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IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 10, No. 2, April 1995

A New Directional Element for Numerical Distance Relays

P.G. McLaren SM, G.W. Swift SM, 2. Zhang, E. Dirks, R.P. Jayasinghe, I. Fernando. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, R3T 2N2.
Abstract This paper describes a new positive sequence directional element for use in numerical distance relays. The element is incorporated in a numerical relay and the relay is tested on an RTDS (Real Time Digital Simulator [6]). Results are also shown from on-line tests in two different locations in the Manitoba Hydro network. Finally an accurate software model of the relay, proved against recorded performance on the RTDS tests, is used in off-line tests on complex system configurations. Keywords. Numerical Relays, Directional Element, Incremental Impedance. INTRODUCTION Distance relays based on measurement of phase to ground or phase to phase impedance ensure directional integrity for close up faults by including in the polarizing voltage a signal derived from another phase or phases during the fault (cross polarization), or from the pre-fault voltage (memory polarization), or some combination of both. The effect of these additional polarizing signals when used in a typical mho comparator is to expand the trip characteristic into the third quadrant of the impedance plane for forward faults and to close it down to a small circle in the first quadrant ( not including the origin) for reverse faults [l][2]. For forward faults the reactive reach is maintained at the original set point but the resistive reach increases with increase in source impedance. These techniques have generally performed well but require careful choice of the amount of additional polarization when the protected line contains series compensation [3]. In the latter case it cannot be assumed that the compensation will always be in circuit and the polarization setting is unlikely to suit both the fully in and fully out series compensation configuration. With the advent of numerical relays, I.E. relays which calculate impedance from the fundamental phasor voltage and current estimates, many new impedance characteristics can be implemented [4]. The shape and placement of operating zones in the impedance plane can be chosen with much greater freedom than in the past when the relay designer was limited to simple combinations of straight lines and circular arcs [5]. In addition, numerical relays can measure incremental impedance and this has important implications for assessing the direction to the source of a disturbance. Conventional negative sequence directional elements base their measurement on the phase angle between the negative sequence voltage and current and this is a measurement of the negative sequence source impedance angle. It is also an incremental measurement since it is not available until an unbalanced disturbance hits the system. It will however not be available if the disturbance or fault is balanced. In order to have a directional measurement which can be used in all circumstances it must be based on positive sequence quantities. The memory and cross polarization techniques did contain such positive sequence components. The technique proposed in this paper uses the positive sequence incremental impedance t o decide direction. This impedance will lie in the third quadrant for forward faults and in the first quadrant (not including the origin) for reverse faults. In this respect it is very similar to the conventionally polarized directional element but unlike the conventional unit the directional measurement is independent of the fault impedance measurement. This makes it much easier to define the zone of operation, particularly for the series compensation case. This paper outlines the principle of operation of the new element, describes the integration of the element into a distance relay, then gives results of tests on the relay. The relay was tested first of all on the RTDS (Real Time Digital Simulator[G]), then on-line in two different locations in the Manitoba Hydro network, and finally off-line tests using an accurate software model of the relay were used to assess complex fault situations in series compensated lines. The software model was proved against the results achieved from the RTDS tests. P m N C I P L E OF O P E R A T I O N . Modern microprocessor relays estimate the fundamental current and voltage phasors based on samples taken over the previous cycle. The Fourier algorithm is the most common filter used for this purpose. It is then possible to calculate the sequence quantities from the three phase variables and make them available for relaying algorithms.

94 S M 429-1 P W R D A paper recommended and approved by t h e IEEE Power System Relaying Committee of t h e IEEE Power Engineering S o c i e t y for p r e s e n t a t i o n a t the IEEEIPES '994 Meeting, San CA, J u l y 24 - 28, 1994. Manuscript submitted January 4 , 1994; made a v a i l a b l e f o r p r i n t i n g May 3, 1994.

