Grasslands in the wider sense are among the largest ecosystems in the world (Figure 1.

1); their area is estimated at 52.5 million square kilometres, or 40.5 percent of the terrestrial area excluding Greenland and Antarctica (World Resources Institute, 2000, based on IGBP data). In contrast, 13.8 percent of the global land area (excluding Greenland and Antarctica) is woody savannah and savannah; 12.7 percent is open and closed shrub; 8.3 percent is non-woody grassland ; and 5.7 percent is tundra. In its narrow sense, grassland may be defined as ground covered by vegetation dominated by grasses, with little or no tree cover; UNESCO defines grassland as land covered with herbaceous plants with less than 10 percent tree and shrub cover and wooded grassland as 1040 percent tree and shrub cover (White, 1983). Extensive grassland s have multiple uses in addition to being a very important source of livestock feed and of livelihoods for stock raisers and herders. Most grasslands are important catchment areas and the management of their vegetation is of primordial importance for the water resources of downstream lands; mismanagement of the grazing not only damages the pasture , but, since it increases erosion and run-off, can cause serious damage to agricultural land and infrastructure lower in the catchment and cause siltation of irrigation systems and reservoirs. The main benefits of good catchment management mainly accrue to communities outside the grasslands, but the maintenance efforts have to be made by herders or ranchers. These grasslands are major reserves of biodiversity , providing important wildlife habitat and in situ conservation of genetic resources. In some regions, grasslands are important for tourism and leisure, and may have sites of religious significance (Plate 1.15); in other areas, wild foods, medicines and other useful products are collected (Plate 1.16). Grasslands are a very large carbon sink at world level. Minahi et al. (1993) state that they are almost as important as forests in the recycling of greenhouse gasses and that soil organic matter under grassland is of the same magnitude as in tree biomass; the carbon storage capacity under grassland can be increased by avoiding tillage. 2005 grasslands of the world Table 1.1 Grassland definitions (2009 grasses and grassland ecology) Definition Source . . . the great empty middle of our continent . . . is indivisible. It endures . . . aridity is the first defining and implacable factor . . . a place of journeys . . . treeless plains . . . Manning (1995) . . . a plant community in which the Gramineae are dominants and trees absent. Milner and Hughes (1968)

. . . a vegetation type dominated by grasses but containing many broadleaf herbs (forbs). Bazzaz and Parrish (1982) Land on which the vegetation is dominated by grasses. The Forage and Grazing Terminology Committee (1992) A general lack of woody vegetation helps define grasslands . . . Knapp and Seastedt (1998) [grasslands] . . . are dominated primarily by grasses (Gramineae) and grass-like plants (mostly Cyperaceae) . . . climates generally have distinct wet and dry seasons and are noted for temperature and precipitation extremes. Sims (1988) . . . terrestrial ecosystems dominated by herbaceous and shrub vegetation, and maintained by fire, grazing, drought and/or freezing temperatures. Pilot Assessment of Global Ecosystems; White et al. (2000). One-fourth or more of the total vegetation consists of primarily herbaceous communities in which the Gramineae are the dominant life form . . . the grasses give character and unity of vegetal structure to the landscape . . . . an overstory of scattered trees and shrubs may be present. Kucera (1981) . . . any plant community, including harvested forages, in which grasses and/or legumes make up the dominant vegetation. Barnes and Nelson (2003) A region with sufficient average annual precipitation (2575 cm [1030 inches]) to support grass but not trees. Stiling (1999) <1 tree per 5 acres . . . on slopes of 24% Anderson (1991) . . . types of vegetation that are subject to periodic drought, that have a canopy dominated by grass and grasslike species, and that grow where there are fewer than 10 to 15 trees per hectare. Grasslands have been lived in and used by people throughout human history. Inevitably this has led to tremendous changes, and most recently the loss of much of this biome. The major modifications to grassland cover are due to: agriculture

 fragmentation invasive non-native species fire (lack of) desertification urbanization/human Globally, there has been large-scale conversion of grassland to human-dominated uses; of the worlds 13 terrestrial biomes, 45.8% of temperate grasslands, savannahs and shrublands, 23.6% of tropical/subtropical grasslands, savannahs, and shrublands, 26.6% of flooded grasslands and savannahs, and 12.7% of montane grasslands and shrublands have been converted (Hoekstra et al. 2005). With only 4.6% of the habitat protected, temperate grasslands, savannahs, and shrublands have a higher Conservation Risk Index (ratio of habitat converted to habitat protected 10:1) than

any of the other terrestrial biomes. This means that habitat conversion exceeds protection in grasslands more than in any other terrestrial biome; only 1 ha of grassland is protected for every 10 ha lost. The Conservation Science ProgramWorld Wildlife FundUS Global 200 programme identified 17 grassland ecoregions worldwide that are critically endangered (Table 1.7), with an additional 13 that are considered vulnerable (Olson and Dinerstein 2002). Ecoregions are fine-scale regional ecological areas within a biome that are characterized by local geography and climate and a unique assemblages of species. The critically

