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1. Levels of Organization of Organisms (1)

Anatomy & Physiology

basic framework Achmad Rizal BioSPIN

A. atoms (elements of periodic table) B. molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid) C. cells (epithelial, bone, muscle, nervous) D. tissues (epithelial, connective, muscular) E. organ (stomach, heart, brain, lung) F. organ system (muscular, skeletal, digestive, nervous) G. whole organism (each different species)
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1.Levels of Organization of Organisms (2)

2. Anatomy - the study of the structures of an organism

A. Gross Anatomy - structures as seen by unaided eye B. Developmental Anatomy - study of the anatomy of the developing organism
1. Embryology - fertilization to third month of fetus

C. Histology ("tissues" "to study") - structures that can be seen with the microscope such as cells and tissues
1. Cytology - study of cell structure/function

D. Systemic Anatomy - study of individual organ system E. Regional Anatomy - study of structures in particular area F. Pathology ("disease" "to study") - study of changes in structure due to disease/injury
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3. Structure - Function Relationships

A. Anatomy - study of structure Physiology - study of function B. Structure determines Function Function determines Structure C. Charles Darwin - "Origin of the Species" (1858) - Changes in structure affect function: basis of evolution of all organisms
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4. Anatomical Terminology - The Language of Anatomy (1)

A.

Summary of Common prefixes and suffixes (other file) B. Anatomical Position 1. subject stands erect 2. upper limbs placed at sides with palms forward 3. feet flat on floor in natural forward direction C. Directional Terms (practice using them in the lab!) SUPERIOR and INFERIOR describe vertical positions of structures. ANTERIOR and POSTERIOR. Fore and aft positioning of structures are described with these two terms. CRANIAL and CAUDAL both may be used instead of anterior and posterior. DORSAL and VENTRAL also used in place of anterior and posterior. PROXIMAL and DISTAL describe the proximity of a structure to its point of attachment on the body. MEDIAL and LATERAL are used to describe surface relationships respect to the median line of the body.
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4. Anatomical Terminology - The Language of Anatomy (2a)

D. Planes and Sections 1. sagittal - divides into right and left parts a. midsagittal - right down the middle b. parasagittal - away from the midline 2. frontal (coronal) - divides anterior & posterior 3. horizontal (transverse) - divide superior & inferior
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4. Anatomical Terminology - The Language of Anatomy (2b)

sagital

frontal

horizontal

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4. Anatomical Terminology - The Language of Anatomy (3a)

E. Body Cavities
1. Dorsal Body Cavity cranial cavity (brain) ,vertebral cavity (spinal cord) 2. Ventral Body Cavity (viscera - organs found here) a. thoracic cavity i. pleural cavity (space separating the parietal pleura and visceral pleura of lungs - like balloon pushed in with fist) ii. mediastinum - all contents of thoracic cavity except the lungs (eg. heart) b. abdominopelvic cavity i. abdominal - stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine ii. pelvic - urinary bladder, cecum, appendix, sigmoid colon, rectum, reproductive organs
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4. Anatomical Terminology - The Language of Anatomy (3b)

Body Cavity

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4. Anatomical Terminology - The Language of Anatomy (4)

3.Other Body Cavities
a. oral cavity (mouth) b. nasal cavity (sinuses for air passage) c. orbital cavities (eyes) d. middle ear cavities (in temporal bone) e. synovial cavities (freely moveable joints)

5. SOCIETY OF CELLS (1)

Cell : simplest structural units into which a complex multi-cellular organism can be divided and still retain the functions characteristic of life Cell differentiation : process of transforming an unspecialized cell into a specialized cell Differentiated cells with similar properties aggregate to form tissue (nerve tissue, muscle tissue, and so on)

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5. SOCIETY OF CELLS (2)

Combination of some tissues type form organ (the heart, lungs, kidneys, and so on) Some organs are linked together to form organ systems. Cells are classified according broad types of function they perform, four categories emerge : (1)muscle cell (2)nerve cell (3)epithelial cell (4)connective-tissue cell
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5. SOCIETY OF CELLS (3)

Muscle cell : specialized to generate the mechanical force that produce force and movement Nerve cell : specialized to initiate and conduct electric signals, often over long distance Epithelial cell : specialized or selective secretion and absorption of ions and organic molecule Connective-tissue cell: connecting, anchoring, and supporting the structure of body

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5. SOCIETY OF CELLS (4)

Types of cell based on their shape : (1)muscle cell (skeletal), (2)smooth cell (3) cardiac cell Tissue : 1)muscle tissue (2)nerve tissue (3)epithelial tissue (4)connective-tissue Organs are composed of the four kinds of tissues arranged in various proportion & pattern Organ system : collection of organ that together perform overall function System

6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE BODY (1)