0885-8977/95/$04.00 0 1994 IEEE

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relationship between the forward and reverse fault measurements will hold true, A simple phase comparison between AV1 and AI1 would suffice to distinguish the two cases (viz. as in the conventional negative sequence directional element). With a numerical relay however, AVl, AI1 and A21 are available as phasors and it is simple to check if A21 lies inside a particular locus in the impedance plane [4]. The coincidence or anti-coincidence between AV and Ai instantaneous signals is already used in high speed directional relays [7]. This coincidence depends on the phase relationship between the fundamental components of A V and Ai after the travelling wave components have subsided. To this extent the principle presented here is not entirely new but the convenience of having A21 available as a phasor for several cycles after the disturbance makes it more compatible with a distance scheme in which other impedances are being measured and checked for location inside or outside specified boundaries.

Implementation of the directional element.

Figure 1: (a)Incremental network diagram, and (b) incremental impedance plane.

st art er

Microprocessor based relays are usually unable to perform a divide operation in a realistic time (typically one sampling interval) and are forced t o implement criteria that depend only on multiplication, addition and subtraction. State of the art DSP based relays on the other hand can perform all these calculations on the fly including the divide required to evaluate impedance [4]. When the relay makes the impedance available as a complex number then the relay is usually referred to as a numerical relay. The incremental positive sequence voltage and current as seen at the relay location R in Figure 1 (a) are the changes AV1 and AI1 caused by the application of the fault at location F. (All real sources within the network are suppressed and Vf is the prefault voltage at the fault location.) These incremental quantities are measured by subtracting the prefault signals at the relay location from the corresponding fault signals. The time delay between the signals being subtracted must be an integral number of cycles and it is this time delay which determines the duration of the incremental signals. During the steady state the incremental signals will be zero. When a change occurs the incremental signals become non-zero for a duration equal to the time delay being used in their derivation (see equation 1). The relationship between AV1 and AI1 for a fault at F1 will be the positive sequence source impedance with a negative sign to account for the fact that the current is measured in the direction into the line. For a fault at F2 the relationship between AV, and AI1 will be the impedance of the transmission line plus the remote source. Figure l(b) shows that the expected impedance] A21 = will lie in the third quadrant for a forward fault and in the first quadrant for a reverse fault. Provided the amount of series compensation is less than 100% then this

I
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Figure 2: Directional element logic and trip outputs

A time delay of 5 cycles was chosen for the interval between the two phasors to be subtracted t o calculate the incremental signals. If the fundamental period is 7 then the incremental positive sequence voltage signal is calculated as AVI = VI(^) - vl(1--57) (1) The same interval is used for the calculation of AI1 and the duration of the directional signal is therefore 5 cycles. Thereafter the AV1 and AI1 signals will become very small and the $ signal meaningless. The logic for the directional element is shown in Figure 2. The essential features are that the measurement process commences when the starter element goes high. The starter element may be either the largest impedance zone element (Z starter), a low set overcurrent element (I starter)or a AI1 overcurrent element ( AI1 starter). During the duration of the 3 cycle timer in Figure 2 the A21 logic signal is gated along with any trip or pilot signal

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Figure 3: Network diagram for 500kV system from Manitoba to Minnesota

to operate the relay. The value of the AZl logic signal depends on the AZ1 measurement being inside a preset zone in the third quadrant. At the end of the 3 cycles the current value of the directional AZl logic signal is frozen provided the starter element is still high. The directional logic is reset when the starter element goes low. This system preserves the directional signal beyond the 5 cycle delay when the incremental signals disappear but allows for a rapid zone 1 decision during the initial 3 cycles. The impedance elements incorporate the directional measurement described above. The impedance zones are typically 80% and 120% of the protected line impedance and will be shown on the impedance trajectory plots for each application. The zone of operation for the directional impedance measurement also varies from one application to another. The close-into-fault logic disables the directional element if the prefault voltage and current signals are less than preset levels. This would be the case if the potential transformer is on the line side of the breaker which is about to close onto a dead but faulted line. Several "recorder trip" variables are included to capture events of interest for the purposes of testing the relay features and the communication link via a modem to a remote location. The relay has been tested on the RTDS running a reduced network model of the system in Figure 3. In addition off-line tests on an accurate software model using the full network of Figure 3 have been performed to examine the behaviour of the directional element on relays at the Chisago busbar looking north and south. A relay/recorder unit has been installed in a monitoring mode at the Dorsey 500kV busbar to protect the series compensated line to Forbes and a second unit has been installed on a 138kV line to Churchill in Northern Manitoba. Recordings are available from both of these units.

