DESIGN OF STEEL FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE SLABS ON

GROUND AND SHOTCRETE LININGS

Frank Papworth, Royce Ratcliffe, Peter Norton.

SUMMARY
This paper describes design procedures for slabs on grade and shotcrete ground support
constructed with steel fibre reinforced concrete. The area beneath the load/deflection
graph is a measure of the energy required to achieve a certain deflection and leads to the concept of
"toughness" for a fibre reinforced concrete. This toughness can be then used to determine an equivalent
flexural strength "f
e
" for use in determining the load carrying capacity of the steel fibre reinforced concrete
(SFRC). However, as f
e
is specific to the fibre type and dosage the performance of various fibres are
outlined, showing how for the same performance the dosage may vary by 3-4 times for different fibre types.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The principle effect of steel fibres in concrete is to
enhance the concrete's post crack strength.
Increases in concrete characteristic strength
values such as compressive strength and flexural
tensile strength are typically quite small at
economic fibre dosage rates (1% by volume) and
not of significance for design purposes. A much
more economic way to achieve high characteristic
strength values is by improving the concrete mix
design e.g. by employing silica fume and/or lower
water/cement ratios. To benefit from the use of
fibres, it is necessary to adopt a design procedure
to take account of the strength after cracking i.e.
away from the area of elastic behaviour on the
load/deflection graph (Figure 1) and into the plastic
or hinge forming area of the graph which permits a
redistribution of stresses.
The area beneath this load/deflection graph is a
measure of the energy required to achieve a
certain deflection and leads to the concept of
"toughness" for a fibre reinforced concrete. This
toughness can be then used to determine an
equivalent flexural strength "f
e
" for use in
determining the load carrying capacity of the steel
fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC). However, f
e
is
very specific and varies dependent on the fibre
type, dosage and deflection limit. Using f
e
criteria,
steel fibre reinforced concrete flexural elements
become an extremely attractive proposition with
reductions of concrete thickness of up to 25% with
a fibre dosage rate of 20kg/m
3
not being
uncommon. With higher performance fibres
dosages of 15kg/m
3
are possible. In Europe, 50%
of concrete tunnel linings are made from steel fibre
silica fume concrete. Plain concrete slabs
constructed using steel fibres are increasing in
number and unjointed bay size.

The growth in demand for steel fibre has led to a
large range of fibres being developed. It is
important, however, to remember not all fibres are
created equal with the fibre dosages required to
achieve a given performance varying considerably.
Fibre geometry, strength, deformations and their
ability to be evenly distributed through the concrete
all have a bearing on the load carrying capacity of
SFRC.
2.0 FIBRE CHARACTERISTICS
There are four properties of fibres that are
important:
i) fibre geometry
ii) fibre deformations to improve bond
iii) physical properties of the steel
iv) fibre packaging to simplify mixing


2.1 Fibre Geometry
Fibres geometry is described by the "Aspect Ratio
L =l/d
where:- l =fibre length
d =fibre diameter
High aspect ratio fibres bond into the concrete (i.e.
they don't pull out at a fraction of their ultimate


Figure 1 - Load Deflection Curve
2
strength) and are generally highly efficient in
structural terms. Unfortunately, they tend to ball when
mixed into concrete, unless special precautions are
taken.
Fibres can be glued together in strips of about 30-50
fibres with water-soluble glue (these collated fibres
look like staples). High aspect ratio fibres when
collated in this way can be added to the mix as 'extra
aggregate' and no balling occurs.
2.2 Fibre Deformation
In order for the SFRC to continue to carry load and
deform plastically after cracking has occurred, it is
essential the fibres is sufficiently anchored in the
concrete matrix to enable the full tensile strength of
the fibre to be harnessed.
Physical testing of steel fibres for pullout values has
shown that "hooked end fibres pull through as the
ultimate fibre capacity is reached. This means the full
capacity of the fibre is achieved over high
deformations giving high-energy absorption and the
characteristic ductility required to preventing brittle
failure.
Research in 1997/99 in J apan has shown that to
maintain the optimum anchorage capacity/fibre
tensile capacity ratio additional deformation to the
hooked end are necessary as the concrete strengths
decreases. These "double anchorages" need to be
gentle deformations in the fibre without changing the
fibre cross-section to ensure non-brittle failure.
In very high strength concrete the hooked end
becomes too effective and more brittle failure can
occur. The reduction in ductility is not generally
significant below 80MPa but above that strength
higher tensile wire (>1800MPa) may be used.
2.3 Physical Properties of the Steel
To maintain the ductility of SFRC and ensure the
reliability of the plastic deformation, it is imperative
the well-anchored fibres do not break. Breaking
fibres equates to a brittle failure mode. To prevent
breakage, steel fibres should be manufactured with
sufficient tensile strength to ensure the ultimate
failure mode is pullout rather than breakage. Fibres
manufactured from hard drawn steel wire make
available tensile strengths in excess of 1200MPa.

3.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF SFRC
3.1 Bond Strength
Bond strength is a key factor in all physical properties
of SFRC. If the steel fibre slips uncontrollably (as in
straight fibres), then post crack strength can be
dramatically impaired.
Antoine (1991) investigated the performance of
smooth, deformed and hooked fibres in low, medium
and high strength concrete. Their research identified:
The slip at maximum load for hooked or
deformed fibres is one or two orders of
magnitude less than that of a smooth fibre.
Consequently the pullout force up to peak load
can be up to one hundred times that of smooth
fibres.
The improved mechanical bond will not
influence first crack strength where the fibre
dosage is less than the critical fibre volume.

