!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.

docx age 1 of 14
kLSLAkCn ML1nCDS
Lxper|menta| research: construct|on of research hypotheses, |dent|f|cat|on and operat|ona||zat|on of
|ndependent and dependent var|ab|es, |dent|f|cat|on of extraneous and potent|a| confound|ng
var|ab|es |nc|ud|ng |nd|v|dua| part|c|pant d|fferences, non-standard|sed |nstruct|ons and procedures,
order effects, exper|menter effect, p|acebo effects, ways of m|n|m|s|ng confound|ng and extraneous
var|ab|es |nc|ud|ng type of samp||ng procedures, type of exper|ment, counterba|anc|ng, s|ng|e and
doub|e-b||nd procedures, p|acebos, standard|sed |nstruct|ons and procedures, eva|uat|on of
d|fferent types of exper|menta| research des|gns |nc|ud|ng |ndependent-groups, matched
part|c|pants, repeated-measures, report|ng convent|ons as per the AA format.
1he lndependenL varlable(s) (lv) ls Lhe varlable LhaL ls dellberaLely manlpulaLed by Lhe researcher ln order
Lo see whaL affecL lL has on parLlclpanLs responses. 1he dependenL varlable (uv) shows any effecLs of Lhe
lndependenL varlable.( Crlvas pages 17-18)
AC1IVI1: ldenLlfy Lhe lv and uv ln each of Lhe followlng:
8ecelvlng an award for sLudylng wlll lncrease Lhe amounL of Llme sLudenLs engage ln sLudylng.
lv: .............................................................
uv: .............................................................
eople who suffer from depresslon recall more negaLlve experlences Lhan poslLlve experlences.
lv: .............................................................
uv: .............................................................
eople change Lhelr plLch of volce when lylng.
lv: ............................................................
uv: ............................................................
1he hypoLhesls llnks Lhe Lwo varlables of lnLeresL (Lhe lndependenL varlable(s) lv and Lhe dependenL
varlable(s) uv) ln Lhe expecLed causal relaLlonshlp. lL ls a predlcLlve sLaLemenL. 1o consLrucL a research
hypoLhesls Lhe varlables need Lo be operaLlonallsed, ln LhaL Lhey musL be expressed ln speclflc Lerms,
clearly sLaLlng how one wlll be admlnlsLered and Lhe oLher measured. 1he Lhlrd componenL ln a research
hypoLhesls ls Lhe populaLlon of lnLeresL. (Crlvas pages 18-20)
Pow Lo consLrucL a research hypoLhesls (operaLlonal hypoLhesls):
1. CperaLlonallse Lhe Lwo varlables
!"#$%&'( *&''% +'%,-.#/-01 2345( *&''%-16 708, 908,* 0, &'** 70, /9,'' :01*':8/-.' 1-69/* #1+ :061-/-.'
781:/-01-16 2;45( /9' *:0,' 0</#-1'+ 01 #1 0,#& :0$%,'9'1*-01 /'*/
2. ldenLlfy Lhe populaLlon
!x#$%&'( $#&' #1+ 7'$#&' 4-:/0,-#1 *':01+#,= *:900& */8+'1/* #6'+ >?@>A ='#,*
3. Llnk Lhe Lwo varlables ln a causal relaLlonshlp wlLh reference Lo Lhe populaLlon
!"#$%&'( B9#/ $#&' #1+ 7'$#&' 4-:/0,-#1 *':01+#,= *:900& */8+'1/* #6'+ >?@>A ='#,* C90 9#.' *&'%/
708, 908,* 0, &'** %', 1-69/ 70, /9,'' :01*':8/-.' 1-69/* C-&& #:9-'.' # *-61-7-:#1/&= &0C', *:0,' 01 #1
12" %"("343,5 +6 $, $#$%& +% ,+7
12" $8+9,7 +6 :79&; *8" 72" :79&",7 ",5$5": 3,
?9@"%3,5 6%+8 &")%"::3+, +% ,+7
12" %$*+ +6 ,"5$*4" $,& )+:3*4" "<)"%3",(":
12" )37(2 +6 72" 4+3("
=2"72"% 72"; #"%" >;3,5 +% ,+7
!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 2 of 14
0,#& :0$%,'9'1*-01 /'*/ /9#1 /90*' C90 9#.' '"%',-'1:'+ $0,' /9#1 708, 908,* *&''% 70, /9,''
:01*':8/-.' 1-69/*D
AC1IVI1: ConsLrucL a research hypoLhesls for Lhe followlng by flrsL operaLlonallslng Lhe lv and uv and
suggesLlng an approprlaLe populaLlon Lo be used for Lhe experlmenL.
