FAUJI FERTILIZER COMPANY LIMITED GOTH MACHHI

INTERNSHIP REPORT
Noman Dilber
(Electronics Engineering) NFC Institute of Engineering and Technological Training, MULTAN

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Acknowledgement
I would first like to thank Fauji Fertilizer Company for granting me the opportunity to pursue this internship in an environment that facilitated my learning at Instrument 1 department where I gained a lot of knowledge related to instrumentation and control systems. I would also like to thank Mr. Muhammad Ahmad who helped me grasp a lot and made it possible for me to see various instruments in the field areas for practical understanding. Further, I would also thank Mr. Asghar Bhutta, Mr. Kabil Khan, Mr. Ali-ur-Rehman, Mr. Haris, Mr. Qaisar, Mr. Zeeshan, Mr. Usman and Mr. Hammad for their endless efforts to make my internship a success. It was indeed magnificent experience to work for my six weeks internship at FFC.

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Preface
Internship is the first impression of the student to the industry and also it is the first impression of the industry to the student. Doing internship at FFC Plant-side was an extraordinary experience. It was my first interaction with the professional people with whom I could gain as much as I liked. The FFC personnel were always helping, answering whatever stupid question we asked. Many types of instruments were studied. Instrument and control of four basic process variables (Pressure, Temperature, Level and Flow), which are compulsory for an industry, is the essence of this internship. I gained a lot of knowledge related to DCS, PLC, the control loop, interlocking and the ESD system installed in FFC-GM. My internship report covers all the theory which I gained during my stay in FFC along with industrial exposure and office work experience.

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Table of Contents
1- ORIENTATION OF INSTRUMENT 1.............................................................................. 5 2- PRESSURE AND PRESSURE MEASUREMENT........................................................... 7 3- FLOW AND FLOW MEASUREMENT............................................................................ 12 4- LEVEL AND LEVEL MEASUREMENT ........................................................................ 17 5- TEMPERATURE AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT....................................... 21 6- PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM ......................................................... 25 7- WORK PERMITS ............................................................................................................... 26 8- FIELD INSTRUMENTS...................................................................................................... 27 9- PLC......................................................................................................................................... 31 10- DCS......................................................................................................................................... 34 11- VIBRATION AND SPEED SENSORS............................................................................... 36 12- CONTROL VALVES .......................................................................................................... 38 13- PRESSURE SAFETY VALVES......................................................................................... 39 14- UTILITIES............................................................................................................................ 40 15- CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................... 42

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Orientation of Instruments I
Instruments I is an electronics based work shop which looks after and manages all the instruments and control system of the plant for e.g. Level, Flow, Pressure and temperature meters. Installation and maintenance of DCS and PLCs also come under the domain of this department. Instruments I have three major workshops: Pneumatic Workshop. Electronics Workshop. PSV (Pressure Safety Valve) Workshop.

Plant Description:
Fauji Fertilizer Company Limited located in Goth Machhi, Sadiqabad, is the largest producer of Sona Urea Fertilizer in Pakistan. It consists of two plants, Plant-1 and Plant-2, from which Ammonia and Urea are the final products produced.

PLANT I
Commencement of commercial production for plant - I took place in JUNE 14, 1982 and the total cost of the project was RS 3300 MILLION. It has two major units AMMONIA UNIT I and UREA UNIT I. Ammonia unit I have the total capacity of manufacturing 1220 tons per day and Urea unit I have the total production capacity of 2105 tons per day. PLANT II Commencement of commercial production for plant I took place in MARCH 21, 1993 and the total cost of the project was RS 7215 MILLION. It has two major units AMMONIA UNIT II and UREA UNIT II. Ammonia unit I has the total capacity of manufacturing 1100 tons per day and Urea II unit has the total production capacity of 1925 tons per day. As comparison to Plant-1 it has a lower production capacity, producing 1100 tons per day of Ammonia and 1925 tons per day of Urea. The Urea and Ammonia section of each of the respective plants were designed by Snamprogetti SPA, Italy and Haldor Topsoe A/S, Denmark respectively.

UTILITIES
Utilities section takes in raw water and natural gas and produces Treated Water, Cooling Water, Power and Steam which is then utilized all over the plant for different purposes.

BAGGING and SHIPPING

Bagging and shipping area bear the duties of bagging and shipping of urea and then transporting it to various places in Pakistan. Most modern and computerized bagging and shipping unit is installed composed of 5 lines each with a design capacity of 30 MTPH.

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Area Division:

Area-1
Area-1 is urea processing area. It mainly comprises of CO2 compressor and the prilling tower. In the prilling tower molten urea is brought and is poured down the tower via a bucket with holes in it. Natural air drift is blowing upwards which solidifies these urea droplets into small prills.

Area-2
This section comprises of reformers where the cracking of methane is carried out. It consists of main furnace, primary reformer and secondary reformer.

Area-3
Area-3 comprises of de-methanator.

Area-4
Area-4 comprises of three main compressors. Synthesis Gas Compressor Ammonia Compressor, which liquefies ammonia Instruments Air Compressor, which compresses air for operation of different instruments at the plant.

Area-5
Area-5 consists of ammonia reactor and ammonia production. For further simplicity, area-1 is called urea, area-2 and area-3 are called front end and area-4 and area-5 are called back end.

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Basic Instrumentation:
The four basic fundamentals in which the measurements are made here are as follows: Pressure Flow Level Temperature

Pressure:
Pressure is the amount of force per unit of area. Pressure is probably one of the most commonly measured variables in a plant. It includes the measurement of steam pressure; feed water pressure, condenser pressure, lubricating oil pressure and many more. It represented as:

Pressure = Force/Area or P = F/A

The units of measurement are either in pounds per square inch (PSI) in British units or Pascals (Pa) in metric. As one PSI is approximately 7000Pa, we often use kPa and MPa as units of pressure. Pressure exerted by liquids can be divided into two groups:

i. Hydraulic pressure - due to a fluid in flow ii. Hydrostatic pressure - pressure exerted by liquids at rest,

Pressure Scales:
The measure of pressure is relative and pressure measurements are stated as either gauge or absolute.