3.2 Toughness
The main reason for incorporating steel fibres in
concrete is to impart ductility to an otherwise brittle
material. They enable concrete to continue to carry
load after cracking has occurred, the so-called post
crack behaviour, or toughness (Figure 2).
Several countries have introduced tests to quantify
this toughness which in all cases is based on the
area beneath the load deflection graph up to a
certain deflection value.
The two countries which have enjoyed the widest
acceptance for their tests are the USA and J apan
who have introduced standards for this work.
USA Standard C1018 and J apanese Standard J CI-
SF4 are both based on the third point loading of a
beam as shown in Figure 3.
A very important aspect of this test is that the rate of
flexure of the beam is controlled whilst the force is
measured.
In subsequent procedures, the two codes differ in
their approach.

Figure 2 - Stress Lines In Concrete Under Tension
3
Figure 3 - Flexural Strength Test Set Up


USA Standard ASTM C1018
Toughness Index (I):-
This standard defines a toughness Index I as the
ratio of the absorbed energy up to a given deflection
to the absorbed energy up to first crack. The
idealized situation of a perfectly elasto-plastic
material is shown in Fig 4.
The standard toughness indices defined in ASTM
C1018 are I
5
, I
10
and I
30
defined for deflections of 3o,
5.5o and 15.5o where o is the deflection at first crack.
In practice the value of P
e
differs very little to that of
unreinforced concrete except at high fibre dosages.
For the perfectly elasto-plastic material (Figure 4),
I
5
=5, I
10
=10 and I
30
=30. The ratio of these values to
those for an actual SFRC (Figure 5) gives a
comparative value of toughness. This enables an
evaluation of the ability of a particular fibre (not just
steel fibres) to impart toughness to the concrete
matrix.
The accuracy of measurement of I is dependent on
the ability to measure o accurately, which typically for
I
5
(3o) is around 0.05 - 0.1 mm. Apart from possible
measuring errors, the deflection at first crack can
rapidly increase past 3o making the graph in this area
dubious, and I
5
values are seldom used. I values for
SFRC are generally lower than the I value for the
perfect elasto-plastic material.
Toughness Ratio (R):-
The values of Toughness Index defined in the
standard give a qualitative comparison only for the
toughness of a SFRC versus a perfect elasto-plastic
composite. However, the results cannot be applied
as a design value and to overcome this the concept
of toughness ratio is introduced:-
where R
a,b
=100 x (I
b
-I
a
)
SFRC
/(I
b
-I
a
)
EP

(I
b
and I
b
are different toughness indices for either the
SFRC or perfect elasto-plastic composite).

Using the code designated I
30

and I
10
values:-
R
10,30
=100(I
30
-I
10
)
SFRC
/(I
30
-I
10
)
EP

but (I
30
- I
10
)
EP
=30-10 =20
so that R
10,30
=5(I
30
-I
10
)
In practice the lowest value (I
a
) must be at least I
10
to
reflect the differences in quantities and types of steel
fibres (Banthia 1992, Copalaratnam 1991) and the
upper value (I
b
) can be chosen to reflect the
demands to be placed on the construction.

It can be seen from Figure 6 that from the value R
10,30

we are able to define a mean conventional bending
stress in the region 5.5o to 15.5o where the mean
conventional stress based on I
10
and I
30

values is:-
f
10,30

=f
o
x R
10,30
/100
where f
o
is the bending stress at first crack.
Plain concrete would fall apart after reaching first
crack and by definition have a toughness index I =
1.0.
J apanese Standard J SCE-SF4
This code endeavors to provide numerical values for
the purpose of design by defining allowable stress
values at given deflections based on the load
deflection graph of a standard beam test for a
particular SFRC sample as shown in Fig 7.
From the actual ultimate load value (P
u
) and using
the physical characteristics of the standard beam
test, it is possible to define the ultimate flexural
strength and this is given the name "Modulus of
Rupture -f
u
".
Figure 5 Actual Load Deflection Curve Of SFRC

Figure 4 Load Deflection Curve For Fully Elasto
Plastic Material
ure 4 Load Deflection Curve For Fully Elasto
Plastic Material

Figure 6 Determination Of The Mean Bending
Strength
4
where f
u
=P
u
/b.h
2
l, b and h are defined in figure 3
In a similar way it is possible to give a measure of the
toughness by defining an equivalent flexural strength
(f
e
) which is in effect an average load value over a
defined area of the load deflection graph.
f
e,o
=T
o
/obh
2

fe,o =equivalent flexural strength up to a
deflection o
To =area under the load deflection curve up
to a deflection o
The equivalent flexural strength is a value that can be
used directly for design. The value f
e,3
, which
corresponds to a final deflection of 3mm (l/150) is
often chosen as it reflects the strength at an
acceptable deflection.
In relation to the ASTM standard the concept of
equivalent flexural ratio (R
e
) can also be introduced,
where R
e,o
=R
e
at a deflection o and is determined
from:-
R
e,o
= 100 f
e
,o
/ f
ct,fl

where f
ct,fl
=characteristic flexural tensile strength of
the reference concrete without steel fibres
In practice, f
ct,fl
varies only slightly from f
o
, the first
crack strength of SFRC.
The R
e,3
ratio is considered suitable for the design of
loading situations where relatively great deformations
may occur (e.g. settlement) as this value is
determined at a total deflection of 3mm, much
greater than the deflection used to determine R
10,30
in
the ASTM Standard (i.e. for I
30
, deflection =15.5o <
1.5mm). R
e,3
is also suitable where high energy
absorbing capacity (e.g. impact loads, repetitive
loads etc) is of primary importance. In the same way
R
10,30
is considered more applicable for applications
where crack width control is critical (e.g. Precast
Elements, Retaining Walls).
Within statistical variations, the ratio's R
10,30
and R
e,3

are independent of the concrete strength where the
characteristic compressive strength does not exceed
50MPa.