Major organ/tissue
Heart, blood vessel, blood (some classification also include lymphatic vessel and lymph in this system) Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lung

Primary function
Transport of blood, throughout the bodys tissue Exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen: regulation of hydrogen ion concentration
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Circulatory

Respiratory

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6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE BODY (2)

System Digestive Major organ/tissue
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder Kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra

6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE BODY (3)

System Major organ/tissue Primary function Musculoskelet Cartilage, bone, ligament, tendons, al joint, skeletal muscle Immune
Support, protection, and movement of the body; production of blood cell White blood cell, Defense against lymph vessel and node, foreign invaders, spleen, thymus, and return of extra other lymphoid tissue cellular fluid to blood, formation of blood cell
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Primary function
Digestion, and absorption of organic nutrients, salts, and water Regulation of plasma through controlled excretion of salt, water, and organic waste
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Urinary

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6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE BODY (4)

System Nervous Major organ/tissue Primary function
Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and ganglia, special sense organ Regulation and coordination of many activities in the body, detection of change in the internal & external environment, state of consciousness, learning, cognition Protection again injury & dehydration, defense again foreign invaders, regulation of temperature
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6. ORGAN SYSTEM OF THE BODY (5)

System
Reproductiv e

Major organ/tissue
Male : testes, penis and associated duct and gland Female : ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands

Primary function
Male : production of sperm. Transfer of sperm to female Female : production of eggs, provision of nutritive environment for the developing embryo & fetus, nutrition of the infant Regulation & coordination many activities in the body

Endocrine

Integumentary

Skin

All gland secreting hormones, pancreas, testes, ovaries, hypothalamus, kidney, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal intestinal, thymus, heart, pineal

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7. THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT & HOMEOSTATIS

Internal environment : environment surrounding the cell extracellular fluid Homeostatis : concept that the composition of the internal environment is maintained relatively constant Homeostatic control system : collection of body component that functions to maintain a physical or chemical property of internal environment relatively constant
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8. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

Nervous and Endocrine system
Nervous system
Electrical signals - impulses

Endocrine system
Hormones transported in blood to target cells

Receptor
Monitors the environment Detects changes
Stimuli changes in the environment
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9. Negative Feedback Mechanisms

Opposes (limits the intensity) or eliminates the original stimulus Negative means that the variable changes in a direction opposite to the initial change Negative feedback maintains body functions within a range Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body involved negative feedback Mechanisms ignore minor variations but ARL-EL4703- Instrumentasi Biomedis 23 maintain homeostasis within a range

10. Positive Feedback Mechanisms

The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus Positive means that the change occurs in the direction of the original stimulus Rarely used to promote homeostasis Examples
Childbirth pressure receptors; effector muscles of uterus; contraction to push baby through birth canal Blood clotting increase in number of ARL-EL4703- Instrumentasi Biomedis platelets sticking to the broken blood vessel

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11. Homeostatic Imbalance

Homeostatic imbalance
Sick Disease Exp : hypothermia, fever

12. BODY-FLUID COMPARTEMENT (1)

Body fluid are enclosed in compartment The extracellular fluid is composed of blood plasma (higher protein, 20%) and interstitial fluid (fluid between cell 80%) The composition of compartments reflect the activities of barriers separating intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid
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12. BODY-FLUID COMPARTEMENT (2)

Control Center
Integration center Determines the set point within the range Analyzes the information Determines the response

12. BODY-FLUID COMPARTEMENT (3)

Fluid compartement of body, volume are for normal 70 kg man

Effector
Provides the response
Muscles contract or relax Glands secrete or stop secreting
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13. Medical Imaging Techniques (1)

A. Classic X-ray : radiography (radiograph) - good for dense structures (bones and tumors) B. Computed Tomography (CT) or Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scanning - employs X-ray technology to create clearer image - tumors, aneurysms, kidney stones, gallstones, etc. C. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR) - employs X-ray technology to see organ action/motion - measures physiology of heart, lungs, vessels; can indicate abnormality/deformity in structure; tissue damage
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13. Medical Imaging Techniques (2)

D. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) - uses magnetic properties of molecules, not X-rays - presence of cancer cells, chemical disease of brain, spinal cord disorders, blood flow problems, injury after stroke, measure effects of drugs on tissues - used chiefly on soft tissues such as brain & heart E. Ultrasound (US) - uses high frequency sound waves - gall stones, pelvic organs, blood flow, fetal development

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13. Medical Imaging Techniques (3)

F. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) - uses radioisotopes such as Carbon-11, Nitrogen-13 - effects of drugs, site of molecules, cancer cells - very good at studying glucose absorption by neurons in the brain during certain tasks G. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) - takes X-ray picture before and after administration of contrast substance to the vessels - used to study vessels of the brain and heart to help prevent strokes and heart attacks
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