RELAY DESIGN AND TEST SYSTEM

The numerical relay was designed to incorporate the following major features
0

Three "phase-to-ground'' impedance elements with 2 zones, Zone 1 to give direct trip and Zone 2 to transmit permissive trip and local trip after 400ms. Three "phase-to-phase" impedance elements with 2 zones, logic as above. Single pole trip and reclose Close-into-fault logic Frequency tracking (necessary to maintain exactly 5 cycles delay for incremental signals) Record 300ms of all input variables for any of the above with some pretrip cycles. ~~~~~d 300ms of all input variables if a preset "recorder trip" zone

TEST RESULTS On-line results.

The unit installed on the Dorsey 500kV busbar to monitor the line to Forbes responded to a transformer fault in the 230kV network in the Dorsey source. Figure 4 shows the recorded voltage, current and impedance plots. The sample rate is 32 samples per cycle. The recordings were

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Record 300ms of all input variables if [AI11 exceeds a preset level

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Figure 4: Secondary current, voltage and primary delta Z plot for a reverse fault in the 230kV network behind Dorsey.
st,ored in a file on the relay and downloaded over a modem to a central location where a graphics program " Wreshow" running under Windows is used to display the results. The originals are in colour which makes it easier to distinguish the three phases and the directional AZl trace in the first quadrant of the impedance plane. The line impedance in this case is 186R and the remote source at Forbes/Chisago accounts for the remainder of the AZ, value. The incremental impedance trajectory is shown on the same plot as the ground impedance elements. None of the other Z trajectories on this plot came within the Z region shown. The trigger for the recording in this case was a AI, element operation. Numerous other recordings from this unit during line energisation/shutdown, sudden load pick up or rejection have shown the directional element to perform correctly. A second unit on the 138kV line to Churchill in northern Manitoba responded to simultaneous "phase-to-ground " faults on the line as shown in Figure 5. The fault resistance was higher than anticipated in the setting of the existing relays on the line and the fault was cleared in zone 2. The test unit was not connected to the circuit breaker but the directional element can be seen in the third quadrant indicating a forward fault and allowing the unit to issue a trip signal when the ground impedance entered the zone 1 characteristic. The resistive reach of the ground impedance elements has since been increased.

ABC

Figure 5: Secondary voltage, current and primary dynamic Z plots for simultaneous L-G faults on a 138kV line.

Real Time Digital Simulator Test Results.

The relay/recorder was subjected to many fault situations on the RTDS in the power systems laboratory at the University of Manitoba. The system being simulated on the RTDS was that shown in Figure 3 with an equivalent source replacing the 345kV lines from Chisago to King and Kohlman. This reduction was necessary to allow the system to run on the present RTDS and the reduced system was shown in off-line simulations to be adequate for testing relays on the 500kV line [8]. The relay/recorder was connected at the 500kV busbar at Dorsey and set to protect the 500kV line to Forbes. The zone 1 setting was restricted to cater for the effect of series compensation being present [8]. Many tests were conducted to examine both the relay settings and the directional element behaviour. The significant tests for the directional element were three-phase faults just in front of and just behind the relay busbar. Figure 6 shows the forward fault case with the AZ, trajectory appearing in the third quadrant and allowing the relay to trip. Figure 7 shows the reverse fault case. In order to conserve space only the impedance plots are shown from here on. It can be seen from Figure 7 that the ground Z elements enter the trip zone but the directional element is in the first quadrant well away from the directional element trip zone and therefore prevents tripping. The directional element signal was locked in until the fault was removed.