endangered and vulnerable grassland ecoregions comprise some of the worlds most diverse and spectacular grasslands, including, for example, the TeraiDuar savannahs and grasslands in southern Asia, which are alluvial grasslands dominated by 7 m high Saccharum spp. (elephant grass) and Asias highest density of tigers, rhinos, and ungulates. Other critically endangered areas include the South African fynbos and south-west Australian forests and scrub ecoregions, both of which include extensive grassy components and harbour very high levels of diversity and endemism. All of the critically endangered areas identified in the Global 200 programme are suffering the effects of habitat loss and alteration. The greatest alteration to grasslands worldwide has been through transformation to agricultural land creating in many places a grassland/ agricultural mosaic, or in other areas wholesale conversion to agriculture (Fig. 1.2). The greatest loss of grassland area is in North America where only 9.4% of the original tallgrass prairie remains (Table 1.6). Locally the loss can be even greater, as in the state of Illinois, where only 0.01% (9.5 km2) of high-quality native prairie remained by 1978 (Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources 1994). Ten other states have also reported declines of 90% in the extent of tallgrass prairie. Globally, large areas of grassland have also been converted to agriculture in South

America and Oceania (21% and 56.7% remaining, respectively). In all areas, grassland loss is predominantly through conversion to cropland rather than to urban areas. Excluding agricultural mosaics from remaining grasslands reduces global grassland area by c.7.1 106 km2, particularly in subSaharan Africa (3.5 106 km2) (White et al. 2000). Substantial areas in South America (1.4 106 km2) and Asia (1.2 106 km2) have also been altered by agriculture (Fig. 1.2). 1.4 Grassland goods and services All grasslands are dominated by members of the Poaceae family, the fifth most speciose family (7500 species) (Chapter 2), and the most widespread. Grasses are also the most important food crop on earth, with corn, wheat, maize, rice, and millet accounting for most crops grown for food. (The Fabaceae with the legumes including soybean, beans, lentils, pulses, and peas are also important food crops and perhaps come second.) The richness of grassland biodiversity is exemplified by the following observations summarized from White et al.s (2000) analysis: Forty of the worlds 234 Centres of Plant Diversity (CPD) identified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)-World Conservation Union and World Wildlife Fund-US occur in grasslands, with an additional 70 CPDs containing some grassland habitat.

To qualify as a CPD mainland areas must contain 1000 vascular plants with 10% endemism. Grassland/savannah/scrub is the main habitat in 23 of 217 Endemic Bird Areas identified by Birdlife International, of which 3 have the highest rank for biological importance (Peruvian High Andes, central Chile, and southern Patagonia). Thirty-five of 136 terrestrial ecoregions identified on the basis of outstanding diversity and as priorities for conservation by the World Wildlife Fund-US Global 200 programme are grassland. Ten of 32 North American and 9 of 34 Latin American grassland ecoregions are rated as globally outstanding for biological distinctiveness by the World Wildlife Fund-US. As with other biomes, there is growing concern over the loss of biodiversity through habitat loss and alteration (see above). White et al. (2000) identified 697 areas worldwide that were at least 10 km2 in size and 50% grassland cover that were afforded IUCN category I, II, or III level of protection (i.e. nature reserve, wilderness area, national park or monument status). These areas totalled 3.9 106 km2, more than the 1.6 106 km2 of similarly protected forest, but only 7.6% of the total 52 106 km2 of grasslands worldwide. dise stevens 2005 N dep and reduction We focus on grasslands for two reasons. Firstly, grasslands are readily measured and manipulated, and they encompass most of the ecological functions and

biogeochemical linkages of other terrestrial systems. Equally important is the intrinsic value of grasslands themselves. Grasslands (including shrubland and tundra) cover 40% of the Earths land surface and are home to almost a billion people (Revenga et al. 1998). In Europe, a disproportionate amount of biodiversity occurs in grasslands (Watkinson and Ormerod, 2001); they are particularly known as valuable habitat for insects and birds, whose diversity has also been documented as declining (e.g. Thomas et al., 2004). In addition, in the UK approximately 60% of lowland grassland, heath and scrub key conservation sites (as identified by Ratcliffe, 1977) receive more than 20 kg N ha-1 y-1 as atmospheric deposition (Woodin and Farmer, 1993). In this review we ask two questions: 1. Can atmospheric nitrogen deposition reduce grassland biodiversity? 2. Is atmospheric nitrogen deposition reducing grassland biodiversity? carly thesis To identify changes in the mineralisation rate in soils as a result of eutrophication