3.2 Determining Equivalent Flexural Strength
Based on a combination of theory and experimental
research, the toughness characteristics of Collated,
Hooked end, Double anchorage (CHD) type
Scanfibres have been determined for grades of
concrete between 25 and 50MPa in accordance with
ASTM C1018 and J SCE-SF4.
ASTM Toughness Ratio
R
10,30
= 180 WL ........(1)
(180xC)+(WxL)
where W = fibre dosage (Kg/m
3
)
L = fibre aspect ratio
C = Scancfibre constant
= 16 for Scancem fibres made
from bright wire
JSCE Equivalent Flexural Ratio
R
e,3
= 180WLD
1/4
.... ......(2)
(180C)+(WLD
1/4
)


where D =fibre diameter (mm)
The simplest way of using these formulas in the
design process is to use the software provided by
Norton.
3.4 Flexural Strength
The flexural tensile strength of a SFRC is a constant
value until we reach the critical fibre dosage. Once
the critical fibre dosage has been reached, flexural
strength increases marginally with increasing aspect
ratio and fibre dosage. However, high flexural
strengths can be more economically achieved by
increasing the matrix strength than by the addition of
steel fibres.
Flexural strength is not a suitable performance
specification for steel fibres. Flexural strength (i.e.
tensile stress at first crack) design criteria work for
unreinforced concrete because once the section has

Figure 7 Definition of Equivalent Flexural Strength
Toughness Of Norfibre CHD80/60NB
Dosage (kg/m
3
) 15 20 25 30 35 40
R
10,30
53 64 74 82 89 95
f
10-30
(MPa) 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.5
R
e,3
50 61 71 79 85 92
f
e,3
(MPa) 2.4 2.9 3.3 3.7 4.0 4.3
Toughness of Norfibre CHD60/33NB
Dosage (kg/m
3
) 20 30 40 50 60 70
R
10,30
53 69 82 92 100 107
f
10,30
(MPa) 2.5 3.3 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1
R
e,3
48 63 75 85 93 100
f
e,3
(MPa) 2.3 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.7
5
cracked, its load carrying capacity is destroyed and
the brittle failure is almost instantaneous.
With SFRC the failure mode is no longer brittle once
first crack is reached, instead, due to the toughness
imparted by the fibres, the concrete behaves in a
ductile way, making the use of a limit state design
approach appropriate. In this way the values for
characteristic flexural strength determined at the end
of 3.2 can be used to give permissible (design)
ultimate moments e.g. f
e,3
can be converted to an
ultimate design moment.
M
ult
=f
e3
.Z/
m

where
m
=material safety factor (1.2)
Z =section modulus
The true power of this approach is realised with
statically indeterminate structures where it is possible
to design using yield line analysis. With SFRC , the
bending moment remains almost constant with
increasing deformation i.e. a plastic hinge is formed,
allowing for the redistribution of bending moments
and the formation of a classic yield line pattern at
failure. Some of the concrete applications that
benefit from this behaviour are slabs on grade,
shotcrete linings to tunnels, and concrete pipes. This
advantage when properly considered can result in
significant savings in section thickness even at a
relatively low fibre dosage.
An example of the determination of an equivalent
flexural strength for design purposes is:
Step 1
Nominate a characteristic compressive strength (f '
c
)
for design purposes
e.g. f
'
c
=32MPa (AS3600).
Step 2
Calculate the characteristic flexural tensile strength
of the plain concrete mix.
e.g. f
'
ct,fl
=0.4
x
(1.25f
cm
)
0.67
=4.7MPa
If the design were done to AS3600, the characteristic
flexural tensile strength would have been only:-
0.6vf '
c
=3.4 MPa (this value could be used but
would give a very conservative design)
Step 3
From formulae 1 or 2 determine the ratio of
equivalent flexural strength to the characteristic
flexural tensile strength
(Note: Toughness ratios for Scanfibres are given in
the fibre specification sheets)
eg. For Norfibre CHD80/60NB at 20kg/m
3

ASTM value
R
10,30
=

180 x 20 x 80 =64
(180x16)+(20x80)
JSCE value
R
e,3
= 180 x 20 x 80 x 0.75
1/2
=61
(180x16)+(20x80x0.75
1/2
)
Step 4
From the toughness ratios (Step 3) and the
Characteristic Flexural Tensile Strength (Step 2)
calculate the equivalent flexural strength.
ASTM value
f
10,30
= 4.7 x 60 = 3.0N/mm
2

