its voidage, alfiough ihe cffect will be very small,

237Chemical Engineeing Proesses excQt possibly for tlrc filtration ofvery highly concentrated suspensions. The increasein cake thickrcss, dz rcsulting ftom rhe flow ofa volume of fithate dy is given by:

dz=dvL
\r

e.lA

(7 2r\

By comparisonwith equation?.6, it may seer that: . .-t-,. SubstitutingAom equation7.21 into equarion7.20 givesj . e l A t t tdv el rl A dt 5(l - e,\252 1,, t1 \ _, rtrus: dv dr r' 4r, -l 5ri-?-)Srr/u \ A, . wnere: / u.L'rz\ 5(l - e,)Sl :.; d,P"\ d,v./ dp,\ | dy / \1.22)

dp\ dV ) ,r12t (7.24)

r_

17.25)

Comparing equations7.8 and ?.24 shows that for an incomFessible ake: rtrz = rf

or,

r. =.1

At any instant in a constant pressurefiltration, integratiotr of equatiotr7.24 tbrough the whole depth of the cake gives: Ar lF I dp ) I ' d v . . . ' -l I --i-ov or
ltr JPI

J0

0.261

At any time t, dy/dr is approximately constantthroughout the cake, unless the mte of cha.nge of holdup of liquid withir the cake is compaEble wirh rhe fitrration Iate dyl&, such as is the case with very highly compressitrlecakes and concentaied sluries, and tberefore: A2 th t-dp,l . dv - | t7.2i) pt)V J pl r. has been showtr to be a firnction of the Fessure difference (pr pz) although it is iDdependent ofthe absolutevalue of the pressrlle.Experimentalstudies irequently show that the rclation beh{een r? and (Pr p:) is of the form: r -rtP where r' is itrdependert of P. and 0 < r, < I -p), t:'.2l)

Liquid fllralion 238

Thusl

( dP,)

:I

dP

(Pi:E/

- P)t I = !(Pr r' l-n' '' - I l-AP rl -""'1r'ln

Q 29)

Thus:

dv
d! V Ln'r' (t - n')(- LP ),,' A2(- LP) Vl,tr'r'\-LP)tr

('7.30)

where r// : (i - n/X and:

dv
dt

A,(-aP)
V LLr'l

(7.31)

where i is the mean resistancedefined by:

(7.32)
Hernr.rns(rr) hasstudied the effectofpressure on theporosity ofa filter cakeandsuggested that, as the pressureis increasedaboveatnospheric, the porosity decreases in proportion to someDower of the exc GRAcris)has related the a;ticipated resistanceto the physical properties of the feeal slurry. VALLERoY and Mer-or.rEv(i2) have examined the resistanceof an incompressible bed of spherical particles when measuredin a permeability cel1, a vacuum filter, and a cent ifuge, and emphasised the need for caution in applying laboratory data to units of diflerent geometry. give futher defails ofthe problem of developinga usabledesign TrLL!Rand HuANa(r3) relationship for filter equipment. Studiesby Turn and Smn-qro(ra), Trr-ren and Yls(ts) and RusHroNand HAMEED(Io show thc diffculty h presenthg practical conditions in a way which can be used anallically. It is very impofart to note that tests on sluries must be made with equipmentthai is geometrically similar to that proposed.This means that specific resistanceis very dimcuit to de6nein practice, since it is determircd by the nature of {he filtering unit and the way in which the cake is initially formed and then built up.

7.3. FILTRA.TION PRACTICE 7.3.1. The lter medium Thefuction of ihe fi1termediumis generally to act as a suppo$for the filter cake,and th initial laye6 of cakeprovidethetruefilter. Thefilter medium shouldbemechanically strong, resistant to thecorrosive actionofthe fluid, andofferaslittle resistance aspossible

239Chemical Eng ineering Proesses

to the flow of filtrate. Woven materials are commonly used, though graDular materials and porous solids are useful fo. filtration of corrosivetiquids in barch;its. An imDortani learure in rbeselection of a $o!en matcnalis $e eareoacake remo\ai. sinceLb;s ii a kev factor ir the operation ofmodem automatic units. Esr_ms(r?) has discussedthe selection of woven s)rntheticmaterials and Wrorrowsrlr3) that of non-woven materials. Further details ofsome more rcent materialsarc given in the litemtue(re) and a useftl summarv di . o ' , R ' .i f , r d . . r\ ^ l r , r { , i sp r c s e n r e in

7.3.2.Blocking Filhation

In the previous discussion it is assumedthat there is a well-defined boundary between the filter cake aM the 6lter cloth. The iniriai stagesin the buitd-up of the filter cake are important, however,because thesemay have a large effect or the flow resistanceand mav seriousl)affecrrhe vseful life of lhe clolb. The blocking of the pores of the fiiter medium by particles is a complex phenomenon, partly becauscof the complicated natue of the suface structue of the r;ual t'Des of fiher media. and panly because rhe tinesofmolemenr of rbe panicles *. # *.ff de6ned. Ar rhe slafl of filrralion.rhe majrtrer in whicb $e cake tonns uill lie berueen two extremes the penet atior ol ihe poresby particies and the shielding of the enh.yto the pores by the particles forming bddges. HEER Ts(rr) considereda number of idealised casesin which suspensions of speciied pore size distdbutions were filtered on a cloth with a rcgular pore distribution. FiNt, it was assumedthai an individual particle was capable on ifs own of blocking a single pore, theD, as filtration Droceeded. successive poreswould be blocked.50 $al rie apparenl \atLre of Lle specrnc iesisonceof tbe filler cake would depeM on the amount of sotids deposired. The pore and particle size distributions might, however, be such that more thar orc particle couid enter a particular pore. In this case,the rcsistanceof the pore inoeases in sragcs assuccessi\c panicles arerrdpped unlil $e porcis complercl]bloiked. In practice. however, it is much more likely that many of the pores will never become compietly blockedand d cdkeof rela'ivet) to$ resislance wi form over rhe enr) ro rbe panialtj blocked porc. One ofthe most important variables affectitrg the tendencyfor blockiry is the concen_ hation ofparticles. The greaterthe conccntration,ihe smaller will be the averaqedistance beiween !}e particles. andrhc smdllerwilt be !}e tendeocy lor Lbepartjcleto b-e drawnin ro lbe srreanlines directedrouard. rle opeD pores.loslead,the paniclesin lbe concen_ trated suspensiontend to distribute themselvesfairly evenly over the filter surface ard form bridges. As a result, suspensions of high concenhationgenerally give rise to cakes of lower rcsistancethan ihose formed from dilute suspensiors.

8.3.3.Efiect of particle sedimentation on filtration

Thre are two important effects due to particle sedimentationwhich may aflect the rate of filtmtion. Fi$t, if the sediment particles are a1l settling at approximately the $rme rate, as is liequently the case in a concentraiedsuspensionitr which the Dadcle sizedistriburion is nor very rrde. a morerapidburtd-up;fparlictes will occuron an

Liquid fltration240

8.3.4.Delayedcake liltration
ln ihe filhation of a slurry, the resistaflceof the 6lter cake progressively increasesand consequertly, ir a constantpressureoperation,the rate of filtation falls. If the build-up ofsolids can tre ieduccd, the cffective cake thicknesswill be less aM the laie of flow of filhate will be increased. possibleto incoq'oratemoving bladesin the 61terequipment ltr practice,it is sometimes so that the thicknessof the cake is limited to the clearance betweenthe filter medium and the blades.Filtrate then flows through the cake at an apFoximately constantrate and the solids arc rctained in suspension. Thus the solids concentrationin the feed vesselincreases until the particles are in permarent physical contact with on another. At this stagethe boundarybetweenthe slurry and the cakebecomesi1l-defined,and a signincant resistanee to the flow of liquid developswithin the slxrry itself with a consequent reduction in the flowrate of filtate. By the use of this tecbdque, a much higher mte of filtration can be achieved than is possible in a filter openied in a conventionalrnanne.. In addition, the rcsulting cake usually has a lower porosiry becauseihe blades effectively break down the bridges or archeswhich give rise to a structur in th filter cake, and the final cake is sjgnificantly dder as a result, If the scmpels are in the form of rotating blades, the outcome differs according to whether they are moving at low or at high speed.At low speeds,the cake thickness is reducdto the clearancedepth ach time the sqaper blade passes,although cake then builds up again until the next passage of the scraper.lfthe blade is operatedat high speed, passages there is little time for solids to build up betweetrsuccessive ofthe blade and the cakercachesan approximately constart thickness.Sinceparticles teM to be swept across the surfaceofthe cakc by the moving slury, they will be trapped in the cake only if fie drag lorce which the filtrate exertson them is great enough.As the thicknessofthe cake inffeasesthe pressuregradientbecomeslessand therc is a smaller force retaining pallicles ilt the cake surface. Thus the thicknessolthe cake tends to reach an eouilibdum value. which can be considerablyless than the clearance betweenthe medium a the blades. Expeimental results for the etrect of stirrer speedon the rate of filtration of a 10 pel cent by mass suspension of clay are shown in Figure 7.4 taken from the work of TrLrR and Cswc@o), in which the fittrate volune collected per unit cross-sectio! of filter is plotted againstlime, for severalstfrer speeds.

8,3.6,Preliminary treatmentot slurriesbeforefiltration If a slurry is diluteandthesolidparticles settle readily in thefluid,it maybedesirable to

effect a preliminary concentrationin a thickeneras disclssed in Chapter5. The thickened suspension is ihen fed from the ihickener to the filter and the quantiry of materiaj to be handled is thereby reduced. Theoreticaltreatmenthas shown that the natureofthe fr1tercakehas a very pronounced effect on the rate of flow of filtrate and that it is, in general, desirablethat ihe particles forming the filtr cake should have as large a size as possible. More rapid filtration is thereforeobtainedifa suitableagentis addedio the slurry to causecoagulaiion.Ifthe solid material is formed in a chemical reaction by precipitation, the paticle size can generally

241Chemic. I Engheer ng processes

be conholled to a certain extent by the actual conditions of lormatior For example,the particle siz of ihe resultant prcipitatemay be conholled by varying the iempemtureand co_Dcetrtahon, and sometimesthe pH, ofthe reacting solutions.As indicatedby Gnacr{s), a flocculated suspension gi!es nse lo a moreporous cakeal$ough fie compr;ssibijiiyjs grearer. ln many cases. cryslatchape mdy be atre,cd by addjDgirace,of mareriat $hich rs selectlvely adsorbed on Darticular faces Iilter aids are extensiveiy used where the filter cake is relatively impermeableto the _ 8ow of fil-nare. Tbeseare mareridts $ hicb pack to form bedsof rery higb voidages and rneretore lhey are capableof Lncreasjog $e poro.iryof $e fiher cake il addcdLo the slury before filtration. Apart ftom economicconsideratjo$, there is an optimum quantity of.fiher ajd which sboutdbe addedin any givencr,e. lt hcreas rhepre.ence of rbe filer aid reduces $e specificresrsrance ofr}e filler cake.jl also je.ults in rle formarionoIa thicker cake. The actual quantib, usedwill rhereforedepenal or rhe naturc ofthe matedat. The use of filter aids is rormally restrictedto operationsin which the filbate is valuable atrd the cake is a wasie producl In some circumstances, howevet fhe filter aid must be readily separableftom the rest of the filter cake by physical or chemical means.Filter cakesincorporating fi1ter aid arc usually very compressibleanalcare should therefore be taken to ensure fhat rhe good effect of the filrer aid is not destroyedby emptoying too high a filtration pressure.Kieselgxbr, which is a commonly used 6lter aid, has a"voiaage of about 0.85. Addition ofretatively small quanritiesincreasesthe voidage ofmost filtier cakes,and the resr ting porosiry normally lies berweenthat of rhe filrer aid a.ndthar of the filtr solids. Sometimesthe fitrer medium is ,,precoaied"with filter aid, and a rhin layer of the filter aid is removed with the cake at rhe enalol each cycte. ln somecases lbe filnatjon Limccan be redLrced b} diluringtbe.Uspension in order!o reduce the viscosity of the filtlate. This does, of course, increasethe bulk to be filtered the temperaturemay be advantageous in that the viscosity of the filhate is reduceal.

8,3,7.Washingol the fitter cake

When the wash liquid is miscibte with rhe filrrare and has similar physical properties,the rate of washing at the same prssurediference wjll be about the same as th; final mte of filhation lf the viscosify of the wash liquid is less, a somewhargrearer rate wil be obtained.Channelli4 somerimesoccurs,however, with the resutt thai much of the cake rs rrcompletely washedand rhe fluid passes preferenriallyrkough the channels,which are gradualy enlargedby its continuedpassage. This doesnot occ; during filtration because channelsare self-sealing by virtue of deposition of solids ftom the slurry. Channelling is most narked with comprcssible6lter cakesand can be minimised by using a smallei pressure differeDce for wasbing tban for 6lE-ation. W_ashingmay be regarded as taking place in two stages.Fint, fiIrrare is displacedfrom . the filte. cake by wash liquid dming the period oI displacenent ,ashtug alli in this way up to 90 per cent of the filtrare may be removed. Duftrg the secondltage, (tiff$ionil -voids"and ,dsr,hg, solvent diffuses into the wash liquid trom the Iess accessible the following relation applies: of wasbliquidpassedL^^-^,^-,..,^_/ iDitia cto D c e n r J do t ifo sn olure /\olume \ ' '"8 \ " "-*" cake$ickness / \ coo;;;;oo ur pani.utuJU-.,/

(7.3s)

Liquidnlhaiion 242 Although an immiscible liquid is seldom used for washing, air is often used ro effect partial drying of the filter cake. The rate of iow of air must nomally be determtued experimentally.