8ecelvlng an award for sLudylng wlll lncrease Lhe amounL of Llme sLudenLs engage ln sLudylng.
CperaLlonallse Lhe lv: ....................................................
CperaLlonallse Lhe uv: ....................................................
opulaLlon: .........................................................
8esearch PypoLhesls:
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
eople who suffer from depresslon recall more negaLlve experlences Lhan poslLlve experlences.
CperaLlonallse Lhe lv: ...................................................
CperaLlonallse Lhe uv: ....................................................
opulaLlon: ..........................................................
8esearch PypoLhesls:
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
..................................................................
When a researcher conducLs an experlmenL Lhey would llke Lo conclude LhaL any changes ln Lhe uv ls due Lo
Lhe lv, buL Lhls can only happen lf all oLher varlables LhaL could have affecLed Lhe uv are conLrolled for,
mlnlmlsed or ellmlnaLed. Any varlable oLher Lhan Lhe lv LhaL can cause a change ln Lhe uv ls called an
extraneous var|ab|e and are unwanLed as Lhey can compromlse Lhe experlmenL by maklng lL dlfflculL Lo
conclude whaL caused Lhe change ln Lhe uv. ConsequenLly, researchers Lry Lo ldenLlfy exLraneous varlables
prlor Lo conducLlng Lhe experlmenL and Lhen Lry Lo conLrol, mlnlmlse or ellmlnaLe Lhem by alLerlng how Lhey
selecL Lhelr sample or how Lhey conducL Lhelr experlmenL.
SomeLlmes desplLe Lhese efforLs a researcher may flnd, LhaL afLer conducLlng Lhe experlmenL Lhey can sLlll noL
be cerLaln LhaL Lhe lv caused Lhe change ln Lhe uv or LhaL lL was an exLraneous varlable LhaL caused Lhe
change Lo Lhe uv lnsLead. lf Lhls ls Lhe case Lhen Lhe exLraneous varlable becomes a confound|ng var|ab|e
because lLs effecLs are mlxed up wlLh Lhe lv and Lhe researcher cannoL conclude LhaL Lhe changes Lo Lhe uv
were due Lo Lhe lv alone.
!"#$%& %"(")*+, -./0
!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 3 of 14
A confoundlng varlable ls dlfferenL from an exLraneous varlable because a confoundlng varlable produces a
measureable change ln Lhe uv LhaL ls conslsLenL wlLh whaL was predlcLed ln Lhe research hypoLhesls whereas
an exLraneous varlable may or may noL affecL Lhe uv. Powever, boLh Lypes of varlables can cause problems
for Lhe researcher ln lsolaLlng Lhe real effecL of Lhe lv. (Crlvas pages 22-23)
AC1IVI1: An experlmenL was conducLed Lo LesL wheLher people make fewer errors ln deLecLlng spelllng
errors ln an lnLeresLlng LexL Lhan ln a borlng one. 1wo groups of randomly selecLed and allocaLed parLlclpanLs
were used. Croup 1 looked for errors ln a physlcs LexL on sLrlng Lheory (a borlng Lask) and Croup 2 looked for
errors ln Lhe scrlpL of a 1wlllghL movle (an lnLeresLlng Lask). 1he resulLs show LhaL Croup 1 deLecLed
slgnlflcanLly fewer spelllng errors LhaL dld Croup 2. ldenLlfy Lhe lv, uv and a poLenLlal confoundlng varlable ln
Lhe experlmenL. Lxplaln your cholce of confoundlng varlable.
lv: ..............................................................
uv: ..............................................................
Confoundlng varlable:
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
An experlmenL was conducLed by Parry Parlow Lo see wheLher lnfanL monkeys prefer conLacL comforL Lo
provlslon of feedlng ln Lhelr cholce of moLhers". newborn monkeys were placed ln a cage wlLh Lwo surrogaLe
wlre moLhers. Cne wlre moLher had a monkey llke face and was covered ln a cloLh Lo make lL feel sofL and
comforLlng. 1he oLher wlre monkey had an alllgaLor llke face, was lefL bare buL had a boLLle of mllk aLLached
Lo lL for feedlng. lL was found LhaL Lhe newborn monkeys spenL Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhelr Llme cllnglng Lo Lhe cloLh
covered moLher and only wenL Lo Lhe bare wlre moLher Lo feed. lL was concluded LhaL conLacL comforL was
more lmporLanL Lhan feedlng. ldenLlfy Lhe lv, uv and a poLenLlal confoundlng varlable ln Lhe experlmenL.
Lxplaln your cholce of confoundlng varlable.
lv: ..............................................................
uv: ..............................................................