100
JSCE value
f
e,3
= 4.7 x 56 = 2.9N/mm
2

100
4.0 SLABS ON GRADE
The demands for an industrial floor have increased
enormously over the last few years. The main
objectives for an industrial floor were to transfer the
loads to the sub-base and to provide a hard and even
surface to work on. In modern days standards for
flatness have ever been increasing in order to enable
the final user of the warehouse to increase the height
of the racks, thereby improving the output of his
warehouse without investing in a larger area for
buildings. Also the loading and the intensity of the
loading have increased considerately during the last
years.
As the demands change it is essential that all
aspects of the floor are re-analyzed.
For flatness new placing techniques, such as laser
screed machines, have been developed. For
abrasion resistance mix designs have changed to
reduce bleed and accommodate the use of silica
fume.
For the higher loads requirements unreinforced floors
have to be made unacceptably thick.
A requirement of unreinforced floors is that no
tension failure in the concrete occur due to the
loading. Figure 8 shows the moment distribution due
to a wheel load of a slab on ground assumed to
function elastically. The figure shows the prominent
positive maximum moment which occurs under the
wheel. In comparison with the small and leveled
negative moment which occurs radially around the
loading point.
An unreinforced slab with low flexural strength, which
has to take stress resulting from high positive
moments, must be designed in the form of a thick
slab. The thicker, and therefore the more rigid the
slab is made, the higher the maximum moment will
Fig 8 - Moment Distribution In A RC Slab On An
Elastic Subgrade Due To A Concentrated Load

6
be relative to the load. Using an unreinforced slab to
meet the demands of a modem industrial warehouse
is an uneconomic solution. Furthermore it is a waste
of natural resources (Coarse aggregates, sand,
cement ... ) as the same loads can be taken with less
concrete but with the right type of reinforcement.
Curves A shows, the moment distribution according
to the elasticity theory when load distribution is small.
Curve B shows the moment distribution after the slab
has passed into the plastic stage under the loading
centre and a hinge is formed in bottom surface. Load
distribution leads to a substantial increase in the
capacity by carrying the load over a larger area, even
if the moment capacity of the section is reduced..
Floors with yield capacity should therefore be
designed using design methods that take account of
this ductile behaviour which leads to load
redistribution. Losberg found that the elastic
properties of floors with yield capacity are different to
unreinforced floors. Extensive testing during the last
fifteen years have shown that steel fibre
reinforcement is a material with yielding capacity.
In the Meyerhof design method, as recommended in
TR34, the ultimate bearing capacity is estimated on
the assumption of a rigid plastic slab resting on an
elastic subgrade. For load cases where Meyerhof did
not give formulae, analysis is undertaken with the
similar yield line theory of Losberg. TR34 falls short
in some respects. For example it does not consider
shrinkage or thermal stresses and could lead to
underestimates of requirements in some cases.
These methods have been incorporated into a design
program called "Scanfibre Floors", the operation of
which is outlined below.
4.1 Subbase and Subgrade
The design method considers the soil to be
completely elastic in accordance with one of two
different hypotheses:
Resilient Subgrade:- The subgrade is considered to
be a flexible bed where the pressure at a certain
point (p
s
) is proportional to the degree of depression
(w) at the same point while the adjacent unloaded
area is not at all affected. Hence, the soil is
characterized by a constant of subgrade reaction, a
"resilience constant" (k)
k=p
s
w
-1
-[1]
The recommended method for determining this
constant is to carry out plate loading tests.
The values used in the formulae has to be
established by plate loading tests with a plate loading
diameter of 750 mm (30 in.). If other plate loading
diameters are used, the k-value has to be divided by
a conversion factor. For a plate loading diameter of
300 mm, k must be divided by 2,3 and for a plate
loading diameter of 160 mm, k must be divided by
3,8.
Elastic Subgrade:- The subgrade is considered to
be an elastic, isotropic and homogeneous body of
semi-infinite extent. It is characterized by a modulus
of elasticity (E
s
), and a Poisson ratio for ground
(v
s
=0.5), which are included in a constant, the
modified modulus of elasticity (C)
C=E
s
(1-v
s
2
)
-1
-[2]
The design program offers the possibility to calculate
with four different layers of subgrade and one sub-
base using the following formula:-
E
g
=n(n-1){(_h
i
)(_(h
i
E
n
)
-1
)+(n-1)E
n
-1
} -[3]
If there are only 2 layers (1 sub-base and 1
subgrade) the following formula is to used (except in
the rare case where E
2
> E
l
, then the previous
formula is used)
E
g
=E
2 e
{0.34hI
3
v[(E
1
-E
2
)(EI)
-1
]} -[4]
where I = Moment of inertia of the floor
E = Modulus of elasticity of the concrete
The elastic radius of elasticity is an expression for the
elastic properties of the slab and the soil. In both
subgrade cases all expressions and results are in a
dimensionless form by expressing all distances, load
distribution radii etc. in relation to the radius of
elasticity.
For resilient subgrade:- L
k
=
4
v(Dk
-1
) -[5]
For elastic subgrade:- L
e
=
3
v(2DC
-1
) -[6]
where D=EI(1-v
c
)
-1
-[7]
The E-moduli for the concrete is taken as:
Compressive Strength E-modulus
(N/mm
2
) (N/mm
2
)
20 27000
25 28500
30 30000
35 31000
4.2 Loads
4.2.1Theory for single circular loads
For flexure Meyerhof gives the following equation for
the collapse load:-
i) at a certain distance from the edge and corner of
the slab:
P
o
=6M
o
{1+(2a
r
L
-1
)} -[8]
contact radius of load a
r
=v(PH
-1
I
-1
) -[9]
M
o
={1+(R
e3
/100)}{f
ct
bh
2
/6} -[10]
characteristic flexural strength f
ct
=0.393
3
vf
cu
2