7.4. FILTRATION 7.4.1.Filter selection

EQUIPMENT

The most suitablefilter for any given operationis the one which will fulfrl the rcquirements at minimum overall cost. Since the cost of the equipmert is closely ielated to the filtering arca, it is nomally desimble to obiain a high overaii rate of filtration. This irvolves the use of relatively high pressuresalthough the maximum pressuresare often limited by mechadcal design considerations.Although a higher throughput ftom a given filteing surface is obtained from a continuous filter than &om a batch operated filtef it may sometimesbe necessaryto use a batch filter, pariicularly if the filter cake has a high rcsistance,sincemost continuousfilters operatundr reducedpressureard the maximum filtration pressureis thereforelimited. Other featureswhich are desirablein a filter include ease of discharge of the filter cake in a convenient physical fonn, and a method of observingthe qualiry ofthe filtrate obtainedfrom eachsecttonofthe plart. Thesefactors are important in considering thc tlT,es of equipmentavailable. Thc most connnon rypes are filter Fesses, leaf filters, and continuousrotary filters. ln additio& there are filters for special purposes,such as bag filtrs, and the disc type offiiter which is used for the removal of small quantities of soiids ilom a fluid. The most impodant factors in filter selection are the specific rcsistanceof the filter cake, the quandry to be filtered, and the solids concentration.For free-filtering materials, a rctary vacuum filter is generally the most satisfactorysince it has a very high capacity for its size and does not require any signmcant manual attentior If the cake has to be washed, the rctary drum is to be prefeded to the rotary leal lf a high degree of washing is required, however, it is usually desirableto repulp the fi1ter cake and to filter For large-scalefiltration, there are tlree principal caseswhere a rotary vacuum filter will not be used. Firstly, if the speciic resistanceis high, a positive prcssurefilter will be required, and a filter press may well be suitable, particularly if the solid conrelrt is not so high that frequelI dismantling of the pressis necessary. Secondly,when efrcient washing is requirc4 a leaf filter is effective, becausevery thin cakes can be prepared and the risk of chamelling during washing is rcduced to a ntuimum. Finally, where only very small quantities of solids are presert ir the liquid, an edge filter nay be mployed. Wlilst it may be possibie to predict qualitatively the effect of the physical properties of the fluid and the solid on the filtration characteristics of a suspension, it is necessary in all casesto carry out a test on a sample before the large-scaleplant can be designed. A simple vacuum filter with a filtcr area of 0-0065m': is used to obtain laboratory data, as illustated in Figure 7.5. The infonnation o! filiration rates and specific resistance obtained in this way can be dtecily applied to industrial fi1ters prcvided due account is taken of the compressibiliry of the filtr cake. It ca lot be stessed too

243Chemi@l Engineering Processes

Slurry.level

Figure 7.5. Labohbry resltilt. strongly thal data ftom any laboratory test cell must not be used without practical experienceilr the design of industrial u ts where the geometry of the flow chamel is very difTerent.The laying down ofthe cake iniuences the struchue to a very a marked A "compressibility permeability" rest cetl hasbendevelopedby RurHo and cRAcBG) for testing the behaviour of slurries under va ous condirions of filtration.

7.4.2.Bed Filters Bedilters provide an example of the application ofthe pilrciples of deep becl jltration in which the particles penetrateinto the intersticesof the filter bed where tiey are trapped following impingement on the sxrfacesof fhe material of the bed. For the purification of water supplies and for wasi,ewater treafinent where the solid content is about 10 g/mr or less, as roted by CLr,Asev(23) granularbed filters have larselv rcplaced lbe former ver) slow sand filters.Tbe bedsare lormedfiom eronJar mareriaj of gnio s;7e 0.6-1.2mm in beds 0.6-1.8m deep. The \ery finepaflicles otsctiG are removedby mechanicalaction although the particles fnally adhereas a result of surface electic forcesor adsoplion.ds lr\r74r poinlsout. Ttis opemrion bd5beeoanatysed b) Iursex 'r) *ho proposes r}e lollou mg equarjon: _ AC AT:)\C Otr integration: C /Ca = e-^l where: C is the voiume concentrationof solids in suspension in the filter, Co is the value of C at the surfaceof the filter, 1 is the depth of the filter and ). is the filter coeficiert.

('7.36)

(7.37)

L quid lilt|aton 244 If u. js the superficial flowrate of the slurry, then ihe rate of flow of solids tbrough the filter at depthI is ,"C per unit area. Thusthe rateof accumulation ofsolids in a disiance per ru t volumeof filter at a dl=-u,(AC/Al)d|.llo is ihe volumeofsolids depositcd depthl, the rate of accumulation may alsobe expressed as (rd/At) dl.

Thus:

aC

ao

(7.38)

The problcmis discussed furtherby Ivrs(z!)and by SITELMAN and FRr )LANDER{26). The problemsand sevcraltechniques backwashing of lhese bedshas presented hav been adopted. These includea backiow of air followcdby water,the flowrateofwhich may be high enoughto give risc to fluidisation, wifh the maximum hydrodynamicshearoccuring at a voidageof about0.7.

8.4,4, The filter Dress

Thc filter pressis oDeof two main types,the p/d/e antifrane ptess and the recessed plate

The plate and frame press

This ryp of filter consists ofplates and frames arrangedaltemaiely and supponedon a pair of nils as shownin Figure7.6. The platcshavea ribbedsurface andthe edges stand slightlyproud and are carefullyrnachlncd. Thc hollow frameis separated from the plate by the filter cloth, and the pressis closedeither by neans of a hand scrcw or hydraulically, using the minimum pressurein order to reducewear on the cloths. A cbamberis therefore fbrmedbetwccncach pair of successive platesas shown ir Figure7-7. Thc slury is introducedtbrough a port in eachframe and the flltrate passesthrough the cloth on each side so that two cakesar fomed simultaneouslylJl each chamber,and thesejoin when the fiame is tull. The frames are usually squareand may be 100 mm 2.5 m acrossand l0 mm 75 mrn thick. The s1urrymay bc f.Jdto the presstlfough the contlnuouschannelformcd by the holes in the comersofthe platesandframes, in which case it is recessary to cut coresponding holesin the clothswhjch thcmsclves act as gaskeis. Cuttingof the cloth canbe avoided by feeding through a channel at the sidc although rubber bushesmust then be fitted so that a leaktighi joint is forned. The filtrate runs down ihe ribbed surlace of the plates and is then dischargedttuough a cock into an open launder so that thc filirate from eachplate may be inspectedand any platecanbe isolated ifit is not giving a clearfiltrate.ln somecases the fi1tmte is rcmoved tbrough a closed channel although it is not then possible to observethe dischargeftom eachplateseparately. provisionis madefor siean heatingso rhat the viscosityof In many filter prcsses, the filtrate is reduced and a higherrate offiliration obtaincd. Materials, suchas wa\es, that solidify at normal temperatures presses.Steam may also be filtered in steam-heated heating also facilitates the production of a dry cake. Oplimun time cycle. The optimum thickness of cake to bc fonncd in a filter press dependson the resistanceoffered by the fi1tcr cake and on the time taken to dismantlc

245ChemicalEnginee ng Proesses

aignre 7.6, A ldgnlrsrpies with2 n by 1.5n plates and rfit the press.Although the production of a thin filter cake results in a high average mte of filhation, it is necessaryto disman{le the press more oftea and a greater time is thereforc spent on this operation.For a fiItration ca.rriedout entirely at constantpressure, a rcarrangement equation 7. I 9 gives: t v rpx 2A,(-LP) :BtV*Bz rpL ,4(_aP)

(7.39\ (7.40)

where Bt and 82 are constants, Thus the time offiItration, is given by:

t:Brv2+B2v

('7.4r'

The time of dismanding and assemblirg the Fess, say //, is substantia.lly hdependent ol th thicknessof cake Foduced. The total time of a cycle itr which a volume y of filtrate is collected is then (t + r/) and the ovelall rate of filhation is given by:

w:
W is a maximumwhendwldy = 0.

BrV2 I BzV *tl

Liq!idtltrarion 246

lj-__-_--i1

i-f---:--

Figure7.7. Eateard flare pless. A-inlei paqa

B-fd portsc-f tfate o!'l d. D- aire F-pat*

Diffsertiating Ir with rqct to y andequding to zro: B 1 v 2 +B 2 v+ {

of, l':

v(2BtV * Bz):0
BtV2

(7. 42) (1.43)

":l(;)

If therei dance of thefiltermedium is neglected, r = t1y' andthetimeduring which filtrdionis carried outis e<acily equdto thetimethepress is outof service. ln pradice, in order to obtain the ma(imum overdlrde of flltrdion,thefilhdjon time mud dways greder in orderto dlow for the rsisalce of the doth, represetedby ihe besomer,r'hd trmB2y. In generd, ihe lovver thepecificrddarce of thecake, thegreder will bethe economic thicknes of thefralre Theapplication of thse equdions is illu$rddlaterin Exanple ?.5whidris based on theworkof HARKER(2I.

247ChemilEngineering Proesses

It is $own in Exanple 7.5,whidt appeds lder on the ch4ter, thd, provided the doth rej$arce is vsy low, dopting a filtrdion time equd to the do/vntime will give the rnadmumthrorghput.Wherethe doth risance is appreciable, thenthe term Br(r//Br)ur bomesdgnificat ad a longrfiltrdion time is dFirable lt mav be senin Figure 7.8, which is b6ed on datia 7.5. thd ndtherof ihese lion Exanple vduesrepresents the minimum co$ condition hower'er, e(@t for the unique dtudion wherel - {cod of $utdown)/rcod during filtring). and a dec;donhasto be mde 6 to whdhrcod oJ throghputis the overiding considrdion. ln practice, operding schedules areprobbly thedominding fdu.e dthough significdrt sa,r'ings maybemad; by operding d theminimum co$ condition.

E
!

4000 3000 2000

i o.2o

e
I E
6 E

i o.rs

.9

15 10

TS
=x

I 6

1000 : 0 . 0 5 0
0 01020304050607080 Filt6iion iime,r (ks) Figure7.8. Opiirnigion of plde at irane pr6 (datafro.n Exande ?.t en

E 3

33

\\6shing Two methods of washing may be employed, ..simpt,' washine and ,,through,, or "thorough"washing.With simple washing, rhe wash liquid is fed in rhroughthe same cha.nnel as the slulry although, as its velociry near the poinr of enrry is high, erosion of the cake takes place. The channelswhich are thus formed gmdually enlaxgeand weven washing is usually obtained. Simple washing may be used only when the fiame is not completely tull. In thorough washing, the wash liquid is introducedthrough a separate channel behind the lter cloth on altemate plates, known as washing plates shown in Figure 7.9, and ows through the whole thickness of the cake, rst in the opposite direction and ther in the samedirectionas the ltrate. The areaduring washingis one-halfol that during Itration and, in addition, the wash liquid hasto ow througl tw:ce the thickness,so that the mte of washing should threfore be about one-quarterofthe nal rate of ltiation. The wash liquid is usualiy dischargedthough the same channel as the ltrate thoush sometimes a sepdrale ourletis pro\ided. I ven wilh fiorough uashing somechannelliig occurs and several ir ets are often provided so that the liquid is well distributed. lf the cake is apFeciably compressible, the minimum pressureshould be usedduring washing,

t6

t6l

i:

I
Thorough washing

Iielre 7.9.

and in no case should the final filtration pressurebe excecded.Aftcl washing, the cake may be made easierto handle by removins excessliquid with compressed an. on the sidesof the plalesand For casein identification, small buttonsare embossed ftames, one on the non-washingplates,two on th ftamesand three on the washingplaies as shownin Figure7.10.

Example 7.1 12ffrmes, A slunyis filtered in a plateandftane press containing each 0.3m square and25 nnr ih;ck. During thefiNt 180s tle pressufe diflefeDce for filtration is slowly ftisedto thefiDaL value the raieof filtrationis maiDtaiDed corstantAfter lhe initial of400 kN/m: and.dxdngthis period, pressure perlod, filiration is caried out at constant andthecakes ee compLetely fomed i! a turt}er 900s. Thecakes de theD washed with a pressueditTerence of 275kN/nr for 600 s \\slngtharoush ,4rrirg (S.c r! fi!t! an,l]rni. rLtsenr si.llon i.1.ll. Whatis thevolume ol filn'ate collected pe.cycle dd hownuch wash water is irsed! tested with a leaffihd of0.05n':filteringsu.face A sample of theslu.ryhadpreviously been giving usilga vacuun a lressure differerce of71.3kN/m']. Thevolume ofnltrate collected in the nnt 300s, was250cm: and, after a tudher 300s, anadditjonal 150cmrwascolLected. Ii maybe assumed thatthecakeis incompressible andthattheclothresistance is thesame in theleafasin

249ChemrcalEnginee ng Processes

ligure 7.10.

plares and frades

Solution
In the leaffilter, filtration is at coflsranrpresslre from the start.

rlus:

at , t z - r . r ,- \

aP )A2

lu" ,

(1iomequation 7.18)

In the filter press, a volume yr offilhate is obiained undr constantmte condjtions in time n, and filtration is then cmied ou! at constmr pressure.