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Gauge Pressure
A gauge pressure device will indicate zero pressure when bled down to atmospheric pressure (i.e., gauge pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure). Gauge pressure is denoted by a (g) at the end of the pressure unit [e.g., kPa (g)].

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure includes the effect of atmospheric pressure with the gauge pressure. It is denoted by an (a) at the end of the pressure unit [e.g.kPa (a)]. Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure psia = psig + atmospheric pressure The majority of pressure measurements in a plant are gauge. Absolute measurements tend to be used where pressures are below atmosphere.

Vacuum Pressure
Any pressure below atmospheric pressure is called vacuum.

Differential pressure
Differential pressure is the difference between two related pressures. Differential pressures can be expressed as P.

PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

Bourdon Tube:
The bourdon tube is probably the most common instrument of the expandable element gages. The gage consists of a hollow curved tube made from a flexible material. One end of the tube is connected through a valve to a source of pressure. When the valve of the pressure source opens then the tube tends to straighten out. The extent to which the tube straights out is the measure of pressure. The bourdon tube is in addition to

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a gear and pointer mechanism is used as bourdon tube gage. As the gas enters through a pressure inlet into the tube, the tube tends to straight out at its free end. This end is linked to a combination of gear sector and pinion through a fixed pivot. As the free end tends to straight out, the pointer which is connected with a pinion, moves to indicate pressure reading. Part A of the figure shows the dial portion whereas part B shows the internal operation mechanism:

There are three types of bourdon tubes: a) C Type Bourdon Tube

Figure shows a c-type bourdon tube. One end of the tube is open and the other end, called the tip, is closed. When pressure is applied, the tube moves. Depending on the amount of the pressure applied, bourdon tube straightens out. The higher the pressure, the more it will straighten out. If pressure to the bourdon tube is decreased, the tube tends to coil.

b) Spiral Bourdon tube

Figure shows a spiral bourdon tube. The tube is wound in a spiral. This additional winding allows a bourdon tube to uncoil more than a c-type. The greater tip travel is an advantage of spiral bourdon tube.

c) Helical Bourdon tube

Figure shows a helical bourdon tube. In a helical bourdon tube, the coils are arranged directly over each other. This makes the helical bourdon tube very compact than either of the others, so it can be used where space is limited. Like a spiral tube, a helical tubes tip also travels more than a c-type bourdon tube.

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The Bellows:
Bellows type elements are constructed of tubular membranes that are convoluted around the circumference. The membrane is attached at one end to the source and at the other end to an indicating device or instrument. The bellows gage work on similar principles to the diaphragm gage. The process pressure enters into the bellows and tends to expand the bellows segments. The sensitivity of bellows is greater than that of diaphragm. Actually the bellows measure difference between process pressure and atmospheric pressure.

The Diaphragm:
This is also an expandable element gage. The expandable element is diaphragm. The diaphragm can be made to produce movement even against very small pressure changes.. Diaphragm pressure gages measure differential pressure. So there are 2 pressure inlets in a diaphragm pressure gage. In such gages diaphragm expansion in transmitted to a pointer by means of a mechanical linkage connected to the centre of the diaphragm. Usually diaphragm gages are preferred for service where pressure differences are small.

The Barometer:
Barometer is used to measure open air pressure. It cannot measure differential pressure. The height of the column of mercury indicates the pressure. Change in level can be measured by a calibrated scale.

The Manometer:
U-Tube Manometer which is used to measure the difference of pressure between the two tanks. It can be filled with water or mercury and used to measure differential pressure.

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Pigtail Siphons are typically used to act as a cooling or warming leg for applications where the process temperature is higher or lower than the normal working temperature range as specified by NIST B40.1 in relation to instrumentation. Temperature extremes can cause inaccuracy or shorten the life span of instruments not specifically designed for severe duty applications.

Conditions that cause damage of Pressure Instruments:

Over pressurization Improperly returning to service Excessive vibration Temperature extremes Process Conditions

Protecting Accessories
Blow out disc Over range stop Dampening device Remote connections

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Flow:
The quantity of fluid passing through unit area in unit time is called Flow rate. There are various methods used to measure the flow rate of steam, water, lubricants, air, etc., in a nuclear generating station. The level of the liquid, unlike its pressure and temperature can be seen, if a liquid is in glass tube or container. But most storage tanks are closed and not transparent. So the liquid level is not visible to operators. However changes in liquid level cause changes in other variables which the operator can observe on dials and gages. Two basic terms used to describe fluid flow are laminar and turbulent.

Laminar:
When flow is laminar the fluid tends to flow smoothly in layers. Centre velocity is higher than that of outer layers. The decreased velocity of outer layer is due to the friction between with the walls of pipe.

Turbulent:
At higher velocities, fluid flow tends to become turbulent. The layers of fluid become erratic instead of stream lined.

Measurement of Flow:
1. Mass Flow: Pounds per hour (PPH) or Pounds per minute (PPM) Example: Steam 2. Volumetric Flow: Gallons per hour (GPH) or Gallons per minute (GPM) Example: Cooling Water

Flow rate measuring instruments can be divided into two categories: Direct and Indirect Measurements.

Direct Measurement
Flow rate can be measured directly by measuring the volume of liquid passing through a meter in a given amount of time. Direct measurement flow meters dont need to measure pressure difference.