Confoundlng varlable:
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
Some speclflc exLraneous and poLenLlal confoundlng varlables LhaL you have been asked Lo learn abouL are
lndlvldual parLlclpanL dlfferences, non-sLandardlsed lnsLrucLlons and procedures, order effecLs, experlmenLer
effecL and placebo effecLs. (Crlvas pages 24-31)
Ind|v|dua| part|c|pant d|fferences: Lhese are Lhe dlfferences ln personal characLerlsLlcs and experlences of Lhe
lndlvldual parLlclpanLs ln Lhe experlmenL whlch makes an lndlvldual dlfferenL from anoLher such as age. Lach
of Lhese characLerlsLlcs and prlor experlences can affecL how an lndlvldual responds ln an experlmenL. (Crlvas
page 24)

!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 4 of 14
AC1IVI1: LlsL aL leasL 10 characLerlsLlcs and experlences LhaL can be dlfferenL beLween lndlvlduals.
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
Non-standard|sed |nstruct|ons and procedures: 1he lnsLrucLlons and procedures glven Lo parLlclpanLs can
have an lmpacL on how Lhey respond. When each parLlclpanL or group of parLlclpanLs ls glven lnsLrucLlons or
procedures dlfferenL Lo each oLher Lhls can become a source of exLraneous and poLenLlally confoundlng
varlables. (Crlvas page 31)
AC1IVI1: Lxplaln how non-sLandardlsed lnsLrucLlons can be a source of exLraneous and poLenLlally
confoundlng varlables.
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
Crder effects: Lhls occurs when performance, as measured by Lhe uv, ls lnfluenced by Lhe speclflc order ln
whlch Lhe condlLlons, LreaLmenLs or Lasks are presenLed, ln LhaL performlng one Lask affecLs Lhe performance
of anoLher Lask. 1hls ls a problem lf Lhe same parLlclpanLs are asked Lo perform Lhe same Lask under dlfferenL
LreaLmenL condlLlons. 1wo Lypes of order effecLs are pracLlce effecLs and carry-over effecLs. (Crlvas page 29-
30)
AC1IVI1: ulsLlngulsh beLween pracLlce effecLs and carry-over effecLs wlLh reference Lo how Lhese order
effecLs can lead Lo hlgher or lower scores on a measure of Lhe uv.
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
Lxper|menter effect: 8esearchers can brlng expecLaLlons Lo Lhe experlmenL LhaL may cause Lhem Lo
unlnLenLlonally lnfluence parLlclpanLs' responses. 1hus an experlmenLer effecL occurs when Lhere ls a change
ln a parLlclpanL's response due Lo Lhe experlmenLer's expecLaLlons, blases or acLlons raLher Lhan Lhe effecL of
Lhe lv. (Crlvas pages 28-29)
AC1IVI1: WhaL ls experlmenLer expecLancy and how can lL produce a self-fulfllllng prophecy or an
experlmenLer blas?
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
..................................................................


!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 3 of 14
Lxplaln why experlmenLer effecLs are poLenLlal confoundlng varlables.
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
|acebo effect: 1hls refers Lo an lmprovemenL ln healLh or well-belng due Lo an lndlvldual's bellef LhaL Lhe
LreaLmenL glven Lo Lhem wlll be effecLlve. lL ls evldenL when a paLlenL recovers from an lllness or paln afLer
Lhey have been glven a subsLance LhaL has no acLual medlclnal or LherapeuLlc value. 1hls subsLance ls referred
Lo as a placebo. (Crlvas pages 27-28)
AC1IVI1: AfLer readlng Lhe LexLbook glve an example noL used ln Lhe LexL LhaL demonsLraLes Lhe placebo
effecL.
.................................................................
.................................................................
..................................................................
1here are a number of ways of mlnlmlslng confoundlng and exLraneous varlables lncludlng Lype of sampllng
procedures, Lype of experlmenL, counLerbalanclng, slngle and double-bllnd procedures, placebos,
sLandardlsed lnsLrucLlons and procedures. (Crlvas pages 31-42)
1he exLenL Lo whlch exLraneous and poLenLlally confoundlng varlables are anLlclpaLed and conLrolled for
deLermlnes Lhe quallLy of an experlmenL and Lhe rellablllLy and valldlLy of Lhe resulLs obLalned.
Pow parLlclpanLs are selecLed and how Lhey are asslgned Lo dlfferenL groups ln a research are lmporLanL
componenLs of any research and ln lnLerpreLlng Lhe resulLs obLalned. 1he process of selecLlng parLlclpanLs for
a research ls called sampllng.
AC1IVI1: uslng Crlvas (page 32) deflne Lhe followlng Lerms and glve examples.
opulaLlon:
.................................................................
..................................................................
Sample:
.................................................................
.................................................................