f
cu
=Characteristic compression strength on cubes at
28 days (increase by 10% after 90 days).
ii) at a free edge of the slab :
P
o
=3.5M
o
{1+(3a
r
L
-1
)} -[11]
iii) at a free comer of the slab
P
o
=2M
o
{1+(4a
r
L
-1
)} -[12]
7
Rectangular central loads with dimensions L & W are
transformed to circular loads with the radius
a
r
=v(LWH
-1
). All formulae above are then applicable.
In each case the ductility requirement is established
by calculating the Re
3
value. A suitable fibre dosage
is then selected to achieve the fibre dosage at the
given slab thickness.
4.2.2 Theory Of Multiple Loads
Methods of handling other load cases (e.g. two, three
and four loads in line and four loads in a rectangle at
the centre, edge, and corners of a slab; UDLs and
line loads) are full described in the manual.
4.3 Standard Load Cases
In some cases, the facilities are constructed without
knowing the precise loads. This is recognized in
TR34. Using loads at the upper end of an
applications use, can give standard design. However,
these will be uneconomic.
4.4 Load Transfer
Load transfer at joints is taken to be:
Dowel J oints - 40%
Contraction Points - 20%
Crossing of 2 Cont. J oints - 60%
Free J oints - 0%
4.5 Shrinkage and Thermal Stress
TR34 provides for the calculation of stresses due to
loads but does not mention the effects of shrinkage
or thermal effects. Many fibre suppliers ignore these
effects and underestimate total stress. This is
particularly significant for wide joints spacings.
Shrinkage at the centre of the slab is defined by:-
o=+.E
c.
r
sh
/(1+)
q is a factor of restraint between 0 and 1 and is a
function of the thickness and the joint spacings i.e.
q
L/h
10 20 30 50 >100
<0.5
1
2
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.15
0.3
0.6
0.25
0.5
1
0.5
1
1
1
1
1
is the friction coefficient between the slab and the
subbase and varies from 0.5 to 3.2
L: J oint Spacing
h: Thickness of Slab
: Factor of relaxation,5 for young concrete
r
sh
: Shrinkage of Concrete (according to the W/C
ratio, type of concrete, curing, etc, this varies
between 0.1% and 0.8%).

r
sh

Indoors
50% <RH <60%
40% <RH 50%
30% <RH 40%
0.4
0.5
0.6
20% <RH 30%
RH <20%
0.7
0.8
Outdoors
60% <RH <70%
70% <RH <80%
RH >80%
0.3
0.2
0.1
At the edge of the slab, shrinkage is considered to be
half that of the centre of the slab and at the corner it
is zero.
The temperature gradient at the centre and edge
loads gives rise to flexural tensile stress due to
logging as follows:
Centre of Slab =o
Temp
=E.o.A/(1+)
o =10
-5

=2 (old concrete)
Corner Load of Slab = o
Temp
=E.o.A/1.5

4.6 Design Values for Flexural Toughness

The design values are obtained by beam tests
accordingly to the test procedure of TR34 up to a
deflection of 3mm on a 450mm span of the beam.
This test method is based on the J apanese Standard.

4.7 Safety Factors

The following safety factors are recommended:-
a) No account taken of shrinkage & friction.
Joint distances < 12m
Load Factor =1.5
Dynamic Factor =1.4

Joint Distances >12m
Load Factor =2.0
Dynamic Factor =1.4

b) Shrinkage and friction allowed for:
Independent of the joint spacing
Load factor =1.2
Dynamic factor =1.4

4.8 Detailing and Placing Floor Slabs
Preparation: The slab must not be cast against
existing walls, columns, etc. without the provision of
an isolation joint, i.e. a separating polystyrene (or
equivalent) strip, typically 10mm wide, to
accommodate shrinkage/expansion movements.
Joints & Edges: The only joints required in a
properly designed SFRC floor apart from isolation
joints (mentioned earlier) and construction joints are
crack control joints.
Crack control joints are employed to minimize
random cracking from shrinkage and temperature
deformation and are made by cutting the hardened
concrete. The cuts are normally 3mm wide with a
depth of 1/3rd the concrete thickness. Sawing of
8
these joints should occur as soon as the concrete is
hard enough to cut without being damaged, thus
avoiding the onset of random cracking; typically the
day after pouring, a day later in cold weather.
The pattern and spacing of the saw cuts should take
into account the positions of columns, recesses and
changes in the floors overall width.
Slabs should not be partially supported by column or
wall foundations. If this does occur, a saw cut joint
must be formed.
Construction joints require special attention, as they
are the most vulnerable joints and they can be
tackled in one of two ways:-
- Form a dowelled joint using dowels of a cross
section and spacing suitable to equal the shear
capacity of the concrete section. A dowelled joint
design is suitable for a slab thickness of 150 or
greater where the dowels are bonded on one side
only and the joint corners are protected by an
embedded and anchored L-steel profile.
- Position a stop end midway between two saw cut
joints and embed a 1 metre wide layer of mesh at
mid depth so that half its width protrudes from the
pour. For 120 to 150 thick slabs use F92 mesh
and for 160 to 200 thick slabs use 2 layers of F92
mesh. Prior to pouring the new abutting slab,
ensure adhesion to the previous pour using a wet
to dry epoxy or other suitable bonding agent .