Indirect Measurement
The usual indirect flow meters apply the concept of differential pressure measurement. These meters require two parts:

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A barrier to the fluid flow to cause pressure difference (primary element) A pressure measuring device which measures the pressure difference created by the barrier (secondary element) The differential pressure flow meters measure the flow rate by:

FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Orifice Plate:
The orifice plate is the most common form of restriction that is used in flow measurement. An orifice plate is basically a thin metal plate with a hole bored in the centre. However, with an orifice plate, static pressure downstream is always considerably lower than the upstream pressure. These meters are not very efficient. In orifice plate, pressure decreases at downstream as velocity increases. Three types of orifice plate are: 1. Concentric (normally used for all liquids) 2. Eccentric (Moisture laden gases) 3. Segmental (large amount of gases)

Edges of Orifice:
1. Beveled: (Create small pressure drop, curve at edges) 2. Recessed: (Create large pressure drop, sharp at edges)

Advantages of Orifice Plate

High differential pressure generated Exhaustive data available Low purchase price and installation cost Easy replacement

Disadvantages of Orifice Plate

High permanent pressure loss implies higher pumping cost. Cannot be used on dirty fluids, slurries or wet steam.

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INTERNSHIP REPORT 2012 Venturi Tube:

For applications where high permanent pressure loss is not tolerable, a venturi tube can be used. Because of its gradually curved inlet and outlet cones, almost no permanent pressure drop occurs. This design also minimizes wear and plugging by allowing the flow to sweep suspended solids through without obstruction.

Advantages of Venturi Tube

Normally blockage is not created in the venturi tube. Venturi tube is the measurement of flow in the primary heat transport system.

Disadvantages of Venturi Tube

Calculated calibration figures are less accurate than for orifice plates. For greater accuracy, each individual Venturi tube has to be flow calibrated by passing known flows through the Venturi and recording the resulting differential pressures. The differential pressure generated by a venturi tube is lower than for an orifice plate and, therefore, a high sensitivity flow transmitter is needed. It is more bulky and more expensive.

Flow Nozzle:
The flow nozzle has properties between an orifice plate and a venturi. Because of its streamlined contour, the flow nozzle has a lower permanent pressure loss than an orifice plate (but higher than a venturi). The differential it generates is also lower than an orifice plate (but again higher than the venturi tube). They are also less expensive than the venturi tubes. Flow nozzles are widely used for flow measurements at high velocities.

Elbow Taps:
Centrifugal force generated by a fluid flowing through an elbow can be used to measure fluid flow. As fluid goes around an elbow, a highpressure area appears on the outer face of the elbow. One use of elbow taps is the measurement of steam flow from the boilers, where the large volume of saturated steam at high pressure and temperature could cause an erosion problem for other primary devices.

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Pitot Tubes:
Pitot tubes also utilize the principles captured in Bernoullis equation, to measure flow. Most pitot tubes actually consist of two tubes. One, the low pressure tube measures the static pressure in the pipe. The second, the high pressure tube is inserted in the pipe in such a way that the flowing fluid is stopped in the tube. The pressure in the high-pressure tube will be the static pressure in the system plus a pressure dependant on the force required stopping the flow. The pressure differential is usually small and hard to measure. It measures both pressures along the lines of flow and along Walls of the pipe. It consists of a 90 degree tap that measures flow across the direction of tap. The pressure difference would results flow rate.

Impeller Meter:
Figure shows a simple impeller meter for flow measurement. Two impellers rotate on shafts and allow the fluid to pass between them and the case. For each rotation of the impellers only a set amount is discharged from the meter. The faster the liquid flows, the faster the shafts are turned. A counter measures the number of turns which indicates the flow rate.

Turbine Meter:
Figure shows a turbine meter. The turbine is turned by the flowing fluid. The faster the fluid flows, the faster the turbine rotates. RPM of the shaft is recorded, which indicates the flow rate

Vortex Meter:
In a vortex meter, instead of a turbine, the rotating part is the rotor. The rotors RPM indicate the flow rate of the fluid. Figure shows a vortex meter.

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Variable-Area Flow Meter:

The meter on the right indicates a higher flow rate. A pressure difference exists, but no matter how high the flow rate is, this pressure difference remains the same. A float is free to move up and down in the tube. As the liquid enters the tube, it pushes up on the float. The higher the flow rate, the higher up in the tube the float is pushed. Because the tube is tapered, the area around the float changes as the float moves up or down. When the flow rate increases, the size of the opening increases. The floats position in the tube indicates the amount of flow.

Temperature Type Flow Meters:

The water inside the pipe is heated, if the water is flowing in the pipe it will continuously carry the heat away, the rate at which the heat is carried away can indicated the flow rate by putting the temperature measuring device in the pipe.

Vena Contracta Taps:

Vena contracta taps are located one pipe inner diameter upstream and at the point of minimum pressure, usually one half pipe inner diameter downstream.

Disadvantages of Directly Flow Meters:

1. 2. 3. 4. Should be clean/ difficult to clean. Corrodes Due to Spillage and Friction, inaccurate reading occurs RPM may vary upon density of liquid/fluid.

Protection and Accuracy of Flow Measuring devices:

1. Condensate Chambers Cool down process fluid before it enters the fluid measuring device. 2. Sediment Trap Removes contaminants. 3. Straightening Vanes - Devices that convert turbulent fluid flow to laminar flow before fluid enters the measuring device for accuracy

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LEVEL:
Accurate continuous measurement of volume of fluid in containers has always been a challenge to industry. This is even more so in plant station environment where the fluid could be acidic/caustic or under very high pressure/temperature. We will now examine the measurement of fluid level in vessels and the effect of temperature and pressure on this measurement. The level of the liquid, unlike its pressure and temperature can be seen, if a liquid is in glass tube or container. But most storage tanks are closed and not transparent. So the liquid level is not visible to operators. However changes in liquid level cause changes in other variables which the operator can observe on gages. The level of a liquid is the position of the surface of the liquid above or below a fixed reference or datum line. The datum line is the zero reference to which a measurement is referenced. A datum line is simply a starting point, it doesnt necessary imply there is no liquid in the container.