Counterba|anc|ng ls a procedure used Lo conLrol for order effecLs such as pracLlce effecLs and carry-over
effecLs. lL lnvolves changlng Lhe order of LreaLmenLs or Lasks for parLlclpanLs Lo overcome Lhe effecLs of order
on performance. 1here are Lwo Lypes of counLerbalanclng whlch can be used. Cne ls <'/C''1@%#,/-:-%#1/*
:081/',<#&#1:-16 ln whlch each group of parLlclpanLs recelves Lhe LreaLmenL ln a dlfferenL order, such as half
of Lhe parLlclpanLs experlenclng Lhe conLrol LreaLmenL flrsL followed by Lhe experlmenLal LreaLmenL and Lhe
oLher half of Lhe group experlenclng Lhe experlmenLal LreaLmenL flrsL followed by Lhe conLrol LreaLmenL. 1he
oLher Lype of counLerbalanclng ls C-/9-1@%#,/-:-%#1/* :081/',<#&#1:-16 ln whlch every parLlclpanL ls exposed
Lo Lhe LreaLmenL condlLlons ln one order and Lhen ln reverse order.
!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 6 of 14
AC1IVI1: 8ead pages 40-42 on how Lhe use of placebos, slngle and double bllnd procedures and sLandardlsed
lnsLrucLlons and procedures can be used Lo ellmlnaLe or mlnlmlse poLenLlally confoundlng varlables and Lhen
do Learnlng AcLlvlLy 1.14 pages 42-43.
1here are several dlfferenL Lypes of experlmenLal research deslgns whlch can be used ln conducLlng
experlmenLs ln psychology lncludlng lndependenL-groups, maLched parLlclpanLs and repeaLed-measures.
1hese experlmenLal deslgns can help mlnlmlse Lhe effecLs of exLraneous and poLenLlally confoundlng
varlables, especlally Lhose assoclaLed wlLh lndlvldual dlfferences. (Crlvas pages 43-47)
Independent groups des|gn: 1hls ls an experlmenLal deslgn ln whlch each parLlclpanL ls randomly allocaLed Lo
one of Lwo (or more) separaLe groups. 1hls process of randomly allocaLlng parLlclpanLs ls done afLer
parLlclpanL selecLlon buL before Lhe experlmenL beglns. 1he allocaLlon of parLlclpanLs needs Lo be random so
as Lo (hopefully) unlformly dlsLrlbuLe parLlclpanL characLerlsLlcs across Lhe groups. Powever, Lhls Lype of
deslgn does noL guaranLee LhaL Lhe groups of parLlclpanLs lnvolved ln Lhe experlmenL are exacLly" equlvalenL.
lL ls one of Lhe more common Lypes of research deslgn.
Matched part|c|pants des|gn: SomeLlmes lL ls of greaL lmporLance Lo Lhe research LhaL Lhe experlmenLal
groups be exacLly" equlvalenL, ln Lhls case parLlclpanLs are flrsL maLched lnLo palrs (or LrlpleLs) ln Lerms of Lhe
parLlclpanL varlables Lhe researcher seeks Lo conLrol and Lhen one member of each palr (or LrlpleL) ls
randomly allocaLed lnLo elLher Lhe experlmenLal group(s) or conLrol group. 1hls can be Llme consumlng as
ofLen parLlclpanLs need Lo be pre-LesLed Lo Lhen be able Lo maLch Lhem and Lhe pre-LesLlng lLself can creaLe
order effecLs. Also, lf one member of Lhe maLched palr (LrlpleL) wlLhdraws Lhen Lhe maLched parLlclpanLs also
have Lo be removed. WlLh Lhls ln mlnd, Lhls Lype of deslgn ls noL ofLen used as ofLen random allocaLlon alone
ls sufflclenL Lo conLrol lndlvldual dlfferences of parLlclpanLs.
kepeated measures des|gn: AnoLher way of conLrolllng lndlvldual dlfferences of parLlclpanLs ls Lo use Lhe
same parLlclpanLs ln Lhe experlmenLal condlLlon. Powever, Lhe researcher has Lo conslder order effecLs LhaL
may arlse from Lhls experlmenLal deslgn, buL Lhls deslgn does ellmlnaLe poLenLlal confoundlng varlables
arlslng from lndlvldual parLlclpanL dlfferences.
AC1IVI1: CompleLe Learnlng AcLlvlLy 1.16 page 49 and Learnlng AcLlvlLy 1.17 page 30
lL ls also lmporLanL LhaL you know Lhe reporLlng convenLlons as per Lhe AA formaL. 1hese are well esLabllshed
and wldely recognlsed sLandards abouL how a reporL ls wrlLLen and presenLed. 1he language of a reporL ls
formal, clear, conclse, wrlLLen ln Lhe pasL Lense and ln Lhe Lhlrd person. ages 83-87 of Crlvas goes Lhrough
whaL a reporL should lnclude based on Lhe AA manual.