5.0 SHOTCRETE
Shotcrete is concrete that is pneumatically projected
at high velocity onto a surface. This is achieved
using specially designed equipment using one or
other of the two primary application techniques - wet
process or dry process.
5.1 Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete
The addition of steel fibres to shotcrete to give Steel
Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete (SFRS) is quite practical
for both wet and dry process but does normally
incorporate the use of shorter fibres eg. 33mm long x
0.57mm diameter such to accommodate the smaller
delivery line diameters.
Steel fibres are incorporated into shotcrete, to
improve crack resistance, ductility, energy absorption
and impact resistance. Properly designed SFRS can
reduce or even eliminate cracking, a common cause
for concern in plain shotcrete.
Morgan (1988) has suggested the following
descriptions for shotcrete reinforced with steel fibres
(SFRS). All three criteria must be satisfied to
achieve the designated rating.
Category Rating I10 I30 R30/10
I
II
III
Marginal
Fair
Good
<4
4
6
<12
12
18
<40
40
60
IV Excellent 8 24 80
These descriptors are based on the results of tests
from several large research and development
contracts as well as routine field quality control tests
on a number of large SFRS contracts undertaken in
Canada since 1985.
Based on these characteristics of SFRS the following
areas of application are relevant:
support of underground openings in tunnels,
mines, drainage adits and exploratory adits
rock slope stabilisation and support of excavated
foundations, often in conjunction with rock and soil
anchor systems
construction of vertical retaining walls in
conjunction with rock bolting to the basements of
multi-storey buildings
5.2 Mix Design
Fortunately no special changes need to be made to
conventional shotcrete mix designs in order to use
steel fibres.
The same characteristics inherent in shotcrete mix
design (low coarse aggregate content and high
cementitious materials) are also conducive to good
mixing, dispersion and application of SFRS and
indeed performance of the hardened SFRS.

5.3 Testing Method
The most suitable test method for shotcrete is the
plate deflection test using a French standard known
as EFNARC.
A sprayed concrete plant (900x900x100m) is
supported on its 4 edges and a centre point load as
applied through a contract area of 100 x 100mm.
Assessment of the test results are similar to the
beam test noted for floor slabs, i.e. the area under
the load deflection test is measured.

Figure 9 shows a compilation of results of the tests
including the resulting toughness values. The results
show steel fibres can be used to replace welded
mesh in reinforced concrete. Meshes up to F82
(8mm wires at 200mm centres each way) can be
replaced by steel fibres.

The type of steel fibre selected greatly influences the
post crack behaviour of the concrete.
Fig 9 - Comparison of SFRS Properties When tested
by EFNARC Plate tests

9
Steel Tensile Strength
Aspect Ratio and
Fibre Shape
are the major factors in determining the performance
of each fibre.
Increasing the aspect ratio and the tensile strength of
the steel can both result in large improvements in the
toughness performance of the concrete.

The Nor f i br e Collated, Hooked end, Double
anchorage gives the highest toughness values when
tested using the Sprayed Concrete Plate Test in
accordance with the EFNARC Standard.

5.4 Steel Fibre Versus Mesh Reinforced
Shotcrete
A comparison of SFRS versus mesh reinforced
shotcrete needs to be done not only on the basis of
load carrying capacity, but also on the practicalities of
placing and their respective efficiencies.
With respect to the load carrying capacities of the two
systems, J Hulmgren (1985) drew the following
conclusions:
It is possible to produce steel fibre reinforced
shotcrete linings which are at least equally strong
and ductile in bending as conventional reinforced
ones.
The shear performance of a SFRS lining is
superior to a conventionally reinforced one, even
after cracking.
These conclusions are valid for steel fibres with end
anchors and a high enough tensile strength to allow
the fibre to slip at failure and not break.
Morgan (1979) determined in load/deformation tests
on large panels, that SFRS can provide superior
residual load carrying capacity to wire mesh at small
deformations after first crack and equivalent
performance at large deformations. These results
were supported by the results of similar work carried
out by Little (1987) and by Clements, Australia
(1996).
SFRS has generally shown superior performance to
mesh reinforced shotcrete in such tests.
When it comes to installation, SFRS has significant
advantages over mesh:-
Fixing mesh to a tunnel wall is difficult, time
consuming, costly and sometimes hazardous and
must be completed prior to shotcreting, whereas
the reinforcement in SFRS is applied with the
shotcrete, improving job progress.
On an irregular surface, mesh is pinned mostly at
high spots, being pinned back into large
depressions but usually draped over small ones.
This can result in up to 40% more shotcrete
being required to fill blocky or fractured rock
surfaces for mesh reinforced shotcrete than
SFRS.
SFRS per m
3
is more expensive than mesh
reinforced shotcrete, but in place costs are up to
50% lower Garshal (1990).