FACTORS INFLUENCING LEVEL MEASUREMENT:

Physical Conditions like Design of instrument Liquids viscosity, toxicity, flammability, corrosiveness, explosiveness, etc Excessive turbulence, temperature and pressure Open or closed tank surface Type of Measurement required like Continuous level measurement that give numerical reading of level all the time Single-point level measurement which monitor only critical points

STATIC HEAD:
Pressure that results from the weight of the liquid is called Static Pressure. The Height of liquid level causing the pressure is called Static Head. Guide wires are used for accurate level measurements. Float rides on the surface of the liquid while a displacer is heavier than the process fluid. The static pressure is due to weight of the liquid .It depends upon 1. Height of liquid 2. Weight of liquid 3. Density of liquid

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LEVEL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Gage Glass:
Attached aside the tank and indicates level. Need to be very long for larger levels. A gauge glass is basically a transparent vertical tube that is mounted on the side of a tank. Gauge glasses provide a local indication of tanks level. Liquid tends to equalize its level in all branches, so glass tube contains the same level as the level of the tank. Illuminators are provided in the gauge glass where there is light issue.

Dipsticks:
Simple sticks with indicator that measures the level of open tanks. It is basically a simple stick. To check level of any tank, it is simply dipped into the tank. The liquid level is then read on the scale of dipstick. Common example is cars engine oils level detection. The liquid should be viscous and sticky enough so that it stays on the stick.

Diaphragm Level Detector:

Diaphragm used to indicate level. In this system, the liquid exerts a pressure on the diaphragm that is proportional to the height of the liquid in the tank. As a result, the diaphragm deflects, or flexes. As the diaphragm deflects, the mechanical linkage moves the pointer to indicate the level of the liquid.

Bubbler:
Level is dependent on the pressure required to force the fluid out of the dip tube. The amount of pressure required to force the air out if the bottom of the dip tube depends on the level of the liquid. The higher the liquid level, the higher the pressure needed to force air out of the tube. The gauge shows increased level by recording increased pressure.

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Tape Type Level Indicator:

Uses a pulley. A weight is attached to pulley to keep the tape tight. A float attached to pulley through tape, when level raises float rises and hence moves reading on scale. Weight and guide wires are used to support the float.

Float and Lever Gage:

Consists of float, shaft, lever and pointer. A float attached to mechanical lever, when level raises float rises and hence moves reading on scale.

Torque Tube:
Consists of displacer attached via lever to torque tube. As the weight decreases due to buoyancy, the pointer moves as the torque is changed. It works on principle of turning effect of the force that is called torque. A metal bar attached to mechanical lever and shaft. Metal bar gets lighter in liquid. The twisting force can be used to measure level torque.

Ultrasonic Level Transmitters:

Ultrasonic level sensors measure the distance between the transducer and the surface using the time required for an ultrasound pulse to travel from a transducer to the fluid and back. These sensors use frequencies in tens of kilohertz range.

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Dry Leg System:

Figure shows a dry-leg system. Normally the high side of the D/P device would be connected to the variable leg in this arrangement. In this closed tank arrangement, the other side of the D/P device is connected to the tank above the maximum level to be measured. The leg is commonly called a dry leg, because none of the tanks liquid should enter it during normal operation. The dry leg is normally connected to the low side of the D/P device. The gas or vapor pressure exerted on the liquid is applied equally to both sides of the D/P device, and the resulting differential pressure measurement is the liquids head pressure only. If the level in the tank changes, the differential pressure also changes.

Wet Leg System:

Some closed tanks contain liquids that form vapours that exert a pressure on the liquid in the tank. If these vapours were to condense back into liquids inside a dry leg, the result would be inaccurate level measurements. So, the dry leg is no longer dry, it is deliberately filled with liquid, and it is called a wet leg. The wet leg must be kept full of liquid to provide a constant head pressure. In this arrangement, the high side of the D/P device is normally connected to the reference leg. In the wet-leg system, however, an increase in level results in a proportional decrease in differential pressure.

Other Methods:
Other Methods for measuring Level includes

1. Light for dark liquids. 2. X-rays (for dirty, dark, non-transparent liquids). 3. Gamma Rays (where light cannot be passed).

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TEMPERATURE:
The state of coldness or hotness of a substance is termed temperature. Temperature can be measured by measuring amount of energy of molecules. Temperature is measured in Rankin, Centigrade, Fahrenheit or Kelvin.

Heat: Thermal energy of a substance. Units of Heat:

1. BTU: Heat required rising the temperature of one pound of water to one degree Fahrenheit. 2. Cal: Heat required rising the temperature of one kilogram of water to one degree Centigrade.

Heat Transfer:
1. Through solids called Conduction. 2. Through Fluid Liquids or gases called Convection. 3. Through air called radiation.

UNITS OF TEMPERATURE
There are four common units of temperature. Each has a relation with each other as shown in following table.

Unit
Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin Rankine

Freezing Point of Water 0C 32F 273K 492R

Boiling Point of Water 100C 212F 373K 672R

Celsius and Fahrenheit scales have degree symbol before them, whereas Kelvin and Rankine scales do not have it because they are absolute scale.

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TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENT

Fluid Thermometers
In this thermometer, temperature is indicated by the height of the column of mercury in the capillary tube. As temperature increases molecules move faster. Due to this they expand and take more space. Since the mercury cant be squeezed together, its level in the tube must increase. Mercury has freezing temperature of -39 degree centigrade. So it can measure a range of -39 to 600 degree centigrade.

Liquid Filled Systems:

In liquid filled system the bulb, the capillary tube, and the pressure sensing element (Bourdon Tube, Bellows, Diaphragm) are completely filled with a liquid that is sensitive to temperature changes. As temperature rise, liquid inside tube expands causing an increase in pressure. So the movement of pressure sensing element is indicated by pointer on a calibrated gauge.