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Figure 7 : Dynamic Z plots, logic sequence and description for a close up 3-phase reverse fault.
on precisely the same set of 32 samples. This can lead to trip time differences of nd of a cycle in the worst case assuming the calculation timing is accurate to the nearest whole number of sampling instants. When the relay model is attached to an EMTDC simulation another difficulty occurs in that the sampling instants in the software model and the actual relay are not synchronized. The sampling instants for the actual relay will depend on the instant at which the relay starts to run its program and the instant at which the fault waveforms are begun to be fed to the relay. There is a possible spread of one sample instant in this lack of synchronization and it will result again in slight differences between the model and the actual relay performance. These differences are however no greater than could be expected between two successive shots of the same fault fed at the relay without any attempt to synchronize the fault initiation to the relay clock. Suffice to say that, fed with identical sample trains and given the exact calculation time for the actual relay, the results are identical. When running the software model attached to an off-line simulation the results may not be identical, for the reasons stated above, but are nonetheless extremely close. The software model was used to assess the performance of the relay/recorder and its directional element in situations known to give difficulty for polarized distance relays. The off-line simulations used frequency dependent transmission line models with all transposition points included,

Figure 6: Secondary voltage and current, and dynamic primary Z plots for a close up 3-phase line fault. Off-line tests on a software model of the relay.
If relay engineers do not have access to the relay hardware then they can still assess its performance on their system if they have an accurate software model. With a programmable digital relay it is possible to accurately model the algorithms for incorporation into simulations using an electromagnetic transient programme. The emtp used by the authors is EMTDC [9] and this emtp allows subroutines representing the relay elements to be linked without problem. The relay elements have been incorporated in a relay library in the graphical routine PSCAD under which the study is set up and can be called and attached to a particular line as required. In order to examine the accuracy of the software model it was tested with a file containing the recorded waveform sample trains from the actual relay. Since the software model contains no information about the hardware timing performance it is necessary to input a figure for the time it takes the actual relay to perform a complete set of calculations. In this case we have the exact figure since we have access to the relay but the value is typically one to two sampling instants for all of the relay software configurations tested so far. (32 samples per cycle) With this exact figure given as input the software model performance was identical to the actual relay performance. If the figure is not exact, slight differences in Z trajectory shapes may be noticed if the model does not do its calculations

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Figure 9: Incremental impedance trajectory for a forward fault (F11) with MOV action suppressed
impedance trajectories come inside the zone 1 characteristic and would have caused maloperation but for the correct action of the directional element in determining that the incremental impedance lies outside the operating zone in the third quadrant. Under normal circumstances, since Chisago is a strong source, the MOV and its bypass switch remove the capacitor from circuit within a cycle but the impedance loci for the ground and phase elements may still come into the operate zone at the origin. Both the fault disturbance and the MOV bypass action are behind the relay and the directional element maintains its correct decision with minor changes in the incremental impedance trajectory caused by the MOV action. Figure 9 shows the incremental impedance trajectory for a single phase fault on the Chisago-Kohlmann line with no MOV action on the Chisago capacitor. The directional element operates correctly as long as the series compensation does not make the net source impedance capacitive. The setting of R2 looking towards Forbes on the 500kV line should allow for faults on the line just in front of the capacitor without MOV action on the capacitor. With the potential measurement taken at the busbar side of the capacitor the measured impedance will be capacitive and the impedance zones should have a negative reach to cater for such a possibility. This negative reach could however cause maloperation for a reverse fault on the lines behind the Chisago 500kV busbar and to prevent this possibility the trip signal is gated with the incremental impedance directional element. Figure 10 shows the ground Z plots for a 3-phase fault at F23 showing that they enter the trip zone at a value equal to the capacitive reactance (40R). The directional element also comes into the operate zone. Figure 11 shows the reverse fault situation when the impedance elements come in zone but the directional element gives a correct decision and prevents maloperation. The software relay models have been tested on all types

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Figure 8: Z plots for the ground distance elements and the directional element for a reverse 3-phase fault at F13.(No MOV action).

mutual coupling between the King/Kohlmann 345kV lines, 3-winding transformers with saturation and all series compensation in circuit. This degree of detail was beyond the capability of the present 2 rack RTDS at the University of Manitoba. The software relay was tested in two locations in Figure 3 shown as R1 and R2 with settings appropriate for the line being protected. The fault locations F a P in this same figure use the nomenclature that a represents the relay under consideration and , l indicates ? fault location, eg F12 is a fault at location 2 played at relay R1. The concern for R1 is that a reverse fault F13 or F12 may look like a negative capacitive reactance, I.E. an inductive reactance, and hence look like a fault on the ChisagoKohlmann line. For this to happen the MOV protecting the capacitor at Chisago either fails or the Chisago source is so weak that the fault current levels do not trigger the MOV. This is an unlikely scenario but even if it happens the new directional element prevents maloperation. Figure 8 shows that the for a 3-phase fault just on the line side of the capacitor (with the MOV disabled) the three ground

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Figure 11: Ground element Z plots and incremental impedance plot for a reverse! 3-phase fault a t F24
the future a relay engineer may be provided with an accurate software model of a manufacturers relay to test its performance when linked to an emtp simulation of his particular system. This would be a much cheaper solution than using expensive test facilities in the early stages of relay selection.