Thus:

vi+lu=tfff,,

(from quation 7.17)

LiquidliftElion 250

, y , - y , 1 , z A Lr v u

v,t .2t-nP'ar-a

- I)

(ftom 7 18' equalioo

: 2.5x 10 a m3md whent : 600s, When I = 300s, y : 250cmr y = 400cn3 = 4 x l0 4 mr, A = 0.05m! and-AP = 71.3 kN/m, or 7.13x 10a N/mr. Tlrus: and: Thatisr and: Hence: (2.5x 10-a)z x 10-1:20.13 x 104 ' 0.051/tpo)300 +2(0.05L1u)2.5 (4x10 1)z+2(0.05L/v\4x l0r = 2(7.13 x.104 x 0.05,/.pu)600 6.25x l0 s + 2.5x 10-5! l 0? x 105

t6x l0-s+4x l0 5L -2uxl05 L/t =3.5 x 10-t and rpu =?.13x101r

A |2a2 0.l ' 2.lom:. AP=400|N/m, 4! t0 r\/m'., . tsOs.Thevoiume offilhate vr collected duringihe constant mteperiodon th filter pressis givenby: vi+(2.r6 x 3.5x 10 3yr)= (4 x 105 x 2.16')/(7.13 x r0r1)1180 l lo-a)=o v?+Q.56x101v1) (4.7]x or: 14= -G.78 x l0-r) +./(1.429x 10-r+4.7 x l0 4) = 1.825 x t0-, n3

Foi the conslant pressue!riod:

(r-n)=9oos
900

The total volume of fillrate collected is iherefore given by: ( y , - 3 . 3 3x l 0 - a ) + ( r . 5 1 2x 1 0 , ) ( V - 1 . 8 2 5 x 1 0 - r )= 5 . 2 3 5 x l0 u or: Thus: v: y'1+(1.512x l0-,v)-(4.712x ro ):0 0.756x i0' + l\0.572 x 101 +4.712x to-1) = 6.15x l0 '?or 0.062m3 "

The fiml late of filtration is given by: -APA rp"iv + AUq ill

(fton equation 7.16) ff the viscosiry of the filtrate is the sameas that of the \rash-water, then: R a t eo f w a s h i n s a t 4 0 0k N l n z : I x 3 . 7 9x l 0 5 = 9 . 5 x 1 0 6 m 3 / s Rateofwashing at 275 kN/nl =9.5 x to4 x (215/400):6.5 x 10-6 n3/s rhus the amoud of wash-wa'erpasinsio 600 s = (60r,::*t:.?r..ln,

4 ' 1 0 .\ 2 . l o j ' l0' rol5 ' l0 | ,lo

i 70

l0-'m'/s

251ChemielEnglieeinqPrc@sses

The recessed plate filter press

The recessed t]?e ofpress is similar to the plate and frame tlpe exceptthat the use of frames is obviated by recessingthe ribbed surface of the plates so rhat rhe individual filter chambersarc fomed betweensuccessive plates. In this type ofpress thercfore the thicknessofthe cake cannot be varied and it is equal to h{ice the deoth ofthe recesson individual plates.

Fi8ure?.11.

A recessed chanberplate,2m squre

The feed channel shown in Figure 7.11 usually differs from thai emptoyedon the ptate and ftame press. A11 the chambersare cotrnectedby means of a comparatively large hole in the cenhe of each of the plates and the clotls are securedin Dosition by means slurrie.contaitring ofscrc$ed unions. relat;vcly large.olid paniclis.1ry r.uaity b. halrdled-infiis O?e ofpress without fear ofblocking ihe feed channcls.As describedby CIcRRy0s), developments in filter presses havebeer t;wards fhe fabrication oflarger units, made possible by mechanisationand the use of newer lighter materials of constluction. The plates of wood used in earlier times were limitcd in size becauseof limitations of pressues and large cast-ion platesprcsenteddifrculty in halrdling. Large plates are now frequently nade of rubber mouldings or of pob?ropylene alrhough distortion may be a problem, particularly if the temperatureis high. The secondareaof advanceis in mechanisation which enablesthe opening and closillg 1o be done automatically by a ram driven hydraulically or by an electric motor. plate transportationis efTected by fitting triggers to two endtesschainsoperatingthe plates,and labour costs have consequentlyben reducedvery considenbly. tmproved designshave

Liquid n[ration252

givenbdterdfajnage whidr h6 ledto improved wa$ing.Mud *rortertimecydesare now obtaj nedandthe cakes arethjnner,moreuniform,anddrier.These dvantees har'e b@nfather morereadily obta;ned with reced pldeswhere the clothis $bjeded to lesswear. Advantages of the filter press (a) BecaJse of its basjc dmplicltythefilter pres is vssatileard ma/ be usd for a widerargeof materids unde'varying opratjng conditions of cake thicknss ad presure (b) I\,4d ntqanceco$ is lor. (c) It provi d6 a Iage fi lteringarea ona snd | floor spe andfoir' additiondGociated unitsarenedd. ( d ) Mo$ jointsereexternd ard lekage is #ly ddected. (el Highpf#rre opqation is us.tdlyposible. (f) It is equdlys.ritable whdhs thecd(eor theliquidis the majnprodud. Disadvantages of the filter press (a) lt is intermjiietin operatlon andcontinud disrna,tling is aptto cause highw@r on the cloths (b) Deqitethe improvernents prs/ioudy, mertjond it is faifly heavy on labour. Example 7.2 A dufrycontining 100 kg of whjting, prm3of wats,a1d, of dendty 3000 kg/rn3, is tittered in a pldedd franepr6 whi6 td(6 900 s to disnartle, dear,ad reasnbte.tf thecake is incompresjble ard has a voidage of 0.4, whd is theoptimlm thickns of ceke for a flltrdio'1 presre( a P) of 1000 kN/m'z? The dendty of the whiting is3000 kg/m3. lf lhecd(e iswdd d 500 kN/rn' ad thetotd volumeof wdl watssndoyd is25p6 cet ofthd oftheilirde, how is theopirnunr thickns of ihecd(edfectd? Therej Sfice ol thefilts mdi ummaybenegtdd andtheviscodty ol wats ls 1 mNsh'?. In aneeedmel,a prsre difference of 165 kN/m, produced a flowof water of 0.02cnf/s through a catimdrecube of fillr cd(e

Solution
The bai c fl ltrdion equdionrnaybe writtgl as: 1dv A d/ (-aP) tpl (qudion 7.2)

whse I is ddind 6 the specific rej stnce of lhe cd(e Thedurryconleins 100kg whiting/mr of water Volumeof = 0.0333 100kg whiting: (100/3000) m3 Voluneol cake:0.0333/( 0.4):0.0556 m3.

253Chemical Engineenns Pbesses

Volume of liquidin c*e= (0-0556 x 04) = 0.02 nf. Volume of filtrde: (1- 0.02):0.978 n3. Thus In lhe eeedmelt: A = 10.4 n?, (-ap): : =2^ 10-3nl/s, p 1.65 x 105 Nir#, l=0.0f m, 10rNgfil . volun|eof cd<dvolurne of fttrde u = 0.0569

Inserting these giv6 vdu6 jn equdionT.2 / 1 t.. . -a 1^0 , [10-,1,2 Fron qudion 7.2: __, 2A2FLP)t
I tLt)

1{1.65\1'!'' ad,=82s .,ro;=,;.

1 0 ' ] m' :

(qudim 7.11) (equdion 7.6)

But Thus

I = Mf ftane thikness:yulA 2A(-^P)ut L2 .p 2 x (1 x 1S) x 0.0s60 r. (8.25 x 10)(1x 10-3)1 : 1.380 x 10-6t (where t in thefiltrdontime) L:1.161" 1t 1P

It is $own in Sedion 7.4.4ihd if thereddance of thefilts rndiumis nledd,theoptimum c6kethicknes ocaurs whg| thefiltrationii rneis equd to the dorntime, Thus .. adi r = 900s, l/, = :tt Lod: 34.8x 10-3m = 34.8of 35 mm optimum frdne thickns = 70 mm

For tho wdring pro.ess,if the filtrdion pressfe is Mved, the rde of wa*ting is hdved.The wdr wder hastwice the thicknss to pddrdead hdf the a for fld/r/thd is a/.ildle to lhe liltrde, sothd, conddring th6e ftrtorsi the wa$ing rde is oledghth of the ind ithdion rde dv dt A2t Lpl I puv

1x 1$A2 - e13 xy1o.aA2) (825, 10iqx io-a, ois69y

ad: Thewdingrde=(lird -d:ecffititd:ion/AJ:2.f'x10sA2/v

Liquid filhaton254

The volune of $ash water = Y/4. Hence: That is: washinstime ,u = 0/4)/(2.66 x t0 'A, lv )

'"=(ffi)(ff):'"'.,'.'
Thefiltration timet wasshown earlier to be:r/ = t,/i.180 x t0-6 = ?.25x 105t, Thus: totalcycle iime= r,(2.90 x 105 + 7.25x 105) + 900 = 1.015 x to6r, + 900 TheFte ofcake production is t}enl
L :-=R r.025. t06Lr+900 For dR/dl- = 0, then: 1.025 x 1064'?+ 900- 2.050 x t06I, :0

"'
Thus:

lJ#

,tr

and L:2s 6 t r0I n : ze.6 mm

= 59.2- 60 mm Framethickness

7-4.5.Pressure leaf lters Pressure leaf fiiters are designedfor final dischfige ofsolids in either a dry or wet state, under totally enclosedorditions, with fully automatic operation. Each type of pressureleaf filter features a pressule vessel in which are located one or more lilter elementsot leavesof circular or rectangularcofftuction. Tte filter media may be in the fonn of a synthetic fibrc or other fabrics, or metallic mesh. SuDDorts and inlermedidle oraiDage members are in oarse meshwilh all componenrs beld togerher by edge bhding. Leaf outlets are connectedindividually to an ourlet manifold which Easses lhrougb $e watl oflhe pressure \es.cl. The material io be fitered is fed into the vessel under pressure,and separationtakes place with ihe solids being depositedon the leaf surface,and the liquid passingthrough the drainage system ard out of the filter. Cycle times are detemind by pressure,cake capacity or batch quantity. Wlere particularly fiIIe solids must be rcmoved, a layer of precoat material may be depositedon the leaves prior to filtration, using diatomaceous earth, Perlite, or other suitable precoatmaterials. Cakewashing, for recovery of mother liquor or for removal of solubles,may be caried out beforc dischfige of the solids as a slu.ry or a dry cake. Pressweleaffilters arc supplied in a wide mnge ofsize and matrialsof construction. Orc q,pical design is the "Veti-jet" unit wirh a verrical tank alrd vertical leaf fiIter, as shown in Figure 7.12, with rectangr ar leaves mounted individually but connectedto a common outlet manifold. For sluice cleaning either a stationary or oscillaiingjet system

255Chemical Engineeing Processes

Figu 7.12.

.,Venijet pHsure leafilte.

usiry high efrciency spray nozzles is fitted so as to give complete cake removal. For rcovery of dry solids, vibmtion of the leaves allows automatic dischaEe of the solials througb a bonomdrscharge pori pro\ idedwiri a quirk opeoi_og door. Ir the "Auto jet" design,circular leavesare mormtedor a hodzontal shaft which serves as the filbate outlet manifold. The leavesare rotatedduring the cleaningcycle although,in additioD,extra low speedcontinuousrotation during operationensures uniform cakebuildup in difrcult applications. The Ieaves are of metallic or plastics construction coveretl with fabdc or wire cloth for direct or precoatoperation,and rotation ofthe leavesaludns cleaning promores fasremcient5luicedischarge wi(b njnrmum powercoosumprion. ,A; an altemafi\e.lhe lea\,es ma] be rolatedoler knile blades $hich removefie;ake in a dry state. Units of this type are used for haMling foodstufs and also for the processinq of mineruls atrdeftluents. For the handliry of edible oils, molten sulphur, efruerrs and foodstufs, a Filrra-Matic unit is usedin which either the burdle is retractedfrom the shell as a unit, or the filter tank is retracted leaviry the frlter leaves and filter cover in position. Such units are available m cylindrical, conical or trough shell coniguratiors, and cleaniry may be either wet or dry, nunual or automatic.In the latter case,for dry discharge,vibBtion systemsare used and for wet removal spray jets mouded in an ovrheadmanifold sweep the entire leaf surlace in an oscillating motion. In this design, the heavy duty leaves covereal with cloth oI screnare all interchangeable and, whether rcund or rectmgular, are all the samesize to give uniform precoat, cake build-up and filtlatior In horizontal tray pressurefilten, used in batch processesand interrnittent flows, the trays are momted horizontally with

Liquid iittration 256

connectionsto a vertical fiitrate ma fold at the rear, and such udts are ideally suited wherecakewashingand positive cakedrying are required.ln many cases, the accumulaied cakemay be sluiced otr without removing trays from the filter and a specialrecovery lcaf is provided wherc heel filtration is requircd in which a thh layer of cake is 1ft semipermanentlyin contact with the filter medium to improve the clarily of the filhate. This systemis usedin variouschrmcaiionprocesses and is ideal for handlinghigh flows of liquidswith a low solidsconcentration. ln mosi dsigns the tubesaremountedvertically fiom a tube sheet at the top of the iank and cleaning is provided with a self-contained intemal "air-pump" backwash,thus a\roidingthe useof lalge volumesof sluichg liquid or pumps to provide fast and completercmoval ofthe filter cdke. The heary gauge separate pedoratedtube cores are coveredwith a seanlesscloth sleve sealedai either end by a clampirlg device. As an altemative, heavy gaugewire is wound around the centre corc, with cortrolled spacingio give reliable filtration and easy cake release.Tubular element unir.01 tfi. ry?edrea\iil.ble i1 .tinoaro.izcc up ro 40 n?.