Gas/Vapour Filled System:

They work on the same principle as liquid filled systems. Gases expand more than liquid so they are used in more sensitive equipments. When the temperature of the gas inside the system increases, the pressure exerted by the gas on the bourdon tube increases forcing the bourdon tube to straighten out.

Bimetallic Thermometers:
A bimetallic strip consists of two different kinds of metals joined together. The two metals expand when heated at different rates. The top metals expand more than the bottom metal, so the bar bends in the direction.

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Thermocouple:
Thermocouples work on the principle that the metals (conductors) having temperature gradient when exposed to heat will create a movement of electrons and electromotive force is generated in that region. In a practical thermocouple, two materials having different e.m.f/temperature characteristics are combined to produce a usable output voltage. These two different metals are welded on one end and the other end is free. The free end is usually exposed to high temperature while the other end is at its reference temperature.

Different materials are used for different ranges of temperature. Following table shows this.

Letter Code J K T E S R

Name Iron-Constantan Chromell-Alumell Copper-Constantan Chromell-Constantan Platinum-Platinum 10% Rhodium Platinum-Platinum 13%Rhodium

Temperature Range (F) 32 to 1400 32 to 2300 -300 to 700 32 to 1600 32 to 27000 32 to 27000

Thermopile:
It is combination of three or more thermocouples. It is more accurate and sensitive. It takes average temperature of all thermocouples.

Thermistor:
Some types of materials conduct electricity more easily at higher temperatures than at low temperatures. These metals have negative resistance coefficients. These are called Thermistors. Thermistors are made of metallic oxides which conduct electric current. An increased current through a thermistor element indicates a higher temperature.

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Resistance Temperature Detector:

RTDs can be used to measure temperature electrically because there is a proportional relationship between changes in resistance and changes in temperature. RTD must be used with an electrical circuit. For most metals the change in electrical resistance is directly proportional to its change in temperature and is linear over a range of temperatures. Thermistor is one type of RTD. Fig. gives RTD using Wheatstone bridge configuration. Within its range it is more accurate and has higher sensitivity than a thermocouple. Three and Four Wire RTDs are used for high accuracy and remote temperature reading. The 3 wire RTD has an extra wire to compensate for resistance changes that could affect the accuracy of the temperature readings. 4 wire RTDs are generally used only when extreme accuracy is required. They are more accurate than 3 wire RTDs because they use two extra compensating wires instead of one.

Note:
Thermo-wells protect thermometers and avoid loss of pressure in process during removal of a thermometer. Thermocouples are avoided in motors as they generate voltages and thus RTDs are preferred.

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Piping and Instrumentation Diagram

A P&ID shows the layout of all relevant process vessels, pipes, and machinery, but within instruments superimposed on the diagram showing what gets measured and what gets controlled. Here, one can view the flow of the process as well as the flow of information between instruments measuring and controlling the process. Basically the P & IDs contains: Detailed representations of each piece of equipment with nozzle sizes and connections Piping connectivity, valve, sizing and specifications Vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers and Expanders Process control and safety instrumentation Safety Relief devices Pressure/Temperature values and flow direction arrows Change of specification guidelines All Mechanical Equipments with names and Tags Main plant Interlocks

Sample Diagram:

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WORK PERMIT
A work permit is an official document to start a job and is issued by the Operations department. In industry no work can be done without the work permit. Work permits are for the safety of both the technician and the area where work is to be done. It is a standard procedure followed world-wide. FFC also issues work permits like: Instrument Work Permit Maintenance and checking of instruments. Vehicle Entry Permit For utilization of industrial vehicles. Electrical Work Permit Electrical isolations and connections establishment. Cold Work Permit For use of general work that didnt include spark. Hot Work Permit The permit that includes jobs with spark or flame. Excavation and Civil Work Permit Work permits for digging purposes for more than 6 inches. Confined Space Entry Permit Permit for working in some closed vessel or area. Radiography Work Permit Permit for checking the radiation emissions.

Note:
All work permits check whether the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is issued by the applicant and is thoroughly checked and signed by the Shift Engineer. Only one work permit is issued for one job only. Extension of time period of the work permit can be done only once. Issuance of work permit is by choice not by chance.

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FIELD INSTRUMENTS
TRANSMITTERS:
Transmitters are devices which produce an analog signal, usually in the form of a 4 20 mA current signal, although many other options using voltage, frequency, or pressure are present. This signal can be used to control other instruments directly, or it can be sent to a PLC/DCS system, where it can be interpreted into readable values and used to control other devices and processes in the system.

Force Balance Principle:

In these the difference of pressure is exerted on a bellow which transfers it to a mechanical lever system, then this movement is converted into current because of change in flux of a transformer attached in this assembly. A feedback motor is attached in series with the output which balances the movement of lever in order to balance its motion and generation of right output. This is the working principle of rarely used Foxboro E17-DM (Jinnah Cap) transmitter.

Types:
There are two basic types of transmitters. These are pneumatic transmitters and electronic transmitters. In case of pneumatic transmitters, the maximum reading of the scale is converted to 15 psi while the minimum reading is associated with 3 psi. Thus the entire range of possible readings is converted to proportional pressure. These pneumatic signals are converted to readings on a dial and pointer using reverse mechanism. The pneumatic transmitters are important in those areas of the plant where spark produced by the electronic signals can be dangerous. The only problem with pneumatic signals is that they cannot be transmitted over long distances with greater speed. The larger the pneumatic line the slower the signal. In case of electronic transmitters, the measurement is converted to proportional electronic signals over the range 4-20 mA. Here 4 mA means minimum reading on the scale while 20 mA means maximum reading of the scale. Electronic signals are fast and can be transmitted over longer distances but in many cases they can be dangerous as a spark in the line or the transmitter may cause explosion or fire.

Variable Capacitance Measurements:

The pressure causes change in the capacitance, which is further translated into the current to reach the output to the control room. This is a digital transmitter which shows the pressure value locally on the transmitter display unit. This is the working principle of Rosemount 3051 transmitter.