AC1IVI1: ConsLrucL a flow charL LhaL deplcLs Lhe dlfferenL secLlons and order of a research reporL. lnclude
Lhe LlLle and a brlef descrlpLlon for each secLlon.
Samp||ng procedures |n se|ect|ons and a||ocat|on of part|c|pants: random samp||ng, strat|f|ed
samp||ng, random strat|f|ed samp||ng, conven|ence samp||ng, random a||ocat|on of part|c|pants to
groups, contro| and exper|menta| groups.
As menLloned earller Lhe sampllng procedures ln selecLlng and allocaLlng Lhe parLlclpanLs ln a sLudy can
lmpacL on Lhe resulLs obLalned. (Crlvas page 33-38)

!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 7 of 14
AC1IVI1: ln Lhe spaces provlded deflne each of Lhe followlng Lypes of sampllng procedures and glve an
example for each one.
Convenlence sampllng:
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
8andom sampllng:
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
SLraLlfled sampllng:
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
8andom sLraLlfled sampllng:
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
..................................................................
AC1IVI1: CompleLe Learnlng AcLlvlLy 1.10 pages 36-37.
Cnce parLlclpanLs are selecLed Lhey Lhen need Lo be allocaLed Lo Lhe dlfferenL groups LhaL may be used ln Lhe
experlmenL. lL ls lmporLanL LhaL Lhls ls done as carefully as Lhe selecLlon process
AC1IVI1: 8ead pages 37-38 and answer Lhe followlng:
WhaL ls random allocaLlon and why ls lL used ln an experlmenL?
.................................................................
.................................................................
..................................................................

WhaL ls an experlmenLal group?
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 8 of 14
WhaL ls a conLrol group and why ls lL used ln an experlmenL?
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
uo all experlmenLs have experlmenLal groups and conLrol groups? Lxplaln your answer wlLh reference Lo an
example.
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
WhaL ls Lhe dlfference beLween random sampllng and random allocaLlon?
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
1echn|ques of qua||tat|ve and quant|tat|ve data co||ect|on: case stud|es, observat|ona| stud|es, se|f-
reports, quest|onna|res
1he lnformaLlon collecLed ln a research ls called daLa LhaL wlll form Lhe resulLs of Lhe sLudy and Lhe basls of
Lhe concluslons LhaL wlll be made. Cenerally, Lhere are Lwo Lypes of daLa LhaL can be collecLed ln a research
known as quallLaLlve daLa and quanLlLaLlve daLa.
ua||tat|ve data: Lhls ls daLa LhaL ls lnformaLlon abouL Lhe quallLles or characLerlsLlcs of whaL ls belng sLudled.
1hey are descrlpLlons, words, meanlngs, plcLures, LexLs and so on. AnyLhlng a person Lhlnks feels or does can
be a source of quallLaLlve daLa.
uant|tat|ve data: Lhls ls daLa LhaL ls lnformaLlon abouL quanLlLles or amounLs lf whaL ls belng sLudled. 1hls
Lype of daLa ls usually expressed ln Lhe form of unlLs or measuremenLs or numbers.
AlLhough dlfferenL, quanLlLaLlve and quallLaLlve daLa are noL muLually excluslve and are noL ofLen used
separaLely. CuallLaLlve daLa ls ofLen converLed lnLo quanLlLaLlve daLa Lo enable more preclse and deLalled
analysls Lhrough Lhe use of sLaLlsLlcal procedures.
AC1IVI1: lor Lhe followlng scenarlos ldenLlfy whlch Lype of daLa collecLlon ls more llkely Lo be used. Lxplaln
your answer.
A researcher compares how Crade 1 sLudenLs respond when LaughL a new meLhod ln maLhs.
................................................................
A researcher ls lnLeresLed ln Lhe reacLlon Llmes of drlvers who have Laken cold and flu medlcaLlon.
................................................................

!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 9 of 14
A researcher ls lnLeresLed ln Lhe drawlngs of long Lerm hosplLallsed cancer paLlenLs.
.................................................................
A researcher observes how long males and females ln a bar Lake, when Lhey go Lo Lhe baLhroom elLher alone
or wlLh someone else.
.................................................................