Carlridgefilters
Ore particular design of pressurefilter is theflter cartridge. typified by the Metafiltcr which employs a filter bed depositedon a basc of rings mountcd on a fluted rod, ad is exteffively used for claril,ing liquids containing small quantiiies ofvery fine suspcnded solids. The rings are accumtely pressedftom sheetmetal of very uniform thicknessand are made in a large nunber of conosion rcsistantlnctals,tbough stainless steelsare usually employed. The standarddngs are 22 mm in cxtemal diamcter, 16 nln in inremal diameter and 0.8 mm thick, and are scalloped on ore side,as shownin Figure7.13,so that the edgesof the discsare separated by a distance of 0.025 0.25 mm according to

litsure 7 ll.

(Stelb Me6) Rinls for mcrahltcr

processes 257Chemical Engineenng

Fjgure?.14.

MhRIrer ?ack (SteltaMera)

The pack is fomed by mounting the rings, aI the same way up, on the Tq:nements drainagrod and tightening them togetherby a nut at one enalagainsta boss at the other as sho$,nin Figure 7.14. The packs are mounted in the body ofthe filter which operates under either positive or reducedpressure. The bed is lormed by feeding a dilute suspeffion of material, to the filter usually a l'onn of kjeselgubr. wbich is strainedby .he packsro torm a bed ,U""r : -. rf,i'.1. Nesetgubrrs a\artablen a numberof gradec and fonns a bed ot- loosesrncrure\hich is of trapping particles much smaller than the channels.During fittration, the _capable solids build up mainly on the surface and do not genemlly penetratemoie than 0.5 rnm into the bed. The filtrate passes behveenthe discs ind leavesthrough the fluted drainage ro4 and operation is continud until the resistancebecomestoo l;gh. The filter is th-en cleanedby back-flushing, which causesthe filter cake to cmck antpeel away. In some cases the cleanitg may be incomplete as a result of channelling. If tor any reason the spaces between the dngs become blocked, the rings may be quickly removed and washed. is $idery Jred lor nllering domesric water.beer.orgatric solvents aDd ,The.\4etafil(er orrs..Inefirrralron charactenclics ot ch)_likcmaterials can oRenbc improred by rhe continuous inE-oductioD of a smdlt quariib ol 6trer aid ro rhe sturrl as ;, .n,"i, ii. nner.Un ue orherband.wbenthe suspelded solid is relalivelycoar.e,rhe Mel.afiller wrll operatesuccessfullyas a stuainer,without the use ofa filter bed.

Liquid fillrstion 258

The Metafifter is very robustand is economicalir usebecause thereis no filter cloth and the bed is easily replaced and hencelabour chargesarc low. Mono pumps or diaphmgm pumps are most conrmonly used for feeding the filter.

Example7.3 The relaiionbetween flow andheadfor a certair slury punp may be represented apprcximrely ty a straightlirc, the haximumflow ar zeroheadbeins0.0015nl /s md tte maximum headat ^.o flow 760m or liqurd. Usingthis pumpto feeda panicular slurryto a pressure leaffilter: (a) How longwill it taketo produce I mr offlhare? (b) Whatwill be the pressure across tle flter alier tiris time? A saople of the slurry was fltered at a consrant rate of 0.00015 mr/s rbrousha leaf fitter cove.ed wiih a similarfilter cloth but of onetenththe areaof the full-scate unit, andafter 625s tle pressur acros tle ilter was360n of liquid.Aftr a firrtner480s rhepressure was600m of liquid.

Solution
For constaDtrate filtmtion througl the filter leaf: v , L4, L a'' tcu TPT reouario 7n .t7'

Ai a constant rate of0.00015n3/s, then,whenthe time:625 s: y = 0.094mr, (-a") and,a = 1105si = 1530kN/in,

y :0.166 1nr and (-Ap) :5890 kN/n,

Substituting t}esevaluesinto equaiion 7.17givs: (0.094)? + LA|L x 0.094: lA7/rpx) x3530 x 625 or: and: ori 0.0088 + 0.09441lu = 2.21 x 106A1/rpn ( 0 . 1 6 6 ) ' zL +A / u x 0 . 1 6 6 = ( , 4 , / r p u )x 5 s 9 0x l t 0 5 0.0276 6 zlrttv + 0 . 1 6 6 L A / v = 6 . 5 1 x 1 0A (it (t

Equations(i) and (ii) rnay be solved siftultaneously to sive: L,\ / D= 0.01s4 andA'z / 4tt : 4.64 t l}-e As the tull-size plut is l0 times that of the leaf filre!, tien: LAlr:0.154 at.ld A'/rtr1) = 4.64 x l0 7

prccesses 259Chemical Engineering

lf thepumpdevelo?s 760m (7460kN/m,) arze.oflow andhaszerohead ar O = 0.0015mr/s, its perfomance maybe expresedas: _AP ='7460 _ ('t460 /0.0015) Q _ 4.9?x 1060GN/n AP : 7460 ) dv A,(_LP) = (equation 7 16) dr ;t^(v + LAlf Substinrdtg (-Ap) for andthefilhatioDconsrants giv dv A'1 i.460- 4.g1- to,dv/&, at ru, ,v -ojS4, sinceq=dYl&,then: _ 4.9j ,t t06(dv d,v _ 4.6j x 10 117460 /dt)l dr. 0 1 5 4 ) + 0 / .. (y + 0.154)dy = 3.46 x I0-3-2.3tdv/dt i.l . TheLime.ro cotlecr tmr is fien givenby: '.. 1t.-. ---. x r0-r)dr | (v+0.1s4+2.31)dv: / (3_46
JOJ

r=857s . Thepressre at thistime is fomd by substitutiDg in equation 7.I 7 with y = I m3dd I = 857s l, + 0.154 x I = 4.64 x t0 7x85?(_ap) -Ap = 2902 kN/m,

and:

Ljquid llllralon 260

Tlble 7.2.

nlte6 Clasificalionof vacuum

CDE

Cske dryness

Cake washing

lillrare cldity

(-':)
l3xx 212XX 325XX 420XX l200xx, 415XX 580XX 580XX 580XX 580XXX 6l0xx 610X 7I2XX 8l5X 89 89 89 78 89 78 6 5 58 I2 t2 3-4 2-3 2-3 1
L

Horizonral linar tipling pan

8 8 7 '1 8 8 8 7 6 5

Rotary drun+tiing disclaree Rotary drm knife discharge Rotary drun rouer discllrge Rohry drm leli discharee

9300xx

9
NOTES

L For small batn production. Has very wide application, is very adaptableand cBnbe automBted. 2. Usually 2 ro 4 pans, for nediunr size balch pmduction. Ve.y wide application, very adaprable,can be 3. For free-draining maleriah whcre vcry Cood washing k EquiFd wilh slar? sep{alion between norher liouorand wsh liouors. f; fEenFining ;atenab wlEF very good wsline is requirod. 5 . wide ranse of !?s dnd size available. cdenuy suitable for nost slmi* in categoriesB ard C. Can usually be itted wilh vanous necl8dcal devic* to inprove the {lshing and drying. Rstjcted to very ftee draining nalerials tut reqliring washing. 1 . Resrlicted io very fiee-draining naleials not requiring wishing, but w]le the solids eD be retaiftd by

8 . Allows use of high drunr speedard n capableof very high Row rdtes. 9. Large thrcughputs for small floor space. and aorhodline natenab whict blind normal6hermcdia. t 0 . sunablefor alnost any clarincaLion
than20 ler cenl,havinesolidswhicl a@free-draining A. Higl solidsconcentnLion, nomally greater and f6t settling. givins dimculry in nechanial asilation and civing lish fil1ntlon ra1es. B. Rlpld cake fomatlor wilh reaonably fat serling solids which can be kpt ii suspensionby nechanical C. Lower solids concenrEtion widr solids giviry slow cake fonnation and thin nlter caks which can be difrcult lo dischdg. D. Low solids concentnlion irith solids giving slow cake fonnation hd ! lilter cake hdving very poor nechanical srrenerh. E. very low solids conceniration(i.e. chnn@fon duty). or containine solids w]rjcl blind nomal fllter nedia. Fillralelsually rcquncd.

9 = the highest posible perfonnance. I = very poor or neclicible perfommce.

LIQUID FILTRATION

" 93 5
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a;a

aF.E;!E;.E:
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sft;E;:'5s; $FFEg

:a; 9filr E3:.999;

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ssEe;E
E ; s EE E

r iF;qii

.E E;: E.i

prccesses 263ChemjlEnsineerins

Rotarydrum tilters
Bcauseof it's.versatilityand simpliciry, one ofthe most widely usedvacuum filters is the rotary drumflter and, a frIter of this type was patentedin Englandin 1872by Wi i; an; JamesHart. The basic design varies wirh alifferentmamrfaciren, alttrough"e""";i;i; drum t)e vacuum filters may be divided inro two categoriesi (a) Those where vacuum is createdwithin comparLnentsformed on the periphery of the drum, and (b) Those where vacurun is applied to the whole of the interior of rhe drum. The most frequertly usedcotrtinuousdrum t},?efilters fall into the fi$t category_ These give maximlm versatility, Iow cost per unit area,and atso attow a wide variition ofthe respectivelime periods devotedto filtration, washing and drying. Essendally. a mutti-con,panmenr drum l)?e vrcuJn, filler consisLs of a drum roulins , aDoul a bonzontal dxjs.ananged so ibatrhedrun i. pdrtiauysubmerged in the roueh inti which rhemateridl ro be 6tleredrs ted.The pefipbery of rb;drum is ;i\ ioedin,o .o'Inpu.r_ meol\.eacb ot$hich is pro\ided $.rh a nrmberofdrain lines. These pas. rhrousirbe iEside ofrhe drumandrerminate ar a ring ofpons co\ eredb) a roraryvat\e. rhrouah $ hich vacurm ts applied.The surface of the dflm is co\ered$ ith a frlrerfabric,and 6e drum is arranged to-rotare at tow speed, usua y in rhe range0.0016_0.004 Hz (-0.r_O.Z: rpmJ o. up to 0.05 Hz (3 rym) fof very fice filterins mareriats. As.rbedrum roralec. eacbcompannent urdergoes tbe .amecyctcofopcrations a-od rhe , dumtion of each of theseis determinedby tire drum speed,the submergence of&e drum ancl the anangementof the valve. The nomal cycle of operationsco;sists of filtration, drying and discharge.It is also possible, however, to introduce other operations into the basic cycle, including: (a) Separationof initial dirty filfate _ which may be an aalvanrage if a rclatively open filter fabric is used. (b) Washiry of the filter cake. (c) Mechanical dewateringof the filrcr cakv. (d) Cloth clanins. Figure 7.18a shows a tlpical tayout of a rcrary alrum insralation and Figure 7.18b . shows the sequenceof cake formation, washing and dewatering. A lu.g" .o:ary d*; vacuum fllter is showr in Figure 7.19. ln order to achieve consistent perfonnance ol a continuous filter, it is necessarvto maintain the filter medium in a ctean condirion. Wirh a drum typ"' rquires the complete and continuousrcmoval of the filter cake iom ";;';i;'thi" the rl.,r- ,u.f";;andthe operathg condirionsare ofter influencedby the needto form a fuily di."Id;i; cake.Again. in orderto achjeve brghcapaciry andgood clle uajhina analorarvine.it is veryofiendfsirable lo operale \ irh\eryrhiocates. theretore. rbecaike dis"f,*S.;i.; or most drurn O?e vacuum filteft must b aranged so as to ensue the complete and conluruoLrs removal oferrremel)thin filtercakes. The mosteffecri\e war of acbievirs rhisi. derermined ro a targc e\renr by r,re pbys;cat namre ofrhe.otia, U.ion1*al"a-'

L quidfillral on 264

Airinletlo.

lP

vacuum connclim lor

v2 vacuum connclion ior Vo Vacrlum @nnection icr q, 82,83 B dgeonstalionary plaleconlrolling rslatiL rimlngs ol Phass of cycle

ib) Fieure 7,18. TDical lsyoul ofrctary drum nlter insrallaiion

265Chemical Ensineeins Prcesses

LIQIJID FILTBATION

Figurc7.19.