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Working:
The particular electronic type transmitter utilizes a two-wire capacitance. Process pressure is transmitted through isolating diaphragms and silicone oil fill fluid to a sensing diaphragm. This sensing diaphragm is a stretched spring element that deflects in the response to differential pressure across it. The displacement of the sensing diaphragm is proportional to the differential pressure. The position of the deflecting diaphragm is detected by the capacitor plates on both sides of the sensing diaphragm. The differential capacitance between the sensing diaphragm and the capacitor plates is converted electronically to a 4-20mA dc or 10-50mA dc signal.

SWITCHES:
Switches are the devices which open or close a circuit depending upon the measured value of the control parameters, i.e pressure, temperature flow and level. They are usually connected to PSVs, solenoid valves, etc. Switches are somewhat like transmitters as they also send electrical signals. But there is a big difference between a transmitter and a switch. A transmitter sends a proportional signal as output while a switch sends a binary signal. There are two most commonly used switches: the mercury switch and the float type switch.

Mercury switch: This switch has a tilt shape attached mostly to measure inclination of surfaces or machines, containing mercury. When the switch is inclined, it sets at a position. As the machine moves, the mercury moves from one side to the electrode sides and connects electrodes causing switch to operate.

Float switch: A float switch is a device used to detect the level of liquid within a tank. This is level operated switch. When level rises, the float rises and it operates a switch at the top via stem.

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SOLENOID VALVES:
A Solenoid Valve basically consists of a Coil which is energized when the input voltage is given and de-energized when the voltage is removed. This is done by feeding the input dc voltage or half wave rectified AC voltage to the coil. When this coil is energized then it acts as an electromagnet. However if the Voltage is not given to the Solenoid then it de-energizes and does not act as an electromagnet. The coil is powered by 24v DC or 110v AC. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design.

It has following parts:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Valve body Inlet port Outlet port Coil/Solenoid Coil Winding Lead wires Plunger Spring Orifice

Types of SOV:
1. Direct Acting SOV: While energizing coil, plunger moves, inlet fluid supply goes directly to outlet. While drain blocked.

2. Pilot Operated SOV: It is used at high pressure services. As a very large solenoid is needed to control a large pressure, to avoid this, a pilot operated SOV is used. That has a diaphragm linkage with SOV that restrict the effect of pressure on solenoid valve.

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CURRENT TO PRESSURE CONVERTER:

Current to pressure or Electrical to Pneumatic converters are those devices which convert electrical signals (4-20mA or 10-50mA) into equivalent pneumatic signals (3-15 Psi). After conversion the information that was previously travelling in the form of electrical signals, travels in the form of pneumatic signals and can operate any pneumatic device. In field we prefer pneumatic transmission as electrical signals can produce spark. But in the control room, we deal totally in electric signals.

FOXBORO E69:
The Foxboro E69 series Current to Pneumatic Converters were studied. These converters work on the position balanced system. A coil positioned in the field of a permanent magnet react to the current by producing a tangential thrust proportional to the input signal flowing through it. The thrust, acting through coil flexures, varies the gap between a flapper and a nozzle. This causes a change in the output pressure of the relay, which is also the converter output pressure. This pressure is fed to a feedback bellows which exerts a force on a feedback flexure to move the nozzle and establish a throttling relationship between flapper and the nozzle.

Fisher 546 series

Works on force balance system. Here the motor exerts force in the feedback mechanism thus the principle.

Foxboro E69 series

Works on position balanced system. Here back emf causes damping in the motor, contributing to position insensitivity. Small movements have large effect on accuracy. Both reverse and direct action in one package.

Vibration resistant.

Reverse & direct action in separate packages.

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Triconex PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)

INTRODUCTION:
PLC (programmable logic controller) is a device in which logic is made and whole program is executed as one. To change the logic of some part of the program, the whole program needs to be downloaded to the PLC. A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines, such as packaging and semiconductor machines. The ESD known as Emergency Shutdown System is a PLC based logic system to shutdown or trip the plant in case of emergency, in a sequence of events as programmed in the PLC.

FEATURES:
Important Features of Triconnex PLC system is as follows: MP3008 Main processors Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) where all the three MP (Main Processors) execute the program independently Power supply Modules: Double Redundancy I/O processor on each main processor Triplicate I/O bus 16Mb DRAM of MP3008 (no battery backup) 32kB SRAM of MP3008 (with battery backup) Data rate between I/O and MP 375 kbits/s AI :Analog Input Card with 32 point input AO: Analog Output Card DI : Digital Input Card with 32 point input PO: Pulse Output Card, sends pulse signals to the fields, 18 outputs TCM: Tricon Communication module: Used communication with DCS and also to download program to main processor Battery backup Memory for 6 months RS 485 used for cabinet to cabinet communication Input and output modules Buffers used to isolate the inputs from MPs

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PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, and then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays.

TRICONEX PLC:
The TRICON is a state-of-the-art programmable logic and process controller that provides a high level of system fault tolerance. Fault tolerance, the most important capability of the TRICON System, is the ability to detect transient and steady-state error conditions and to take appropriate corrective action on-line. The TRICON provides fault tolerance through Triple Modular Redundant, (TMR) architecture. The system consists of three identical system legs (except for the Power Modules which are dual redundant).

Tricon Chassis:
1. Main Chassis 2. Expansion Chassis 3. Remote Extender Chassis Main Chassis The Main Chassis of the Tricon controller houses the Main Processor modules and up to 6 slot sets for I/O modules. The I/O modules in a chassis are connected via I/O expansion bus ports that are triplicated RS485 bidirectional communication ports. Expansion Chassis Allows additional I/O and communication modules to be included in a system. It contains two power modules, eight logical slots for I/O and communication modules. Communication module can only be connected in expansion chassis no. 2. Expansion chassis can be used only when the cabling is less than 100 feet from the system. All modules are with hot spare. RXM Chassis It is used when the expansion modules have to be placed at lengths greater than 100 feet from the system. It contains two power modules, one primary remote RXM set, six logical slots for i/o modules. Maximum of three primary RXM chassis can be connected to the main chassis and each chassis can support up to 3 expansion modules thats total of nine expansion modules.