WhllsL Lhe experlmenLal meLhod ls ofLen used Lo LesL for a cause-effecL relaLlonshlp beLween varlables under
conLrolled condlLlons Lhere are oLher meLhods for researchers use Lo collecL daLa Lo lnvesLlgaLe and LesL
hypoLheses on Loplcs of lnLeresL. 1hese meLhods lnclude case sLudles, observaLlonal sLudles, self-reporLs and
quesLlonnalres. (Crlvas pages 33-61)
AC1IVI1: uslng your LexLbook, compleLe Lhe followlng Lable:
1ype of data co||ect|on Descr|pt|on and examp|e Advantages D|sadvantages
Case sLudles





























CbservaLlonal SLudles






























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Self-reporLs


































CuesLlonnalres




































Stat|st|cs: measures of centra| tendency |nc|ud|ng mean, med|an and mode, |nterpretat|on of p-
va|ues and conc|us|ons, eva|uat|on of research |n terms of genera||s|ng the f|nd|ngs to the
popu|at|on.
When daLa has been collecLed Lo LesL a hypoLhesls Lhe researcher has Lo declde wheLher Lhe resulLs
supporL or noL supporL Lhe hypoLhesls. 1he researcher also needs Lo be able Lo draw concluslons relaLlng
Lo Lhe hypoLhesls and based on Lhe resulLs obLalned. 8esearchers use sLaLlsLlcs Lo analyse and descrlbe Lhe
daLa collecLed. 1here are Lwo maln Lypes of sLaLlsLlcs whlch are descrlpLlve sLaLlsLlcs and lnferenLlal
sLaLlsLlcs.

!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 11 of 14
Descr|pt|ve stat|st|cs: Lhese are used for analyslng, organlslng, summarlslng and descrlblng Lhe resulLs,
such as measures of cenLral Lendency whlch lnclude mean, medlan and mode. 1he mean ls Lhe average of
all Lhe lndlvldual scores whlch ls calculaLed by addlng up all Lhe scores and dlvldlng Lhe answer by Lhe
number of scores. 1he mean ls useful when lL ls represenLaLlve of Lhe Lyplcal score, however when scores
are wldely spread, unevenly dlsLrlbuLed or clusLer around exLreme values Lhen Lhe mean can be
mlsleadlng so Lhe medlan and mode mlghL be consldered lnsLead. 1he medlan ls Lhe cenLral polnL ln a seL
of scores afLer Lhe scores have been arranged ln order of slze. 1he medlan ls useful lf Lhere ls llmlLed daLa
or when Lhere are many exLreme scores because lL ls noL affecLed by Lhe exLreme scores llke a mean ls.
Powever, lL can be lmpracLlcal Lo deLermlne lf Lhere ls a large number of scores. 1he mode ls Lhe mosL
frequenLly occurrlng score ln a seL of scores. 1he mode ls noL used ofLen as lL ls ofLen noL represenLaLlve of
a compleLe seL of daLa. (Crlvas pages 64 -66)
AC1IVI1: CalculaLe Lhe measures of cenLral Lendency (mean, medlan and mode) on Lhe followlng seL of
scores obLalned ln a research on a LesL of memory.
14, 11, 9, 10, 13, 16, 14, 12, 13, 11, 14, 16, 16, 18, 13, 17, 14, 13, 17 and 8











Inferent|a| stat|st|cs: Lhese are sLaLlsLlcs used Lo make [udgemenLs or declslons abouL whaL Lhe resulLs
collecLed from research mean, Lhey also enable Lhe researcher Lo deLermlne Lhe sLaLlsLlcal slgnlflcance of
Lhe resulLs. SLaLlsLlcal slgnlflcance ls used Lo lndlcaLe wheLher Lhe dlfference ln Lhe resulLs obLalned from
Lhe experlmenLal and conLrol groups ls a real dlfference LhaL ls due Lo Lhe lv and probably noL due Lo
chance facLors alone. WhaL ls an accepLable dlfference? Pow blg does Lhe dlfference beLween Lhe mean
scores of Lwo groups need Lo be ln order Lo say LhaL Lhe dlfference ls noL due Lo chance? 1he slgnlflcance
level of any dlfference ls called Lhe p-value wlLh p sLandlng for probablllLy. -values are used Lo see lf Lhe
probablllLy of a resulL was due Lo chance or noL. As a researcher you wanL Lo be qulLe sure LhaL any
changes observed or measured ln Lhe uv ls due Lo Lhe lv and noL due Lo chance. A p-value of < 0.03 ls
saylng LhaL Lhe resulLs are due Lo Lhe lv wlLh only a 3 probablllLy LhaL Lhe changes were due Lo chance.