5.5 Design of Tunnel Linings
A tunnel lining is not an independent structure and
should not be designed to support loads delivered to
it by the surrounding ground. The design of a tunnel
lining is therefore not a structural problem, it is a
ground and structural problem with the emphasis on
the ground.
The function of a lining is to act like a membrane to
redistribute loads back into the surrounding ground
so that the ground effectively becomes self-
supporting. In order to do this, the lining needs to be
flexible, thus enabling it to conform more easily to the
deformations which mobilize the load carrying
capacity of the ground.
A major part of the Norton Construction Products
design guide for ground support selection (civil
engineering and mining tunnels) is shown in fig 10.
The overall method draws on:
the NMT (Norwegian Method of Tunnelling)
the NGI (Norwegian Geotechnical Institute) Q-
System of rock mass classification and support
published comment from Dr D. R. Morgan of
Agra Earth & Environment Limited, Canada
analysis of rock mass conditions and
experiences with the use of SFRS from
numerous underground mines within Australia.
In the design of a lining using the NATM the
controlling parameter is ground quality, generally
measured by stand-up time. If the ground has a
limited stand-up time, steel fibre reinforced shotcrete
systems are applicable for construction support
without any loss of time for installing the
reinforcement. For competent rock, where stand-up
time is good but some ground deformations may be
expected, rock reinforcement systems (rock bolts)
are attractive with shotcrete primarily to provide a
skin that prevents surface degradation.
The NMT design approach is based on allocating the
ground a Q factor, which is then related to the
required ground support. The problem with this is that
there is no toughness (i.e. fibre performance)
requirement indicated.
Norton Construction Products overriding
recommendation is that there is a sufficient level of
toughness in the SFRS to ensure a ductile failure
mode rather than a brittle failure mode. If toughness
is less than 30%, the Dutch require SFRC be
considered as plain concrete. A dosage of 20kg/m
3
of
Norfibre CHD60/33NB (assuming 20% rebound) will
give a toughness of around 40%, giving a
comfortable margin.
10
Morgan's guidelines indicate the toughness
applicable to different rock classes given across the
top of the Q-System Design Chart. Interestingly,
Morgans proposed toughness levels sometimes fall
below the Dutch requirement. Also Morgans
guidelines are based on beam tests which have
several deficiencies, particularly in relation to
shotcrete applications.
Compared to beam tests sprayed panel tests have
demonstrated
much greater reliability,
simplicity of construction
two way spanning enabling moment redistribution
(i.e. similar to shotcrete linings)
The toughness performance recommendations in fig
10 are interpreted for EFNARC panels based on
Morgan's performance recommendations for beam
tests.
Modifications to this design approach are necessary
in:-
ground experiencing excessive movement
areas of anticipated seismicity
areas where strain burst may occur
In such areas an Energy Absorption capacity of 1000
J oule should be used, preferably 1400 J oule.
With the NATM the permanent support of the
opening is handled by this initial lining, with
convergence measurements made inside the tunnel
to determine when stability is reached or to identify
unstable areas that require attention. Once stability
is ensured the final lining can be constructed of either
shotcrete, cast-in-place concrete or precast concrete
liners. This secondary, or internal lining, is subjected
only to subsequent loads - ground water pressure,
long term ground creep and subsequent construction,
such as excavation of parallel or intersecting tunnels.

The function of shotcrete in tunnel constructions is to
create a semi-stiff immediate lining with a high initial
strength for good bond to the rock surface and a high
degree of ductility and toughness to absorb and block
rock movement. High performance steel fibre
reinforced shotcrete meets these requirements, with
post cracking ductility as measured by the
Toughness Index and the equivalent flexural strength
(section 3.2) being utilised in the lining design
procedure.


5.6 Comparative Design Between SFRS and Mesh
Reinforced Shotcrete

11
The presence of steel fibres in a concrete or
shotcrete member will produce tensile stresses
across a cracked section in the tensile zone. The
distribution of these stresses across the section
depends on the type of fibre, percentage of fibre and
magnitude of strain (Fig. 9).
Fig 9:- SFRS Stress and Strain Diagrams
Fig (a) may be appropriate for a fibre content equal to
the critical fibre volume (i.e. the volume of fibre
which, after cracking will carry the load sustained
before cracking). Fig (b) and (c) show SFRS where
the volume of steel fibre is less than the critical
volume.
Design Assumptions - The high tensile Norton steel
fibres will allow SFRS, even when cracked, to resist
tensile stresses.
Based on this assumption and a simplified model of
the real stress block, developed by Bolcskey DDr E
(1990) and shown below in fig 10.
The Bending Moment
M =Z
fb
z
f
=0.90 (d-yo).b.o
fb
x 0.55d
=0.495 (d-yo) bdo
fb

o
fb
however represents the tensile stress in the fibres
which is not easy to check and is not a common test
either. In order to simplify the design, we can treat
the SFRS as a homogenous material and use the
stress block shown in fig 10.
thus o
max
= M/bd
2
b =width
d =thickness or depth

Fig 10:- Stress Distribution Assumptions
In order to justify this assumption of a homogenous
material, these two bending moments we have
derived must be equal
I.e.
M =1/6 bd
2
o
max
=0.495 (d-yo) d.b.o
fb

i.e. o
max
=2.97 (d-y
o
) o
fb
/d
for d-y
o
=0.9d o
max
=2.763o
fb
As o
fb
is the tensile stress in a cracked section o
max

also has to be representative of the ductile behaviour
of SFRS.
Being on the safe side, we can consider:
o
max
=equivalent flexural strength
i.e. o
max
=f
e
from section 3.2
Using this assumption as a basis it is now possible to
compare SFRS to mesh reinforced shotcrete based
on the equivalence of the bending moments.
N.B. Only bending moments have to be considered
where the whole structure is stabilised by rock bolts
as the shotcrete layer acts as a slab spanning
between the bolts.