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Triconex PLC Chassis

MODULES:
Several types of modules can be attached to the chassis as per requirements.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Main Processor (MP) Modules Compatible Communication Modules Digital Input / Output Modules Analogue Input / Output Modules Termination Modules Communication Modules Power Modules

Names of some of the communication modules are given below: TCM (Tricon Communication Module) EICM (Enhanced Intelligent Communication Module) NCM (Network Communication Module) HIM (Highway Interface Module) SMM (Safety Manager Module) ACM (Advanced Communication Module)

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DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM

DCS is a control and monitoring system in which each logic is a separate program from the other and all the logics are running independently and working collectively.

ARCHITECTURE:
DSC is a mesh control network architecture implementing intelligent automation (I/A), with different workstations connected through Ethernet switch. The system architecture consists of the following: 24-port MTRJ fibre Ethernet switch Model P92 workstation for windows Model P91 workstation server for windows DIN rail mounted FCP270 CP (control processor) DIN rail mounted 200 series Field Bus Modules DSC system cabinet

FEATURES:

Reliability High Speed Data Routing Lower cost Flexibility Multi or single fiber

BENEFITS:
Integrated data acquisition and control Single window to the process Powerful operator interface Build-in automatic diagnosis Alarm annunciation All devices perform independent

FIELD CONTROL PROCESSOR 270 (FCP 270)

The field control processor 270 is a distributed, optionally fault tolerant, field mounted controller that performs process control and alarming functions according to user defined control strategy.

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Features

Performs regulatory logic, timing and sequential control together with connected fieldbus modules. Performs data acquisition and alarm detection and notification. Supports up to 32 DIN Fieldbus Modules. No fieldbus communication module is required. Connects to The Mesh control network via standard fiber optic 100 mbps Ethernet. Can operate in Class G3 harsh environments. Uses versatile control algorithms and a wide variety of FBMs to provide control capabilities for a broad range of process applications. Supports time synchronization using optional external time from GPS satellites. Offers online image update of a faulttolerant FCP270 without shutting down the process. Supports either the 2Mbps or 268kbps HDLC field bus.

PLC
The programmable logic controller (PLC) is king of machine control. PLCs still dominate high-speed machine control. PLCs now have many DCS-like control functions (e.g., PID algorithms) and analog I/O. They've moved past their birthplace: the digital world (switch and binary sensor inputs and output contacts to run motors and trigger solenoids). PLCs began replacing conventional relay/solid-state logic in machine control. PLCs dealt with contact input/output (I/O) and started/stopped motors by performing Boolean logic calculations.

DCS
Distributed control system (DCS) dominates process control. DCSs prevail in complex continuous processes. DCSs allow centralized configuration from the operator or engineering console in the control room. You can change programming offline, and download without restarting the system for the change to be effective. DCSs performed hundreds of analog measurements and controlled dozens of analog outputs, using multi-variable (PID) control with the same 8-bit microprocessor

PLCs are simple, rugged computers with minimal peripherals and simple OSs. While increasing reliability, PLC simplicity is not conducive to redundancy.

DCSs have user-friendly configuration tools, including structured English, control block libraries, SFC (sequential function chart), and even RLL (relay ladder logic).

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The PLC is more of a "do-it-yourself" device, which is sometimes simpler to execute. A PLC will run in a stand-alone configuration.

The DCS vendor tries to be your "onestop shop. The vendor provides all the support. A DCS controller normally expects an operator interface and communications, so it can send alarms, messages, trend and display updates.

VIBRATION MONITORING SYSTEM

Introduction:
Vibration is cyclic or pulsating motion of a machine or machine component from its point of rest. It is caused by either force changing in direction or a force changing in magnitude or friction (rub).

SPEED PROBES:
There are two types of speed probes: Active Speed Probes

These speed probes require a power supply and they work by utilizing the transistor switching circuits. Transistors are used as comparators, the mechanism used in these speed probes. When the power supply of the active speed probes is off, they require a high trigger level. They work fine at the start of the machine as they do when the machine attains full speed. Passive Speed Probes

These speed probes require no power supply, they are self generating. They work on the electromagnetic flux induction mechanism. The output of strobe is in the form of pulses.

VIBRATION PROBES:
The sensors used to sense the vibration. There are two types of method to measure vibration. Contact Method: Measuring instrument is in contact with the device. Non-contact Method: Measuring instrument is not in contact with the device. This method is most widely used in industry due to thick casing of instruments.

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PROXIMITY METHOD:
This is a non-contact method. The proximeter generates RF frequency of 1.5 MHz. A BNC connector connects the proximeter to the sensor via cable. It then bombards the frequency on the shaft. Metal should absorb this frequency. As a result there are two outputs. AC output: tells about vibration DC output: gives the gap voltage which tells about the distance of shaft from sensor.Usually sensor is about 1mm from the shaft.

Vibration Monitoring System:

The Bently Nevada 3500 vibration monitoring system is installed in Plant 1. Plant 1 has 4 compressors which rotate between 7000 to 13000 RPM. The vibration of these compressors must be monitored at all times. The Bently Nevada 3500 is used to measure 2 types of vibrations:

Axial Displacement (XT):

This displacement is measured by placing a probe in front of the rotating shaft. This displacement being measured here is the shaft moving back and forth along the axis of rotation. The DC component indicates the axial displacement.