1hls ls an accepLable level ln psychology and aL Lhls level lL would be sald LhaL Lhe resulLs supporL Lhe
hypoLhesls. Any p-value hlgher Lhan Lhls would noL be consldered accepLable, such as p < 0.06 whlch
!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 12 of 14
would lndlcaLe LhaL Lhe changes Lo Lhe uv have a 6 probablllLy of belng due Lo chance Lhls would be
unaccepLable and lL would generally be sald LhaL Lhe resulLs dld noL supporL Lhe hypoLhesls. SomeLlmes
Lhe p-value can be wrlLLen as p > 0.03 meanlng LhaL Lhere ls a 93 probablllLy of Lhe changes observed ln
Lhe uv belng due Lo chance Lhls ls deflnlLely noL accepLable so always check Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe slgn
beLween Lhe p and Lhe number. SomeLlmes a researcher wanLs Lo be even more sure LhaL any changes
observed or measured ln Lhe uv ls due Lo Lhe lv and noL chance so a p-value of < 0.001 would be seL
meanlng LhaL Lhe probablllLy of Lhe changes observed belng due Lo chance ls 0.1. lf Lhe resulLs are
sLaLlsLlcally slgnlflcanL aL p < 0.001 Lhen Lhe researcher would be confldenL LhaL Lhe changes observed ln
Lhe uv are due Lo Lhe lv and Lhe hypoLhesls ls supporLed. 1he accepLable p-value for Lhe resulLs ls always
esLabllshed before Lhe experlmenL ls conducLed. (Crlvas pages 71 - 72)

AC1IVI1: WrlLe Lhe meanlng of Lhe followlng p values as Lhey apply Lo Lhe flndlngs of an experlmenL:
p < 0.001, p < 0.01, p <0.10. Make sure LhaL you refer Lo Lhe probable roles of chance and Lhe lv.
..............................................................
..............................................................
..............................................................
Whlch of Lhe p values sLaLed ln Lhe above acLlvlLy can be lnLerpreLed as belng Lhe mosL slgnlflcanL? Lxplaln
your answer.
..............................................................
..............................................................
Whlch of Lhe above p values sLaLed above can be lnLerpreLed as belng Lhe leasL slgnlflcanL? Lxplaln your
answer.
..............................................................
..............................................................
Suppose you conducLed a sLudy and obLalned resulLs wlLh a p-value LhaL ls noL < 0.03, whaL could you
conclude abouL Lhe resulLs?
..............................................................
...............................................................
Conc|us|ons and genera||sat|ons: A concluslon ls a [udgemenL abouL whaL Lhe resulLs obLalned from an
lnvesLlgaLlon mean. lL relaLes Lo wheLher Lhe hypoLhesls ls supporLed or re[ecLed on Lhe basls of Lhe
resulLs obLalned. ln sclence a hypoLhesls can be supporLed or re[ecLed buL cannoL be proven Lrue because
no maLLer how much supporL a researcher flnds for Lhelr hypoLhesls, Lhere may sLlll be oLher explanaLlons
LhaL could beLLer explaln Lhe ouLcomes LhaL have been observed. unconLrolled exLraneous varlables and
poLenLlal confoundlng varlables also need Lo be consldered when drawlng a concluslon so Lhe researcher
can be confldenL LhaL any change Lo Lhe uv ls due Lo Lhe lv. A generallsaLlon ls a [udgemenL abouL how
wldely Lhe flndlngs of a sLudy can be applled Lo oLher members of Lhe populaLlon from whlch Lhe sample
was drawn from. 1hls can only be done lf Lhe sample used ls represenLaLlve of Lhe populaLlon of lnLeresL. A
generallsaLlon musL also be based on Lhe resulLs obLalned and musL conslder Lhe poLenLlal exLraneous
varlables and any oLher problems wlLh Lhe sLudy. (Crlvas pages 73 -74)
!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 13 of 14
eth|ca| pr|nc|p|es and profess|ona| conduct: the ro|e of the exper|menter, protect|on and secur|ty of
part|c|pants' r|ghts, conf|dent|a||ty, vo|untary part|c|pat|on, w|thdrawa| r|ghts, |nformed consent
procedures, use of decept|on |n research, debr|ef|ng.