Rolaryvacuun dnm ilrer Ned in a zinc leaching olemrion

The various discharyesystemsthat are suitable for drum type filters include the stuing _. discharyetechnique which is effective for an extemely wide mnge of materials. Essenl tiaily tJris ior olvesformirg rbe filter cakeon aDopenrypeof conveyor wbich is in contacr withthe filter medium in the filtration, washingand drying zones.Consequently,ihe solids which are trappedby the fittr medium form a cake on top of the .,open' conveyo.. nrothe.discharye point ol1 the dnrm the conveyot transportsthe filtei cake to a dischaxge roll. at whjch poinLthe cakeis djslodged. Tbe cotr\elor thetrpasses tlrouei an alsl;s meclFnism aodover a rerumrolt $hich guides ir backinto conraowit rfrenfrerOrinr ai the conmencementof the cycle andjust abovethe level of feed liquor in the filter tough. string discbarge syslem.rhe conveyorconsjsrs ot a numberof endJess stri_ois ,ln,rhe wtrcb are spaced at a pirch of approximatety 12 mm over rle width of rhe 6lter drum. t be stnngspacing ma). howerer.be in ge range 6 _25 mm depetrding on (bemecbanical propertiesof the solids. The advantages of the string dischargesystemare: (a) Thin and sticky fifter cakesdowr to about 1.5 rfin of materials such as clay may be effectivly discharged. (b) The filter cloth is alrnost lree ofmechanical wear and tear so rhat thir and alelicate cloths rnay be used, and these cmr be selectedalmost solely for their filtration p]opefies. Such cloths arc usually less prcne ro plugging than the stronger atral thicker cloths requied for other discharEe systems. rc) The cloth can be adachedro rle drum in a simple mannerso rhal Etringand subsequetrt rcplaceme can be carried our quickly. Normatly, the cloth is liselv

Liquid titrrarion 266 wrappedaroundthe drum and it is securedto the drun at the edgesand,once across the drum, at the overlap, by a siDlple caulking system.The use of wire winding, clampingbals, and the neccssity of securhg the cloth at evcry panel which is essentialwith other dischargesystcms,is avoided. (d) The use of compressed air, to loosencakeftom the drum surface, is avoidedand consequently thereis no possibilityof blowingback into tlc filter cakemoisture which haspreviously bccnremoved undervacuxm.This is a possibility with knife Ji.ch-rge frlter. ote-ar Fg \\ir! b oq-orck. (e) If required, ihe path olfte discharge stringscanbe alteredso that the filter cake is conveyed by the strings to a convenienrpolnt lor feeding a continuous dryerextudr, or odrerprcccssing equipment. A rypicalstringdischarge mechanisnis shownin Figure7-20.

tr:'j

Figurr I20.

Stringdlscharge nechannnr on a lilter handllne silicagel

The knife dischargesystem incorporatesa kdfe which is aranged so that the surface ofthe drumrunson or ncarto thc knife edge.The cakeis dislodged f'romthe cloth eirher by its own weight, with fiick and healy cakes,or by applyingcompressed air to the underside ofthe filier cloih.Thc blow-back air caneitherbe adnriltcd at low pressure for a longperiod, or at high pressurc andiDstantaneously by means ofa mcchanical "blow-ofT tinlei'. With suitable solidsi1 is possible to operate witb thc knife spaced ftom the drun

267ChmilEngineedng Processes

so that not all of the cake is removed. The heel of solids is then retained on the drum and this acts as the filier media_This dischae systemis parricularly suitable for friabte cakes that do not have the mechanical Foperties to bridge over the strings of a string dischaxge system. With the roller cake discharge sysiem, the cake is transfered from the drum to a discharge.roll from which ir is rcmoved by a knife. This is a relarively simple method of removing thin and siicky filrer cakes wirhout having a knife rub;ing ;gainsr and wearmgthe filter clorh. Cerain appticationsrcquire faciLitiesfor washing tie cioth either contmuouslyor intermittently without dilution of the trough contenb, ;d sLrcha feature is provided by the beli dischargesystemwhere the filtertloth also acts as cake conveyor. ln such a system, the cake is completely supportedbetweenthe drum and the discharee roll so that thin cakesand cakesof low mechanicalstrength can be hardted and hiffi drum speeds,and hencehigher filtration rates, can be achiived. The performanceofdrum t?e vacuumfilters for given feed cofflitions canbe conbolled by thee main variables drum speed, vacuum (if necessarywith differential vacLrum applied to the filhation, washing and drying zones) and the percentageof drum surface submergedin the feed slurry. Most drum filters have facilities which a ow for easv manualadjusLmenr of fiese variablcs. alhougl dutomac adlusorenr of any. or all, of them can be actuatedby changesjn rhe qualib. and,/orquantib, of the feed or cake. For mardmum tfuoughput, a drun filter should be opemied at the highest submergence anal at the highest possible drum speed.The limitiry conditions aftecting submergice are: (a) Any ircrease in submergence timits rhe propofion of the drum area available for washing and/or drying. (b) Drum submergence aboveapproximately40 per cent erfails the useof Alanals where rbe d,1rm sbaftand \dl\e hub passtbrcughrhe u-oLrgh High submergence may complicatethe geometryof the alischarge system. Under ail conditions,it is essential to operatewith combinationsofalrum sDeed. submer_ gcnce and racuum. wbich.for the feedconditions dul .rpply. $ill eruure rhara fullr dischargeablecake is formed. If this is not done then progressive deterioration in th'e effectiveness ofthe filter medium witl occur and this wifl ;dv;seiy atrect the perfonnance oflhe machine.Tlpical nlration cycles for drum filters are given in Table i.4. Drum vacuum filters can be fitted, if requircd, with simple hoods to timit the _type escapeof toxic or obnoxious vapours. Thesemay be ananged foicomplete seating, and for opemtion under a nitrogen or similar btanket, airhoG rhis u""!r" to the drum and necessitates ".-pfi"ut* a design in which the vacuum system and tile cake receivine systemare anangedto prvent gasloss. The cake moves through the washing a l drying -medium zones in the folm of a confinuous shet and, becausethe cake and filter ar! adquatelysupportedon the drum shell, it is possibleto fit the filter with various devices that.will imFove the quality of rhe cake regarding both washing and drying, prior to discharge. Simple rolls, extending over the tu1l widrh of tl1efilier, can be so armnged that any . irregularities or cracks in the cake are eliminaied, and subsequent washing and dryiag is thereforeappiied to a u form surfacc.Otherwisewash tiquorsand air tendio strort or "chaturel", the depositedsolids. The cake compressionsystemmay also incorporate "i.i,it, a

.9

! :l
.g

;l

FI
al
hl :l ir

:l

sl 9l
ti 7,

z
I :

_b

P E

3 + +

>a

processes 269Chemrcal Engrneering

compressionor wash blanket which limits still firther any terdency for the air or wash liquor to "channel". Washblankets also avoid dishr$ance ofthe cake whictr might occur when high pressue sprays are direcied on to rhe cake, ana tfrey alow dre wasnTiqu;io be_applied much nearerto fhe poinr wherc the cake from th" slurry C;;;.."J; "-erges roll<.,$i$or.$iLhour bldnkers. canbe arranged $irh poerrnuri. o. tlarart;.urt1tJea cyrmoers or rney can be wcighledor fided wilb rpringsto increase funher Lbeprc.sure applied to the cakeassho\rnin Figure7.21.tn somi apfti"uti.r", tf.,","ff. t. i"""g"i lo gi\e d connolled cale rhrckl.es(. "", .olid. in rie and.o gi\e somerearrangemenr ot lhe Drref carewrtb fie ad\dnr.ges ofrhe eliminarion ot cmcls.comDaction of tl.ecake, and lbe iiberarion of morsrure from rhixolrop c mdtenats. wirh lhe liberared rrl"i;. i;;ii; (rm$n Lnto Delng rhe \aclum s)srcmpriof lo discharge.

Fignre7.21.

Clke compression

Orher deyicrs $hicb fiDd varying degrees of succes.in tbe rreatment of fiixotroDic marendl\uclude roiaD bearaandpulsating !a'vcs ro inreffupt rheair Ro$ iI dredrvrne zone. Both of these resuit in movement of the cake, giving a reduction in moiJtG A drum.rype vacuum filler caneasilybe arranged so rhal$e troughandrrood, if fifled;\ , rnermal)insutaied. Lnaddi[on. rhefrlter canbe equippcd \ ilh heal e\chalge equipmenL sucbasjacker( for hearingfluid or re&rgerarr. and elecrricrelisrarce*;rei roi frlrhsheie ledtures can be of pddjcula,signifcancein applicarions .uch as rhe dewaxineo"t .l lubricating oil which is norrnaly carried our at temperahresbelow 263 K (_10,C),;; for saft drying which may be efecred at temperatures approaching673 K i+OO "Cj'oo u nrrevor.yr_ In most applications,bottom feed drum filters, that ls thosewhere the drum is Dartiallv suspendd in the feed slu.ry, musr be fined wirh agitaton to keep the sotids in suspensiori. Normally, pendulum fype rakes, which are pivoted on or abovi the drum axis, are used so as.(o_avoid lbe Jre ofglanoc. dtlbough rorary paddtes 6heda, tow tclet in rbefiher lrough atsohnd app,icanon. Solids.urpensioD nay atsobe improved by gi!ing caretul ro 'le 8ow panem $irbin rbe rrousbsuch as. for example. oy [.aii'g .r,".y I:nljon. Ln(o the rougb at lo\\ Ie\el and at a rate Lnercessof th.rtar ,rhiitr rlc'mareriaican be filtered. With fhis teclnique a consrantoverflow is prcvided so rhat upwurd ;;r;.; {,rihin the trough assisrsin conveying sotids ioward the fitrer surfa"".'ai. .p*g" ptf".

Liquid ffiration 270

may aiso be used to preveni solids settlement,although this rcsults in higher operating costslhatr$iih a mecban;cal agirarion syslem. Top-feedd.um frlters are usedfor the treatmentofvery fast settling solids that cafilot easily be kspt in suspension.A drum filter may be prefemble, rather thar a horizontal pan or similar filter, becauseof its low cost, simpticity and reliability, and becauseof the rclative easewith which it can be fitted with appropriateaccessoryfeatures.A top feed dlum 61terincorporatesmulti-compartmeDts, drainlines and a rotaxy valve identical to those in a conventionaldrum filter. The feed slrlrry is introduced at, orjust beforc, top dead centle,.ard the cake is dischargedftom 90" to 180' from the feed point. Ilte feed slulry can be distributed acrossthe alflm by spmys or a weir box, or it may be contained within a 3-sided head-box which is sealed agfist the iroving dium at each end anal acrossthe back on the ascendingfilter surface-For rnaterialswhich do not cake together sumciently to be self-supportingotr the drum surface,a hopper-ttpe top feed filter may

processes 271ChemilEngineering

be used which is similar to a conventional top fecd filter exceptthat the walls extend above the dum suface around all sides of eachcompatment and these suppori the fil; r.rgcr panictes (cnte nore rapidt) rte;e are dep",i"a cdkc.Be(ause *". i[.iri., .:",f, anosmauef panrctes ibrm rhcoJrerponjorc ol thefillerc"l,e.A cakeof relat;vel) high porosity is thereby obrainedand high fihration raresare achieved. Modemplantutilisesdnunswiih surfaces of60 100m2ascompareal with the20 m2 of the older cast iron drums. Constructionnaterials such as stainlessstcel, titanium, epoxv resin.and pi6rics dtt g.ve muchimp-o\ed cono.ionre.,srarce t" nenceongerir,e. lhe reptacerncnl "*y;r;.,';;; olthe knifcs)stem b) 5omeform ofbcll hasqiven bettcr calc discharge ard perm,led rhe L.e of rhuue-fitieirg .",h ,. ".dir, nbrcs. fhe b,-h pror dcs somc jrppod tor rne cakeand m"re'riatry ,,.ir,. ,1,;";"t.;; .jf.;;;i comp'essed air for liftirrg ofi rhc cake. DryingcaDbc ijnpro\ed b] roLalJy co\erinclhe h|er u th d lood lmpro\emenrs .or'reducing ha\e aisobeer mddein Lechniques cake cmchng, Recent developmentsin rotary filters include equipmenrmarketd by Dorf-Oliver, ... illustratedir Figure7.22, which combincsvacuumfiitration with p."r.*" nlt;;;; $hicb filrcr cale.mo;srurc is reduced b) 20-.00 per cenr. A conoinedfit,ering aJ pldnlba\ bcer developed oryrng in qhich d co ,iDr.our betr. rarher tikc a bedsori-ne in consffrction, passes round the undersideofthe drum filter and the frlter cake is deposited on the belt to which it adheres.The beti leaves the filter iowards the top and is then c&ried through a cabinei dryer. tt then rcturns to the undersideof the drum filter after the cakellas been removed by agitation. The tnetai bett, which assistsrhe drying of rhe mare'irl.by virtueoi_ irr goodhcaFconducrirg prcDenc.. is tonredrrr" f"opi *ii"f, carneo rnrougn the drycfoDd stalcon\cyor. "r. ,n"rcfials $ ilb I rcl) divided lhe Lotdt loss or solrdliom rle bcll i. "5 I nle as I or 2 percenl Example 7.4 A slury containing 40 percent by nasssotidis to benltered on a rorary drumfitter2 m diamerer and2 'n longwhich. nor$rallyoperales witt 40 per centof its surface i;mersed i" ,t ,t"ry _i u'lde arr r e 5 c - r e o f k l -\ m . A , d b o r a r o " Dc r oI c r m p e o f r h e..r y s r r g at e an re r treroiarea zuu cr ano sdt ha . n r . r . t . ! h o r h d L o n r h e d ro co\ere urr. d u . e Jd 0 0 c r no t f i t l b r e r l r h e first60_s andt40 cm3 in rhenext60 s, when iheleafwasunaei ar absolute pressu." .r iZ W.:. T h e b u l k d e No rD _rhedD c a k e $ s t < 0 0 k g n a l J L t , e d e n .o iD frh(fitrm,e$t a0 .00kSm.. Inerrlrmumrhrckne\s oi .dle which coutd b. ,edd.ty reroved tror rhe c o,h$d\ 5 mm. At what speed shouldthe drumrotarefor maximum throughput jn andwhat is this throushour terms ofthe malsofthe slunt,fedto theuir pe.unittime?