5.7 Comparative Design for Steel Fibres Versus
Single and Double Mesh Reinforced Shotcrete
Table 6 shows a comparative design based on the
requirement to achieve the same bending moment
capacity as a doubly reinforced shotcrete layer and
the effect this has on the thickness of shotcrete
required.
Unreinforced shotcrete is also used in tunneling,
however, its lack of ductility rules it out of contention
as an equivalent to either conventionally reinforced
shotcrete or SFRS.
12
References
Little T., "An Evaluation of Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete" 36th
Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Vancouver BC J une 1983.
Maage.M., (1978), "Fibre, Bond and Friction in Cement and
Concrete". Testing and Test Methods of Fibre Cement Composites.
RILEM 1978. Lancaster. pp 329-336.
Magnet, PS., Gurusany K., (1988), "Corrosion Resistance of Steel
Fibres in Concrete Under Marine Exposure". Cement and Concrete
Research, Vol 8 pp 44-54.
Morgan.DR., Sherril.FA., (1988), "Recent Developments in Wet and
Dry Process Shotcrete". World of Concrete Seminar 8-21.
Morgan DR, Mowat DN., " A Comparative Evaluation of Plain, Mesh
and Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete". Hardy Associates
International Symposium on Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Detroit Sept
1982.
Morris AD, GG Garrett., "A Comparative Study of the Static and
Fatigue Behaviour of Plain and Steel Fibre Reinforced Mortar in
Compression and Direct Tension. The International J ournal of
Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete Vol 3 No 2 May 1981
pp 73-91.
Ramakrishen, Wu and Hosalli, (1989), "Effect of Rate of Loading and
Flexural Strength on Fatigue Performance of Concrete". TRRL
Laboratory Report CR547, Berkshire, UK..
ASTM C1018, "Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness and
First Crack Strength of Fibre Reinforced Concrete (Using Beam with
Third Point Loading)". Annual Book of ASTM Standards V04.02.
Antoine E., Najim H., (1991), "Bond Slip Mechanisms of Steel Fibres
in Concrete". ACI Materials J ournal. March-April 1993 Vol 88 No2.
Banthia.N., Trottier.J F., Beaupre.D., Wood.D., (1992), "Influence of
Fibre Geometry in Steel Fibre Reinforced Dry Mix Shotcrete".
Bolcskey DrE., TU Wien, "Dramix Stahlfaserboden in Industrieban"
1990.
Cheng-Tzu T.H., Rajun L.H., Ezeldin A.S., "Load Deformation
Behaviour of Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Beams", ACI Structural
J ournal Nov/Dec 1992.
Clements, M., (1996) Measuring the Performance Of Steel Fibre
Shotcrete. IX Australian Tunnelling Conference, Sydney.
Edgington.J ., Harrant.DJ ., Williams.RIT., (1974), "Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete". Building Research Establishment.
Garshol. K., (1990), "Development of Mechanised Wet Mix Shotcrete
Application in the Norwegian Tunnelling Industry".
Gopalaratnam VS. Shah SP et al., " Fracture Toughness of Fibre
Reinforced Concrete", A Report of the Concrete Materials Research
Council, - ACI Materials J ournal J uly - August 1991.
Holmgren J ., "Bolt Anchored Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete
Linings", for the Swedish Fortification Administration, 1985.
Holmgren BJ ., "Tunnel Linings of Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete"
5th International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Melbourne 1983.
Hsu.TTC., (1981), "Fatigue of Plain Concrete". ACI J ournal,
Proceedings V78 No4 J uly/August 1981, pp 292-305.
J ohnston.C.D., Zemp.RW., (1991), "Flexural Fatigue Performance of
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete - Influence of Fiber Content, Aspect
Ratio, and Type". ACI Materials J ournal V84 No4, J uly/August 1991,
pp 374-383.
J SCE "Recommendation for Design and Construction of Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete" Concrete Library of J SCE No 3 J une 1984.
Kompen.R., (1990), "Wet Process SFRC Shotcrete for Rock Support
and Fire Protection, Norwegian Practice and Experience". Innsbruck
University Spritzbeton Technology pp87-9


Doubly Reinforced Shotcrete

M
u
=0.9 d A
s
f
sy


where:-

M
u
=Ultimate Moment
t =shotcrete thickness
a =cover to mesh
d =t - a
A
s

=steel x-section
f
sy
=steel yield stress

for t =120mm
a =30mm
d =120 - 30 =90mm
A
s
=141mm
2
/m (F62)

M
u
=0.9x90x141x450

M
u
=5.14kNm/m

Singly Reinforced Shotcrete

M
u
=0.9 t/2 A
s

f
sy


for:-
M
u
=5.14kNm/m
A
s
=141mm
2
/m (F62)
f
sy
=450N/mm
2

t = 2M
u


0.9 A
s
f
sy

= 2 x 5.14
0.9 141 450

=180mm

t =180mm


Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete
Fibres:-
Norfibre CHD60/33NB
Dosage 50 kg/m
3



M
u
=f
e,3
x l x t
2


m
6

where:-
f
e,3
=effective flexural
tensile strength
f
c
=characteristic
compressive strength
f
ct,fl
=modulus of rupture
of plain concrete

m
=material safety factor

for:-
f
c
=32 MPa
f
ct,fl
=0.4
3
v32
2

=4N/mm
2

R
e,3
= 78 for CHD60/33NB
f
e,3
=4 x 78/100
=3.12N/mm
2

m

=1.0
t =((6 x 5.14 x 10
3
)/3.12))
0.5

t =100mm

Table 3