1he Lerms eLhlcs refers Lo sLandards LhaL gulde lndlvlduals Lo ldenLlfy good, deslrable or accepLable
conducL.
ko|e of the exper|menter: Lhe researcher ls responslble for ensurlng LhaL Lhe research ls conducLed so
LhaL Lhe well-belng of Lhe parLlclpanL ls Lhe maln concern and are noL placed aL rlsk of ln[ury or harm ln
any way elLher physlcally or psychologlcally. lf unexpecLed sLress reacLlons of slgnlflcance occur Lhe
researcher musL LermlnaLe Lhe experlmenL and allevlaLe Lhe sLress. lf a procedure lnvolves hlgh levels of
emoLlonal arousal Lhe researcher musL ensure LhaL psychologlcally vulnerable persons do noL parLlclpaLe.
1he researcher musL remaln professlonal aL all Llmes and may noL use Lhelr poslLlon of auLhorlLy Lo
pressure parLlclpanLs lnLo parLlclpaLlng. 1he researcher musL ensure LhaL Lhe parLlclpanLs' rlghLs are
proLecLed and secure aL all Llmes. (Crlvas pages 78 - 79)
art|c|pants' r|ghts: 1hese conslsL of Lhe rlghL Lo confldenLlallLy, Lhe rlghL Lo volunLary parLlclpaLlon, Lhe
rlghL Lo wlLhdraw and Lhe rlghL Lo be lnformed and Lherefore glve consenL. Whenever posslble Lhese rlghLs
musL be explalned Lo Lhe parLlclpanL prlor Lo Lhe experlmenL belng conducLed. (Crlvas page 79)
ConfldenLlallLy: parLlclpanLs have Lhe rlghL Lo prlvacy so any deLalls of Lhelr lnvolvemenL ln a sLudy
cannoL be revealed ln a manner LhaL allows Lhem Lo be ldenLlfled, unless Lhelr wrlLLen consenL ls
obLalned.
volunLary parLlclpaLlon: parLlclpanLs have Lhe rlghL Lo volunLeer Lo be lnvolved ln Lhe experlmenL. 1hey
musL noL be pressured lnLo parLlclpaLlng and musL noL experlence negaLlve consequences for chooslng
noL Lo parLlclpaLe.
WlLhdrawal rlghLs: parLlclpanLs have Lhe rlghL Lo be lnformed of Lhe naLure of Lhe research and LhaL
Lhey are free Lo parLlclpaLe, noL Lo parLlclpaLe or remove Lhemselves from Lhe sLudy aL any Llme,
wlLhouL glvlng a reason and noL experlence any negaLlve consequences for dolng so.
lnformed consenL procedures: whenever approprlaLe parLlclpanLs have Lhe rlghL Lo be lnformed of Lhe
naLure and purpose of Lhe research before provldlng wrlLLen consenL for parLlclpaLlng. 1hls needs Lo
lnclude lnformaLlon abouL Lhe purpose, meLhods, demands, rlsks, lnconvenlences, dlscomforLs and
posslble ouLcomes of Lhe research lncludlng Lhe llkellhood of publlcaLlon. lor parLlclpanLs who are
legally lncapable of glvlng lnformed consenL Lhe researcher musL obLaln lnformed consenL from Lhose
who are legally responslble for Lhe welfare of Lhe poLenLlal parLlclpanL.
Use of decept|on |n research: SomeLlmes glvlng parLlclpanLs speclflc lnformaLlon regardlng Lhe research
belng underLaken may lnfluence how Lhey Lhlnk, feel or behave durlng Lhe research and Lherefore affecL
Lhe resulLs. ln Lhls case, a researcher can sLlll conducL Lhe experlmenL wlLhouL fully lnformlng Lhe
parLlclpanL of lLs Lrue purpose prlor Lo sLarLlng Lhe experlmenL, however, researchers musL ensure LhaL
parLlclpanLs do noL suffer dlsLress from Lhe research procedure and debrlef Lhem fully aL Lhe end. (Crlvas
page 80)
Debr|ef|ng: 1hls process lnvolves clarlfylng parLlclpanLs undersLandlng of Lhe research sLudy afLer lL has
been conducLed. 8esearchers need Lo correcL any mlsLaken aLLlLudes or bellefs LhaL parLlclpanLs may have
abouL Lhe research, Lhey also need Lo provlde lnformaLlon abouL servlces avallable Lo LreaL any dlsLress
LhaL may have arlsen from Lhelr parLlclpaLlon ln Lhe sLudy. Cnce Lhe enLlre sLudy has been compleLed, Lhe
!ulle CllleLL C:\users\[ugllleLL\uocumenLs\sychology\?ear12 sych unlL 4\8LSLA8CP ML1PCuS workbook.docx age 14 of 14
researcher musL provlde an opporLunlLy for parLlclpanLs Lo obLaln approprlaLe lnformaLlon abouL Lhe
sLudy, lncludlng lLs procedures, resulLs and concluslons. (Crlvas page 80)
AC1IVI1: uo Learnlng AcLlvlLy 1.28 page 84