Solution
,,t:0.02 m,, ( aP): (lot.3- t7): 843 kN/m? or 84.300 N/m? = Y 0.0003 mr Y = 0.00044 mr

Liquid fillration 272

Thesevalues ar snbstitutedinto the constut pressnrefilkarion equation: , 2t 4V v'+2r LptAz! far

( e q u a r i o7 tr .18)

which enablesthe filtration constantslo be determinedas: . L / D = 2 . 1 9 x l 0 I m d r t ! = 3 . 4 8x l 0 r ! .

lor rhe rory nrrer equarron 7.t8 sppliesas $" *h"h;pe-'ion is ar connor !re,sure The maximum throughput will be attained when th cake thicknss is a minirnun, rhat is 5 mm or 0.005m. Area of filterins surface: (2n x 2) = 4r r'|,z. = (42 x 0.005):0.063 mr/revolution Bulk volumeofcake deposiled If the rate of filtrate production = u kC/s,then the volune flow is 0.001 u mr /s For a 40 per cent slurry: .s/(s + u) : 0.4, and the nals of solids : 0.66u. Thus: = 4.4 x 10 au mr/s voiune ofsolids deposited: (0.66Dl1500) lfone rwolution takest s, then:4.4 x l0 4ur:0.061 and the mas of filtate producedper revolutioD = I43 kg. Rateof producrion of filrrate= 0.001u mr/s - y/r

Thus:

= | x ro-6043)': v7 :1 x 10 6uzt2 ?0 . 0 2 m 6

Substituling Y = 0.141mr and the constants into equarion 7.18,gives:

(0.141)'z+2 : 2 x 84, x 2.19 x 10-3 x 0.141 300x (4'),r/(3.48 x 1010) from which r = 26-95s, which is equalto tine of slbmergencdrevoluiion. TtDs: md: tine for I revolutio!: (26.9/0.4)= 67.3s : (l/67i) = q!.!IjZ speed = 2.11kds u = (t43/67.3) x 2.l l) kgls s: (0.66 and: rnass of sluny: (1.66 x 2.l l) = 3.5ks/s

Exan1ple 7.5 A plate dd frme presswith a filtration Ne of 2.2 tnz is opeEtedwith a pressur drop of 413kN/n'z dd widr a doxnlimeof2l-6 lis (6 n). In a testwith a smallleaffitter 0.05n: in area,

processes 273Chemical Engineering

ditrerence of70 kN/rn,, 0.00025 m3 offiltrate was obiained in 300 yg TTf.q s and ". !."'""1* a toLal of 0.00040 m' in 600 s. t-s,imdre the ophrum fi rarion I me tor muirum rhrouuhDut r.i rFeopemnng con iluriig firBr on is r|0 ks rnLJ rhe cosrofs shurdoun\ r t00, w;al is fte optimum filtration time for mininum cost?

Solution
y = 0.00025 Substituting mr at r = 300s in eqnarion 8.39gives:

(300/0.00025) = 0.0002jr p/(2 \ 0.0s, x jo x lori+ rrrrl(0.05 x 70x r0')

or: l.2x106:7.t4x10614r+2.86xl0-arr.I,

(t

y = 0.00040 Snbstituting mr at r = 400 s in equalion 7.39gives: = 11.42 1 . 0x 1 0 6 x t 0 - 6 rL L r+ 2 . a 6 x r c a t p L Solving eqxations(i) ard (ii) simultaneouslygivesl rpr:7 x 10,, Ns/m4and rpt = 4.6 x toe N/smj (ii)

Thus, for the plare ud ftme filter: u' = . or7-o7, tuL q;Ec,=46 =1 t0t2/\2'22"4t3' t0"/t22 '4ll l0rr l0r 175 l0!smo

s0o ' l0 sm'

Substituiing for V from equation 7_43 into equation 7.4i, the filaarion time for naximnm t = t' + Bz( /Bt)4.5

= 21.6 x t0r + 5.06 x 10rft21.6 x l0l/0.75 x t01fr :2.216 x 104 s or ?4Lb (6.2h) v = tel.6 x to\)/\1.j5 x l01l0r=0.lll ml andthe meanrale offilhation is: v / (t + t') = 0.11t \6 >< 104 + 21.6x tol = 2.54x l0 6 ni/s / (2.2

c:0.01r + 100 /cycle = c (0 0lr + 100)/y J/mJ

Sutstituting for I ftomequation 7.41 gives:

c = (o.ot ary, + o.otBrv + too)/y

Difierentiating md puttjngdcldy = 0: Y: 000/0.01trf5 nr dd liom equation 7.41,the optimum filtrafiontime fo. ninimum costis:
r = (100/0.01 5) +) B , ( r 0 0 / 0 . 0 1 8 1 .s Substituting for Ar and Br: I = 104 + 5 . 0 6x r 0 r ( 1 0 4 / 1 . 7x5 1 0 6 ) 0 5 = 1 0 3 x l o a s o r 1 0 . 3k s ( 2 . 8 6 I t

Example 7.6 A sluny, cortlinins 0.2 kg ofsolid per kilosrm of water is fed to a .orary drum filter 0.6 m long and 0.6 m dimeter. Tne drum rota!s at one revolution in 360 s dd 20 per cent of the filiering surface is in contact with the slurry at oy instmt. If nlhare is produced at the rate of 0.125 kg/s and the cakehas a voidase of0.5, what ictness ofcake is producedwhen nltering wilh a pressure differeDceof 65 kN/m'1?The densib. ofr}e solids is 3000 ks/mr. The rotary filte. breaks doM ud tie opemtion has to be cffiied out lemlordily in a plate md frame presswith frmes 0.3 m sque. The presstakes 120 s ro disnantle and 120 s to reassenble anq in addition, 120 s is required to renove the cake fton eeh fEme. IffihratioD is to te canied out at tle sameoverall raie d before. wilh an operatingpressureditrercDceof 175 kN/mr, what is the minimum nunrber of fimes that needs to be used dd whar is rhe lhickress of each?tt may be assuned tha! the cakesare incompressibleand that th resistuce of rhe nller medium may be

Solution Drum filter

Area of filteringsurface: (0.6 x 0.6u) = 0.362 n, Rateof iltration = 0.125kCA : (0 125/1000) : 1.25x l0r mrls of filrrate I ks or 10 r mr water is 4sociatedwith 0.2 ks of sotids: 0.2/(3 x l0r) : 6.67 x l0 I mr of Since the cake porosiq, is 0.5, 6.67 x 10-5mr of wate. is }eld in the filrer cake dd (10-3- 6.67 x 10-5)= 9-33x l0r mr appears as filrrate, per kg ofroralwater in the slury. Volurneof cake delositedby uDit volumeof filtrate, ! : (6.6?x l0 5 x 2)/(9.33 x 10 4) : 0.143. Volumetricrate of delosition of solids: (l 25 x l0 a x0 i43) = l.?9 x t0-5 6r/s. One revolution takes360 s. Thereforc the givn pieceofnltering surfaceis immersedfo. (360 x 0.2) = 72 s The bulk volune of cake deposited per revolntion: (1.79x t0 5 x 360) =644 x t0-3 n3. Thickness of cakelroduced: (6.44x 10 r)/(0.36r) = 5.7 x l0 r m or 5.7 nm

275Chemical Engineednq Processes

Propertiesof filter cake

dv \_ap)A - dr "l'l At constantpressure: v ,2 r.'-APtA r \_Lp tA rl'v, {&om equations 7 2 and 7 8r

Kt-AptA2t t,^yt

, f i o m e g u a , i o7 n. l

Expressinspresswes,areas,tines and volumes in l&n?, m,, 6 anrt nr respectively, then for one revolution of the dlm: (1.25x 10r x 360F = r(6.s x 104)(0.36r)2 xj2 since each element of {ea is immeNed for ole-fijlh of a cycle, and: K=3.38x10-ro

Filter press
Using a filter press with r ftames of thickness 17 m, the ioral time, for one compite cycle of tle press= (t + 120n+ 240) s, where I, is the time durils which filrration is occunins_ overau rate of filtration - v'

t + r'nttlz4o

= | 25x 1o-4 nf ls

wherey/ is th toralvolumeoffiltrate per cycle. Thevolumeof frames/volume of cakedeposired by !!ir volumeof filtrate, t,, is sivenby: Butr vr : 0.3'1 = O.62gnb nb/0.143 y/'z= (3.38 x 10 '5 x (1.75 x 105)(2n x 0.3x 0.3),, (fiomequarion 7. ) = 0.629 nbz \=2.0&xt05 b2 += 1.25 t 111 0 629nb 2.064,105br+120n+240 0.0j0,2t.8r: - 0.0t5 o.629b (o.629b 0.01s) _ (0.030+25.8r,) x 51.6b x 0.629:0 _ ,r o o458r_o.ool162:o Thusr , = 0.0229 + *0.000525+ 0.001162) ud raking tte positive roo!: = d 0.0640 m or 64 mm

and: Thus: Thatis: ^..

25.8b2 : O.62gnb + O.01Sn + 0.030

n h a mininum whendnld, = 0, that is whenl

LiquidfllEtion 276

Hncs

(0.030+ 25.8x 0.041d)

"= (orr'00640-on'E) = 5.4

Thusa minimumof qt@ mu$ be used. ae rde cf illrdion when dx ae used Thedzsof frdnes whichwill giveo(adlytherquired by: EVn ' 0.030 + 25.8b': 3.n4b - o.@o qt ad: =0 b2- o.146b * o.oo465 - 0.00465) ,:0.073+ /(0.005329 : 0.047 or 0.m9 m

Thus,6 franes of thickns eiths 47 rnm or 90 mm will give e(actly the rquird filtrdion rdei intsmdiate dzesEve higherrds Thus dV f6ne th;ckn6 betwen47 dd 9g mm will be sdi$adory. ln prdice, 50 mm (2 in) frdnes wouldprobdly be used.

Rotary disc fifters in a manner similarto a bottom-fed drumfiltr. The In essencq the discfilter operales principddifferenceto benotedarethe compa'tments of whidr areformdon bothfacs whidl is connecled to the dght or more segmnts, @h of verticd discs The6e comprise thefiltermedium, horizontd $dt of themahine.Ihe filtrde anddr aredrarn through pass4es in the rotay $dt segments, ard findly through into the drd nagesydrnof the to a vdve locded d oneor bothends. onthe *rdt abod 0.3 m apart as*lown in Figure7.23,rs-lliing Thediscsarearrarged greder afa filtrationareacnbeaccommoddd in economy of eae, andconsequently in a givenfloor spee thanis posiblewith a drumtype filter.A discfiltr ar of 2.5m in 80 nf can be ahis/ed with dght discq eadl approximddy approximatdy x 2.5m drumfilterwhidr wouldhar'e diarnds.in thesame see 6 a 2.5 m dia_nder ars andconseque-tly the ldge liquor a filtrdionaea of 20 m2.BecaJse of ihe large anddr flowq two rotay vdvs, oneai edrerd of the mdn grdt, areffequentlyfitted. maybeasided dischage is usrdly achier'ed udnga knifeor wire,anddisharge Cake in thefiltertrough. fdls through verticdopenings by blow-back air.Thecake ln generd, discfiltershar'e theadvat4es that,notonly is the cod perunitfiltrdion in a sndl floor $ace, but the a tow and largefiltrdion ars can be accommodded sothatthe diffsert d urriscanbehandled at the troughcar bedividdinto two sections unitsis thd h,r'yfi ltr d oths machi ne-Thedsadva{ruE of these same ti mei n thesarne andcd(ewd ng is virtudlyimposible areneb@y, with a gredtgldglcyto " blind", due to the easewith whidr depostdsolidscan be didurbedfrom the vsticd faces, takethe sarne In contra*to a drumtypefilter,in whidr dl pats of the iilter medium pdh throughtlre durry, eachpat of a disc segment td(es a differentpdh, depe'ding if homogeneous conditions cannot be on its rdid di$ance fromthe hub.Consequa{ly, maybeformed, a dtuation whidt mdntdned in thefllteftrough, then vryuner'en cakes

pro@sses 277chemicl Engineeing

Figure7.23.