Vertical Vibration (VT):

This vibration is measured by placing more than one vibration probe usually. The vibration probes can be placed vertically above the rotating shaft or at an angle. The vibration being measured here is the deviation of the shaft from the axis of rotation. The AC component indicates the vertical vibration. Vibration Probes (Eddy current): The vibration probes used with Bently Nevada 3500 work the principle of eddy current. The input voltage to these vibration probes is -24 volts. Radio frequency of 1.5 to 2 MHz is given on the probes coil because of which it behaves like an antenna. This frequency produces eddy current, when the probe comes near to the rotating shaft the eddy current emitting from the tip is absorbed into the shaft due to which eddy current creates power loss in the radio frequency signal which is measurable.

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Control Valves:
The control valve is called final control element as it controls the flowing fluid such as gas, steam, water or chemical compound. It regulates the control of fluid and maintains the set point upon load disturbance. The basic Auxiliary Components of a control valve are as follows.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Positioner Regulator Actuator Valve Body

There are two main types of control valves. Linear Motion Valves Rotary Motion valves

Linear Motion Valves:

Linear motion valves are those valves which operate in a single linear motion, plug and stem moves in upward and downward direction only this producing a linear movement hence the name.

Rotary Motion Valves:

Unlike linear motion valves rotary motion valves does not move up and down instead there is disc inside which rotates around an axis to open or close a control valve.

Types of Linear Motion Valve: 1. Diaphragm Valve

2. Gate Valve 3. Globe Valve

Types of Rotary Motion Valve:

1. Butterfly Valve 2. Plug Valve 3. Ball Valve

POSITIONER:
Positioner is a device used to position a valve according to given signal. It does this job by getting supply from regulator and actuates the actuator according to given signal. The Positioner confirms the valve opening through feedback that is attached to valve stem.

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There are three modes of positioner that it can be set to: Fail to close Fail to open Last position

REGULATOR:
A regulator is a device that regulates the supply of air from the main IA (Instrument Air) Supply line to Positioner ranges from 1.4 kg to 7 kg. A regulator is
itself a control valve. Two types are:

Two way regulator It consists of a filter plus moisture absorbing chamber. The filter portion has a valve controlled via spring which fixes the set point. When spring is pressed, diaphragm is pressed and valve allows instrument air to pass which goes to the output. The output pressure is maintained as set point is fixed. The output opening also gives feedback via diaphragm position.

Three way regulator It consists of a filter, regulation part and an oiling section when lubrication is also needed.

PRESSURE SAFTEY VALVE:

Pressure safety valves can be defined as a spring loaded safety valve designed to open to relieve excess pressure and to reclose and prevent the further flow of fluid after normal conditions (90% or 95% pressure) have been restored.

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A pressure safety valve prevents over-pressurization. It is the last effort before tripping of the plant. A PSV is set to open at a pressure safely below the bursting pressure of a container, such as a boiler or compressed air receiver. Construction is such that when the valve opens slightly, the opening force builds up to open it fully and to hold the valve open until the pressure drops a predetermined amount.

TYPES: 1. Weight operated/Conventional PSV 2. Pressure relieve valve (PRV) 3. Pilot operated PSV

UTILITIES
The utilities plant provides the raw material for plant. Power generation, Cooling tower and Instrument air production. Nitrogen is also extracted from air and is used as a purge gas. WATER TREATMENT (Area 09)

Water treatment is essential as the treated water is used in boilers and for cooling. Water that is sent to the boilers for boiling must be impurity free otherwise it will leave residues in the boilers which is undesired. The water storage alongside utilities control room is enough to run the plant for 36 to 48 hours. The control room for water treatment is called the Water Treatment Control Center (WTCR).

POWER GENERATION (Area 07)

Two gas turbines TG 01 and TG 02 are used for power generation. Two gas turbines produce 37MW combined and 6.5KV that is 18.5 MW each, fulfilling the requirements of the plant and township. Wasted heat from turbines combustion is passed along through ducts in two waste heat boilers. The two turbines used are: 1. TG 701 6.5KV and 18.5MW 2. TG 702 6.5KV and 18.5MW

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COOLING TOWER (Area 8)

Motor operated pumps take hot water to the top. Air is also sucked to the top where it is dozed with sulfuric acid. The hot air emits out of the cooling vessels. The cooling water is then sent back to utilities. The phenomena of chilling is interesting in a way that heating stage is needed before chilling effect takes place. This is so because the coolant (lithium bromide) is heated until it expands and produces a chill. The cooled water is utilized in the process.

INSTRUMENT AIR (Area 10)

Air is caught from the atmosphere and then passed through air dryers which removes moisture from the air, the next step is compressors which gives 7kg/cm2 or 100psi of pressure to the headers in the plant for the pneumatic operation of most of the instruments installed in the plant.

NITROGEN (Area 16)

Nitrogen is used as a purge gas. It is stored in area 16. First air is sucked from the atmosphere and filtered. Then it is sent to the combustion chambers to remove oxygen. Then it is sent to carbon dioxide absorbers. Now the only gas left is nitrogen which is stored in a large vessel.

CONTROL ROOMS
There are two control rooms under observation of Utilities: 1. UCR (Utilities Control Room) 2. WTCR (Water Treatment Control Room) UCR (Utilities Control Room) Utilities Control Room in FFC Goth Machhi works on a DCS (Distributed Control System) of YOKOGAWA CENTUM CS 3000. WTCR (Water Treatment Control Room) WTCR monitors and controls the process of water treatment used for the boilers, also known as Boiler Feed Water.

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CONCLUSION
Industrial internships are always difficult to grade as there are so much opportunities that we cant grip them all in such a limited time. The experience here at FFC was awesome as one gets a chance to interact which different internees and exchange their ideas and learn from each other. My internship experience at FFC was the best of its kind as there were so many opportunities for myself to learn and groom from the experienced industrial people with tons of knowledge to dive into. I have tried to learn maximum possible in these six weeks. I am thankful to FFC and specifically instrumentation Plant-I, Plant-II & Utilities department for being so helpful and generous in sharing their knowledge. It was an excellent experience with an excellent environment to work in and with excellent people to work with.

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