Conclusions
A new positive sequence directional element based on incremental positive sequence signals has been implemented on a numerical distance relay. Successful operation of the directional element has been demonstrated from results captured on numerical relays installed on the Manitoba Hydro network. A numerical relay incorporating the directional element has also been tested on the RTDS at the University of Manitoba and shown to perform as expected. Finally an accurate software model of the relay has been linked to off-line emtp simulations to explore relay operation in complex network situations beyond the capability of the University of Manitoba RTDS. The latter tests do not require access to the relay itself once the model has been proved against actual relay results. It is possible that in

References
[l] L.W. Wedepohl, Polarised Mho Distance Relay, Proc. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, March 1965, p525. [2] R. J . Martilla, Directional Characteristics of Distance Relay Mho Elements- Parts I and 11, IEEE Transactions, Vol. PAS-100, No.1, January 1981, p96. 131 R.J. Martilla,Performance of distance relay mho elements on MOV protected series compensated lines. paper no. 91 SM 362-4 PWRD, PES Summer meeting, San Diego, July 1991.

[4]McLaren, P.G., Swift, G.S., Neufeld, A., Dirks, E.N., Zhang, Z., Haywood, R., Open systems relaying.

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Paper No. 93 SM 376-4-PWRD, IEEE PES Summer Meeting, Vancouver, July 1993.

[5] Mathews, P., Nellist, B.D., Generalised Circle Diagrams and their Application to Protective Gear , AIEE Transactions] Power Apparatus and Systems, No. 2, February 1964, p165.

honours in Electrical Power Engineering. She is presently enrolled as a Ph.D. student in the Power Systems Group a t the University of Manitoba. Her research interests are in power system simulation and protection of multi-phase and hybrid transmission lines. She is a student member of the IEEE.

[6] P.G. Mclaren, R.Kuffe1, R. Wierckx, J . Giesbrecht, L. Arendt, A real time digital simulator for testing relays. IEEE Trans., PWRD, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jan. 1992.
[7] McLaren, P.G. Travelling wave and ultra-high speed relays , Chapter 6, I.E.E.E. Tutorial on Microprocessor relays and protection systems. IEEE Publication NO. 88 EH0269-1-PWR. [8] P.G. McLaren, R.Kuffe1, J.Giesbrecht, W.Keert,hipala, S. Innes, A. Castro, D. Fedirchuk, K . Mustaphi, K. Sletten,On site relay transient tests for a series compensation upgrade., IEEE PES Summer meeting, July 1993, Vancouver, paper no. 93 SM 375-6-PWRD. [9] G.D. Irwin, R.P. Wierckx, D.A. Woodford, High speed assembly and simulation of complex electromagnetic transients studies. CSEE/IEEE Proceedings of the International Conference on Power System Technology, Beijing, China, September 1991, p 455.

Biographies

P.G. McLaren was educated at the Universities of St. Andrews, Dundee and Cambridge in the U.K. He is a senior member of the IEEE, a Fellow of the IEE, a Eureng and a Professional engineer in the Province of Manitoba. He is presently the NSERC Chair in Power Systems at the University of Manitoba. G.W. Swift was educated at the University of Alberta and the Illinois Institute of Technology. He is a senior member of the IEEE, and a Professional engineer in the Province of Manitoba. He is presently the Director of Research, Vansco Electronics, Manitoba and is a Professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department of the University of Manitoba. Z . Zhang was educated at the North China Institute of Electric Power and is currently a Ph.D. student in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department of the University of Manitoba and a Developrnent engineer with Vansco Electronics. E.Dirks was educated at Red River College in Winnipeg and is now the research technologist in the power systems group at the University of Manitoba. R. P. Jayasinghe received his bachelors degree from the University of Moratuwa in 1987 with first class hons. in Electrical Engineering. He then joined the Ceylon Electricity Board for a year before taking up graduate studies at the University of Manitoba where he is now studying for his Ph.D. He is a student member of tlhe IEEE. I. Fernando received her bachelors degree from the University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, in 1990 with first class