Rotarydisc nlter

favous prefereDtialair flow analresults in a widely va.iable moisture content acrosseach segment.Disc filteN also have the limitation ihat, becauseevery segmentmust be fully submerged in slu.ry prior to the applicationofvacuum, very little variition in submergence level can be accorrunodated.

Precoat filterc
All the filters described previousty have been in the category of cake filters for thev all rcly on the solids presentin the feed slury haviry properties which are suirable for them to act as the actual filter medium and to form cakes which are relatively easily discharged.Applications arise where exrremelythin fittff cakes,pefiaps onty u-auctioo of a millimefe thick, have ro be discharged,where exrremely-good fittr; irh.iq, is essential!or wherc a particularly blinding substanceis prcsent, and filtmtion throu;h a permaneDr filter mediumalone.sucbas a frl(e,fabric.may not bc salisfaclory. A much more efrcielrt perfomranceis achievedby utilising a bealof easily filtered material which ts precoated o to whal js otherwise a stardard alrumt lre fiiter. ARerrheprecoal is esrabtisbed thc solidsro be remo\;d from rhe fiher teeddrerappeJ on the sirface ofthe prccoatedbed. This thin laye. of slime is removedby a knife which is causedto advance slowly towards the drum. The knife also removes-athin iayer oi the Fecoated bed so that a rew surfaceof the filter medium is exposed.This pro;edure allows steady filtEtion rates to be achieved. A precoated rotary dru vacuun flter is the only filtsarion equipment from which extremelythin filter cakescanbe positively and continuouslyremovedin a semi_drvstate.

Liquid flhtion 278

The usual Fecoat materials, for most production processes,are conventional filter aids, such as diatomacouseadh and expandedperlite, alrhough ftorhed coat, calcium sulphate and other solids, which folm very pemeable filter cakes, may be used where suchmaterials are compatiblewith the materialsbeing processed. Woorl flour and fly-ash have also been used in someapplications,particularly in effuent h.catment Dlants.where somcconlaminar.on of L}ef'rercdliquori. ol no great conjequence. The israbt,shmenr of the precoai bed should preferably be caried out using a precoatslurry of low solids concentration,at high drum speedand with low submergence, so that the bed is built up in the forn of a thin layer with eachrcvolution, therebye$udng a u foim and compacted bed which $ ill nor easil) be djsturbed 0om fie drum. For tongperiods ofoperarion, the ma\imum bed thicknessshouldbe used.This is often determined by the mechanicaldesign of the fiiter and by the cake fomarion properlies of rhe precoarmaterial. Normally rhe bed thicknessis 75 100 Inm and,with most materiatsthis can be established on the drum in a period of about one hour. The t}?e analgrade of precoatmaterial used, in addition to processconsideralions,can iniuence the late at which the bd must be removed and the cost ofprecoat vacuum 61teroperation.Gcnerally, for maximum economy! a precoat filter shouid operate at the highesr possible submergmce,consisrentwirh rhe rcquired degreeof cake washing and drying, when required, and with the lowest possible knife advancerate. Some prccoat filters are capable of operation at up ro 70 per cent drum submergence though this, particularly wiih rhe facility to accommodare100 lnrn thick beds, necessitates special design featuresto give adequateclearancebetween fhe drum and the trough while at the same time giving acceptabte angles for the dischargeknife. Krlifr advancerates arc 0.013 0.13 mn per rvolurion, and drum speedsare fiequentty 0-002 0.03 Hz (0.1 2 rev/min). By cafeful conrrol of aU rhe variables, and by corect sizing of the equipment,it is possible ro obtain precoatbeds which last 60 240 houn. To obtain maximum economy in opemtion, a precoatry?e vacuum filter shoutdhave: (a) Ea5yvariarion of fte knileddvaDce rar( (b) Very accuratecontrol of the knife advancerue. (c) A very dgid knife assembly(due to the need to advanceat extiemely low rates ovef a face widih up to approximately6 m). (d) Rapid advanceand retraction of the knifc. Mechanical and hydlaulic sysrens for control of the knife are now used. The latter allows easy selection of the mte and dircction of knife movemnt and the system is paticuiarly suited to remote conhol or automatic operation.

EXamDle/. / A sludgeis filteredin a platedd ftamepressined with 25 mm franes.For the firct 600s rhe slurrypmp runsat maximum capacity. Duringthjs prioddre pressur risesto 415kN/n: and 25 per ceDtof the total filtmte is obtained. The fittrationtakesa turrher3600s to complete ar constmtpressure and900s is required for flprying andresetting ttrepress. It is foundthatif thecloths areprecoared with filter aidto a depth of 1.6mm.theclorhrcsisrance is reduced to 25 per centof its fome. vahe. Wlat wjll be rheincrease in rhe ovenll ttrrouehDut of thepressif the precoat canbe applied in I 80 s?

279Chemical Ensineeins ftocesses

Solution Case 7
dV

*r(, , !!\
For constantEie filhationl

(equanon 7.16)

'o= o to vo+'b v3 + bvo: ato

For constantpressnreffltration:

- vi) + b(v - vi : a(t - to) t(v' r o = 6 0 0 sr.- r o: 3 6 0 0s , y o = y / 4 v2v i+bV=6ood d(t

_t^_

i(v'-

v"/t6)+ b(v -v/4) _3600a

Thus:

= fv, +lw = zeoo"

b=+

Tbus:

"=^(#.h=i^*
\aVoa tt ,, , D 1/49 ^ \ htr - v^ i l+-l;v / +\.

Totalcycletime = (900+ 4200)= 5I 00 s Filhation raie= 7/5100= 0.000196y

Case2
tt Valb

.l;v'
Thtrs:

- v ,l = a ( l- r , l
./

3 _," v t9.200 24oo-=;t,

,,-i

600 %

U ,,

ll00

Liquid nltralion 280 gg iveql Subsritutin 1

(H*,r#,,).#(;"-.,rr= rsJau'('-")
t21 t7 2048 t024

49 t28

'-'=l , Jl
= 2l7Es Filnation mre= l; .
t'7 \d v \ /

3 ta,200 / t9.200\/ 784- 121

2o4B

Cycle lime: (180 = 4083s + 900+ 825+ 2178) :: l=0.000214y 4u.i

(0.000214 0.000196)y

REFERENCES
1. lvES, K. J. (ed.): fte 9i srinc Bad (Noordhoff, s oi Fitrralion Leyder, 1975). 2. lvEs, K. J:Trans Ing. Chsn.E.4a (190) T94.A.rarcsin de*bed itirdion. -'re 3. SrrLL H K-: C.erlcalErgrrcs No.3 4 rod 1976) 675.Dfleopasi o' ndJs.id titrdiol. 4. R r". B. E..l,4oNT| o\ G. H. aE t',4oNro\Nd. R E.: trd. Eng. Cfm 25 (1933) 76 ad i53. qJd6in tt. Fundmsid aiomof ;nd;Fprssrre tilldion. _ filhdion.L Criticdadygsof fdtdio tho.y. 5Rurr,B.F:lnd.Eng.Chsn27(19s5)708ard806.$udt6infitrrdjon.It.De ivdi;noigersdnlidion -eudid equdiffs lV Naluol 'l-io 'low thorqh I trrseta 40 its iaForlr@ In rfe f rrdion 6 RurH. B. F.dd KLV'E L.: t.ar6 AJ-ltN.Chm E.g.33(j$7j?. Ana(te1door heli,ra methods 4d qudiorsolbdchiillrd ol pf&l ce.o lhendd ot continJojf t.rain 7. R rH.B F: Ind Erg Chfl 38 { l9a6)56. Cdrda,ngntr.tiol lhea/ wirhp-*lie 8. GRAC". H. P: cl'en Ers. P.og.,19{19$) 3m. 367.id 42l. R6js;ce ai onpr*ibit.ry ot ftrs 9. ro n\G. E. H. andI oc' an. F.J.:Clgn Erg.P.og. 47 (195.)3. Rssalce ro lkar or. 10. c/tuAN p c: TE.s td. che l Erg. .6 119381 i68 FlrddrflJ pindde o. irdusrid fi raio gri. 1 1 .HEERrs, P l',1.: Chen. Eng. 6 (19t4 190ad 269.$udi* in nlidiofr. 1 2 .VaLLr-Ro". V. V a_d|\4Aro\F", J O.: A.t.Ch.E.Jt. 6 { 1960) J82 CoTpais.not theScifi. rsiSarcs ol cd<6 formedin fi tffi ad certrifuaa 13.TTLLLR. F. t\r.andHu!!c. C. l: Ino.Eng. Cnm 53(1961j 529.Fi trdiol eaicrnsll Thffi. .0 1. 1 4 _ c , F l \ 4t r d $ R A r o .^ , t .A : .t.ch.F.J t {1064)6T herc'eotpo.o !n f i t l r r , o n F .lnVt. \@ ir '5. TLLLR ' 2 4 1 F.l"'l4dwL c.s: A.t.chE.J.31 985r Tte,oteo'porodry n tildor: pnx, ueposflor o comprsbio cai* o slsrd diJ e{c. ravEd. Ar.S Fi[n. drrj &on 6 rj969) .j]. Tfe dJfl ot concglua 16,R-srroN on i. ro1*y ,A ,and 17. E -.q5 S: lrd. Eng. C'rsn 53 (196tl562. Thesdt o. ot l1.s r&i6 resdrio. 18.wcorNow$r,A. C.:Chsr. Eng. P.oo. 58 \o. 12rDec 1962) 51.Nor,{,over U . media '9. RiFcHAs O. B : l.dLsr at Litrarron (Leo.rd li . Lordff. 197i ot _iqudl 2ndedn. 'r. 20. T[ | ER. F. tu|.ad CH-\c,K. S.:Et..ardS@. 141977)13.Ddayed de I ttraiol. 21. MacKLEy, M. R.ad SiEFllrAN, N. E.:Chn. Eng.St. 47 (1997) 3067. cl6now c*en trdjon mcharjcs ad kinciN 22- HoLDrcH, R G., CUMMTNG, L W ad tsrAl, B.: chen. ErE.R6 Des 73 (1995) 20.Thevaidior)of croseflowfilltion .de with wdl $er srfess ad ihe drr of dpc ihickis. 23. CLa$y, J-1.:Thechsicd Engins No.314(Oct.1976)663. Fithdionwjthglaula bds (rEresq Vifl a Vo . 1 fl r.en;t. Wale $odv As.. 21. lv-s. K. J.:Pre. r.r vkla S-ppyAs$. Eighlh -learv g-biec! Lodon. 1969). \o. 7 ot c I raion. $id 25. luasAK. T.r J. Arn \rlbte.v\Orks Asr. 29 ( 1937)15S1 . Some notes on sd tilrdion. 26.$EIMAN,L.A.adFRDLANDER,s-K.:J.Cdtcidadtiteriacegj.46(j974)22.Roteofthededricd do$re ayd i. palide dQos on by oNe veoiftwo.. 27. HachER. J. H.: Procsng 2 {1979J 35. Ga nq fe oes oj d bdch U[.a on. 28. CHERF]. G. B.: Filh ardSep.. 1(j974) tA1 Nav dadopr.sls i1 ttsptaesad .sors.

281ChemielEngneering Proesses

NOTATION
S Sygsn
B1 B2 Cmssectiond ae of bed or nlrdion aea L3T Volume coMlration of solids in the f,tier 'fotd mst of Rllniio. ler unit volufre Valueofc at ilter surface voidlge of bed or nller cake Liquid fiadion in feed slurry Liquid fraciion in siurry in vessl Voidaee at disrancez fron suface M6s fraclion of solids in slury Thiclmss of filter ake wirh sameresislmcc d clorh Thickness of filter cake oi bed Pressue ar downstHn face of cake Pressue al upstrean face of cake Pressurear distance z from suface Drop in pEssule acrosscake Pre$urc dsp acros clolh Rate of cak prcduction Slecific Hisrance ofnlr{ cake
i

iNM,L,T

c c'

._
L-3

L L

ML-IT-? ML_rT-z ML_iT-2 ML-IT 2 ML-IT 2 I]T I L-z

Specific rsisranceof compressibtecake at disrancez liom suface (equaiion 7.25) Funclions of r: independentof A P

5
Time of dismrtling ilter press Time ar begituing of opemtion Mn velocily of flow @iculaied over dre wnot rea Volume of liquid Rowi.g in rine t volumeof liquid pa$ing in time rl Volune of @te deposiied by unii volme of fitlrale Volumeofsolids deposicdby uit votune of nhrate Mss rate ofptudrciion of nltnre Overall voluhetric mre of filr'aiion Dislance frcm $rface of tiller cake

L-r T T T LT'I L3 Lr L3

;-'
L]TI L L-r ML_LT-' MLT ML3

Volumeofsolids delosited ler ujt volune offlte.

Liquidiiltrafon 282 PFOBLEMS 7.1. A slurry.conraining 0.2 kg oi solid^s of warer,n fed to a rotxry drum nlrer,0.6 n in diameler dd 0.6 n long The drom rootes !t one revolution in 160 s and20 per cent ofthe filtcrins suface ( in conracr witb the slurryat rny eivcn instantIfhltrle is nroduced at $e tuteof0.12i kg/s and rhc cak. hasa voidage ol0.i. Nhat thicknes ol cakeis foned vhen filtenngat a presre difference of 65 kN/m/? Th densiry of the solid h 3000kg/mr. The rohry filter hrerksdoqn andthe oleraiionh.s lo be cdied out tenporaily in a plareandfrahe pre$ with franes 0.3 n squarc. Thc lrcss rdkes120s to dnnrntle and 120s to reasseinble, aod,in addiion, 120s is reqtrired to rcmovethc cak non eachfrane Ifnlradon is (. be caded our rt the srmc ovsall rale asbefore, p$ure ditfeEnce wnn an opcrating oi 275 lN/nr?, whath the nrinnnnm number of tilnes |hll nust be used sd what is $e $icknessoi each? It na) be lssumed rharthe cakes rc incompre$ible and lhe aistance of thc lilrer nedia nay be neglecred. 7.2. A slniiy conraiiingI01]ks oi whitins/mrolwarer.is filiered in a tlrtc andframeFess-whichtakes 9OO s ro dismurlc, clcanandrc assenble. r de liirer cde is incompresible and hxs a voidagcof 0.4, wharis lhe optimumrhickness oi cakeior r nhrdon pressuFof 1000kN/nr2lThe densittofthc whiting is 3000kg/nr. lfthe c,*e is washed 500 kN/n2 and &e toul volumeofwash waterenlloyed is 25 pd ccntof tharoi rhe nlrate. hoq is ihe opdnun rhickness ofcake rffectedlThe resisrance of the lilter mediummay bc neglecred aDdthe riscosnyof wateris I mN s/m'?,lnatrcxperi'nent, a pre$ureoi 165kN/m2produced a now of walo of0.02 cnr^ $o!gh a cenrimerre cubeoi nlrer ct'ke 7.3, A platcandtranc p@sr.gdle a lord or 8 nr ol nlraLein l8OO s and I1.3 nrr nr 3600 s whennrmdon pas stopped Eslimate lhe washnrgtime if 3 Dr of wash watcr is uscd. The rcsistan.e of the cloth nay be pressuis usedthroughoui. neglected anda constant ?,4. In rhe nhdon oi a sludle. the ini(ial pernrdn efecredat a consantmte Ri& drc fccd Nnp full ,1l]l] crpacny.unril rhe pe$ure dirieFncetreaches kNln2. The pEssuE is then nrainiaincd at this valueror a rcmdrder of tlre tiltmrion T]re constr.r mtc otcraii.n reqDnes 900 s and onethnd of rhe roralfikrrte is obtained dunng dis penod. Ncglcctingthc rcsistancc of rhc nlrcr ncdnh, dcrcnninc(a) 'nc rotal lilrrarionrimc and (b) $. iillrarion pumpr'ora rdimun dailt cap&ity,iflhe tine ior Fmovins thecakeandExsscmbling cyclewith thc caisting the prcssh 1200s. nrc ca*c is not wanred. ?.5. A r.tary filler,.rerarnrgxrO.OlH2.lil(e6 at re.areof(].007j inr/s.OFerating underrhesane vrcuum and neglecnng rhe resisra.ce of the hlrer clorh.ar qhat speed nust the 6ltef be oteraredro give a filftadon

7.6. A sludt h nlteredin a tllte andrnne press containins 12 frames, each0.3 m squaro and25 mn rhick. Dudne thc nsr 180s, thc hhation lrcssurch slowlt nned Io (heiinal vllue oi 400 kN/n, and,duing this pdiod, the rale of nlhdon is nraintained conrmt. Afrer thc initial l)cnod,lil(aaon is caded out et constmt pEssure and lhe cokes re completely fonned in a funher 900 s. The cakes a then wasbed *ith a pEssure diiterence ol2?5 kN/ml for 600 s, usins,/i,r,,cl lraJn,,8.whar is the lolumc of iiltratecollected per cycle andhow nuch washwateris used? A sxmplcof $c slLtrry sas Lcst0d, usinga vmuum lcd liler of 01)5m' lillering surface and r lacuum giving a !rcsurc diffcrcnce of 71.3kN/m':. The rollne of hl(ate colledred nr de fi.s lO0 s vas 250 cn3 aM, aiier a iurther300 s, an rdditionalt5l] cmr wnscollected. Il nay be assnmed that cal<e is itrcoopressible andthe clo(hresismnce is Lhesrme i. rhe leal as in de filter pres. 7.7, A sludgels filierednr a plale and irme pres fittedwilh 25 nm frames For thc 6{t 600 s the slury puDp runsat maxnnum capacitt During!h( penodrhepre$urediference nsesro4l5 kN/mz md 25 per cenr olthe totalfiltmte is obt.ined. The liltmrionh*cs a turthd 3600s r. c.nrlerc at conranr pressure and900 s is requned for emptynrg lnd 'tsetting lhe press. tI is ionndthaL. iI lhe clorhsareprccoatdqirh fil|cr rid io a depihof 1.6 nn, ihc clothresistance is rcdnccd ro 25 per cent of ns fomrer viLlne.Whlt will be drc in.rlase in rhe overall droushput of rhe pres if the Eroat canbe applied in 180s?

283Chemical Engneedns Processes

7,8. Filradon is ca cd out in a plare and liane tilLerpress, wirt 20 frames0.3 m $tuare and 50 mm thick, and lhe frte of njtradonis nainlainedconstanr for rhe fi6t 300 s. During this period,rhe prcsure is raisedto 3501N/nr, md one quafierof the toral litirareper ctcte is obrained. At $e end of $e co.sranr r a l ep e r i o dl,i l r i o n i s c o n r n r u e d a r d c o n s h r p r c $ u r e o 1 3 5 0 k N / m 2 r b r a f u f i h e r t 8 0 0 s , a i r e r w h i c h r h e ftamesare full. The tolal v.lume of filtrareper cycle n O.?mr and disoanttingand rcndng ot the pre$ It is decidedto usc a rotary dnrn filrer, t.5 'n long and 2.2 m :n dixnerer,nr phce of the fitter press. Assuminglhat the resista,ce or de clodr is rhe sahe in rbe Mo plantsand that rhe iitrer cate is incon, prc$ible, calcdatethc speed ol rorrtion of $e drunrwhich .aill.resultnr rhe samcovedll ra(eof fitfiarion N pN obtained xith the nlier pres. Thc nlradon in rhe rcrarynlter is cmied our ar a con$antpre$ure difference of 70 tN/n'?, and the fiiio operares $nh 25 Nr cen! of rhe drurnsubDe.sed in rhc slury ar an,

7,9. lt is rcqunedto iilrer a slurryro prcduce 2.25 nrr of tilifateper Norking day of 8 hou$. The process is cafied our nr a platc andfrine 6lter pr$ wirh 0.45 nr square framesand a wo*ine pre$uE of45O kN/n:. n'e pressuE is buih up sloqly overa periodofl00 s and,dufnrelhis penod,rhemrcoftilfiadonis nannained W h e ^ r r . a m o l ero r l. l ' \ . . r . . r r e d . , r r E . t e r l r . o t r < \ , o r d . r r g t ec a .I l e ro t r . r e . i l ! j e J 00s.,100!r'o h l ' r ' e ' . c o l e l r e d . r . 'r r , J 0 0 \ o n r . J U o ' n o J r t h e r j O O t r r , . c o . . e c r d o r r i r e thc tbllowin! 600 s. A$umnrs dratrhc disnrdllin8 otfie 6lter prcs, ttreemovd ofrhc cakes and lne seui.g up aeainof lhe press takesxn oredll tide of 300 s, plus an rddirional180s tor eacbc.te produced, whatis the minnnlm numberofftames tn ned be enploycd?Tte resisrance of lne nlFr clorhmay bc mkenas rhe sane in thc liboatory tens as on thc plait, 7.10. The rclrtion belween forv xnd headfor a slurrypun! ray be Epresertcd appro\ijnatety by a sraishr line,lhe naximum flow ar ze.o head6cnrgO.l]O15 mr^ md tho narimum head zero flow ?60 m ofliquid. U6nrg $is Funrpto feed a slldy io a pEsNrc tcaf filGr: (a) how long will it iake to produceI mr ofnharc, and (b) what will be rhe presurc acro$ the nlrer frr this ine? A sinple of rhe slurry was nl|ercdar a consranl rate of 00OOt5nr/s rhrcueha leat ntrer corcredvilh a similarfilrer cloth but ofone tenrhrhe afcaof the full scate unir and afrer625 r rhe pressure {trct across |ne filtc! was 160 n olliqlid. Af(er a lu her480 s $e pressure drcl] qas 600 nr otliqtrid. 7.U. A slutr containing 40 per centby mas solidis ro be tilteed on a rcrrl dtum filler 2 nr dianererand 2 m long whichnomallt oFdalesrnh 40 perccntof its sudace nnmcrsed in the stnuy anrtundera prc$ue oi l7 kN/n/. A labora(ory teston a sanpleof rbesluntrusinga leaftillef of arca2OO dn, drd cov*d wiih a sinilarcloth to thaton tbe dnn, produced 300cnr offrlirarein de 6mt 60 s and 140cmr in thc neit 60 s, whenthe leaf Nas underan aLrsolute plsure oi 1? kNrrr. The bulr densiry ofihc dry cakewas 1500kgnl andthedensirtof$e f ltnle *as 1000kg/nr. Theminimumiliickness ofcake wnichcouidbe readilyreioved fmm the cloth was5 nm. At vhat sp*d shouldlhe drun rotatelor nraxiDun throughpnt andwhai is rhisthroughpu! in rems of the nass ofthe sluny fcd to lhe unit per urit timel 7,12, A^continuous rourt nlreris fq cd lor anindusnial proce$fo.lhenlrrationofa suspensjon ro produce 0.002nr^ of filuate A srnple rvasre$edo. n snltl tabomtory lilt* or area OO2l m2 to whichit wasfcd bv neansol. slury pumpto eive nlrile ar a consranr rareoi 12.5cm3^. The pEssuE difrefe ddossthc tesr fiiter nr.rcased ftonr l,l kNlnz lttcr 3l]Os ntrmrion r.28 kN/n2 aftergol]s. at vhich time thc.ake thicknes hadreached 38 nm. whll aE sunablc dnndsionsandoircraring condnions for rhercLary nhef. asslning rhar rhe iesistmceol ihe cloth usedn one hatt rhaton thc test 6tier. and ihat the vrcuun syslemis caprbteot mainrainnrg a consoni presuredifference of 70 tNrn, across lhe 6trer1

Liquidnttration 284 7.13. A roiary drun nlter, 1.2n diamerer md 1.2 m long,handles 6.0 kg/sor sturrycontrining10 per ccnr of solids when otared at 0.005 Hz. By incEasing rhe speed ro 0.008 Hz ir is found that n .tr lhen bmdle ?,2 kg/s. What will be the percentagechange in rhe amount or plsh water snich nay be apptied ro ach kilogram of cake cansedby rhe incEased rpeed of turation ot the drun, and what is the rhtuEticai ndinun qudtity of slDrrywhich canbe handledl 7.14. A rotaqr drum qith a 6lre. rea of 3 ni operates with an intemal pressure of 70 kN/n2 below ahospheric and wiih 30 pe. cot of irs sudace submerged in lhe slnnl. Calcularedre rate of produclion of fitlrale and tne lhjclnes of cakewhen j( rotates al 0.0033Hz, jf rhe filtef crke is incompressibtc and lhe fijtef clo$ hs a Esislance equalio thai of I nn ofcake. ft is desiredto i.crease rhe rare of tilrario. by raisins rh speedot roradon of the drun. It tbe rhi.nest cake Ihat cd be renovcd from the dran has a rhicknessof 5 mm, whai is (he maxinrun rate of rilrmtion {bich ch be achievedand whar speedof rctation of the drum is rrqund? The voidase of catc = 0.,1, rho sDecinc resistmce of cake= 2 x lorr m 2, the density of sotids:2OOO ts/n3, the.lensityoi ntllate: t00Olg/m3, the vhcositt ofnltrare= l0 I ltVn2 marle sturryconcentralion = 20 per cenrby massof sotids. 7,15. A slurryconta:nins 50 pd centby na$ of solidsof density2600kg/nr ts to be fiheredon I rorary drun 6lter. 2.25 m in diamet* ud 2.5 m long, whicn operates wirh 35 pd cent .f its surface inmeGed in the slnrry and under a vrcuun ol 600 nn Hg. A laboratory tesi on a sanptc of rhe slurry, using a leaf frlter wirh an arer of IOOcm2 and coleed witb a cloth sinitar ro dar used on rne arun. prcOuiea 220 cnr of nlfiarein rhe 6sr minureand 120cm3 of fiftrarein lhe nexr ninuto she. tbe leaf was undera vacuun of-550mm Hg. The bulk densiry of rhe wet cakewas 1600kg/nr and the density or rhe filtrarewd On the assunption ihai rhe cake is inconpFsible and thar 5 nm ot cako is leti bebind on the ,jrun, dctmine fte dreoretical mxxir!fr fiowfuleof tilirtueobrainable. Whardmm speed will sive a ntraion rate of 80 per cent of the maxnnun'i