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Discussion

WALTER A. ELMORF,, ABB Power T&D Company Inc., Coral Springs, Florida. Mi-. McLaren and others have previously described the use of AV and AI as a directional determinant, and it has been acknowledged that a simple comparison of the signs of the two can be used as a criterion. Since the ratio of the two is comparatively meaningless in light of the changing value of the equivalent source impedance where parallel lines exist, what value is foreseen in the use of this ratio? The directional unit is described as a positive sequence element. How are the positive sequence voltages and currents extracted, and is there an advantage compared to using and storing individual phase direction derived from AV and AI.
Manuscript received August 10, 1994.

With regard to Mr. Elmores first point, it is an oversimplification to say that a simple comparison of the sign of the A quantities is sufficient for a directional discriminant. In Figure 11 of the paper the AZ1 trajectory passes through the 3rd and 4th quadrants on its way to the 1st quadrant (a reverse fault). If only the sign was used in the decision process then it would have appeared as a forward fault while in the 3rd and the 4th quadrants. By confining the operating zone to an area around the expected range of source impedance values the decision process is more secure during the transition from the prefault to the fault values.

McCalmont

Springdale

McLaren, Swift, Zhang, Dirks, Jayasinghe, Fernando. Let us answer the second of Mr. Elmores question first. Reference [4] of the paper describes the measurement process in greater detail but in brief, the relay in question uses a Fourier analysis on the sampled values representing the last cycle of each of the three phase voltages and currents and abstracts the fundamental phasor value. The three phase values are then used to compute the sequence component values using the standard Fortescue (symmetrical components) transformation. The computation of the three phase phasors and their symmetrical components is performed more or less every sampling instant (32 times every cycle). The calculation is essentially instantaneous but the data set on which the calculation is performed applies to the last cycle of data. This produces the time delay associated with the Fourier filter process. The AV and AI process could be applied to the individual phase quantities if the sequence components were not available. In our case the sequence components are available since they were used for purposes other than the directional element. [4] We have not examined the two techniques side by side to see if there are advantages one way or the other.

Mr. Elmore is correct to point out that when there is a parallel line present then a fault on that parallel line may confuse the directional element. figure A1 shows a parallel line configuration which we have studied in relation to this possible confusion. The off-line model of the relay has been used in this investigation. As one might expect, a three phase fault at the remote end of the parallel line appears in zone 2 of the relays on both the faulted line and unfaulted line. The directional element on the unfaulted line also moves into the trip area as shown in figure A2 but when the remote breaker on the faulted line operates in say 3 cycles after the fault inception the directional element on the unfaulted line moves out of the trip region as shown on the left of figure A2.

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During the process of this investigation we changed the logic of the directional element to lock in the stored value of the prefault phasors when the starter element went high and to

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hold these values until the starter element went low again. As long as the remote breaker operates before the zone 2 timer times out the relay on the unfaulted line will not trip. If we look at the case when the fault occurs at a point 20% along the parallel line then the directional element on the unfaulted line is well outside the trip area as shown in figure A3 (a). Furthermore the measured phase impedances of the unfaulted line are well outside the trip area as shown in figure A3 (b). We found that for this particular system only faults in the 80 to 100% range down the parallel line came into the forward directional element zone but that the measured phase impedance on the unfaulted line only came into the zone 2 region for the 95 to 100% range. This latter range is therefore the region in which the correct discrimination on the unfaulted line will depend on the operation of the remote breaker on the faulted line. The ranges quoted for this investigation are dependent on the source impedances used in the investigation. The investigation would have to be extended to cover the likely spectrum of source impedance combinations to be met in practice if this type of directional element was to be used in a parallel line configuration. We are grateful to Mr. Elmore for making important observations about the proposed technique and its application.

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Manuscript received November 2, 1994.