Densitate specii native

bogatie specii antropogenice

Schimbarea antropica a compozitiei specifice

Specii invazive

biomuri

Clasificare Sistem de clasificare Clasificare Baza Mondial de Referine Staie Bolintin Fluvisoluri calcarice Fcu Luvisoluri cromice Vadu Lat Luvisoluri cromice

Clasificare FAO UNESCO (1990)

Fluvisoluri fluvicalcarice

Luvisoluri cromice Staie

Luvisoluri cromice

Materialul parental Material parental dominant Grupa general a materialului parental dominant Grupa secundar a materialului parental dominant Grupa teriar a materialului parental dominant Parametri fizici, mecanici i chimici Panta dominant Altitudine

Bolintin fluvial clay with silts and loams materiale neconsolidate fluvial clay with silts and loams

Fcu loess depuneri eoliene

Vadu Lat loess depuneri eoliene

loess

loess

Staie Bolintin 0-8 % cmpii joase i intermediare ridicat (> 3000C) fr difereniere fr difereniere 2:1 i 2:1/1 minerale fr dilatare 2:1 i 2:1/1 minerale fr dilatare foarte adnc (>120 cm) medie medie normal mediu-fin (nisip<15%, Fcu 0-8 % cmpii joase i intermediare ridicat (> 3000C) difereniere sczut mecanic sau fizic 2:1 i 2:1/1 minerale fr dilatare 2:1 minerale fr dilatare adnc (80-120 cm) medie ridicat normal fin (argil >35%) Vadu Lat 0-8 % cmpii joase i intermediare ridicat (> 3000C) difereniere sczut mecanic sau fizic 2:1 i 2:1/1 minerale fr dilatare 2:1 minerale fr dilatare adnc (80-120 cm) medie ridicat normal fin (argil >35%)

Clasa de cumul al temperaturii Diferenierea profilului de sol Mineralogia profilului de sol

Mineralogia orizontului superior

Mineralogia subsolului

Adncimea pan la roc Densitatea orizontului superior Densitatea subsolului Structura orizontului superior i a subsolului Clasa textural dominant a orizontului superior

Clasa textural dominant a susolului Carbon organic din orizontul superior Saturaia n baze a orizontului superior Saturaia n baze a subsolului Capacitatea de schimb cationic a orizontului superior Capacitatea de schimb cationic a subsolului

argil<35%) mediu-fin (nisip<15%, argil<35%) sczut (1-2%) ridicat (>75%) mare (>50%) sczut (<15 cmol+/kg) sczut (<15 cmol+/kg)

fin (argil: 35 - 60%) sczut (1-2%) ridicat (>75%) mare (>50%) medie (15 - 40 cmol+/kg) medie (15 - 40 cmol+/kg) Staie

fin (argil: 35 - 60%) sczut (1-2%) ridicat (>75%) mare (>50%) medie (15 - 40 cmol+/kg) medie (15 - 40 cmol+/kg)

Parametri hidrologici Capacitate hidrologic disponibil a orizontului superior Capacitate hidrologic disponibil a subsolului Capacitatea hidrologic potenial a orizontului superior Capacitatea hidrologic potenial a subsolului Adncimea pn la orizontul gleic Adncimea pn la un strat impermeabil Clasa hidrogeologic Tipul hidrogeologic al materialului parental

Bolintin foarte ridicat (>190 mm/m) foarte ridicat (>190 mm/m) foarte ridicat (>190 mm/m) foarte ridicat (>190 mm/m) foarte adnc adnc (> 80 cm) 2 permeabil, permite stocare

Fcu ridicat (140190 mm/m) ridicat (100190 mm/m) ridicat (140190 mm/m) medie (100140 mm/m) foarte adnc puin adnc (< 80 cm) 1 permeabil, permite stocare Staie

Vadu Lat ridicat (140190 mm/m) ridicat (100190 mm/m) ridicat (140190 mm/m) medie (100140 mm/m) foarte adnc puin adnc (< 80 cm) 1 permeabil, permite stocare

Degradare fizic Crustificare

Bolintin foarte puternic

Fcu slab

Vadu Lat slab

Erodabilitate Factori fizico-chimici ai crustificrii i erodabilitii Factorul textural al crustificrii Factorul textural al erodabilitii

puternic impact mediu foarte nefavorabil nefavorabil

slab impact favorabil mediu mediu

Staie

slab impact favorabil mediu mediu

Categorie

Parametru Clasificare Baza Mondial de Referine Clasificare FAO UNESCO (1990) Material parental dominant Grupa general a materialului parental dominant Grupa secundar a materialului parental dominant Grupa teriar a materialului parental dominant Panta dominant Altitudine Clasa de cumul al temperaturii Diferenierea profilului de sol Mineralogia profilului de sol Mineralogia orizontului superior Mineralogia subsolului Adncimea pan la roc Densitatea orizontului superior Densitatea subsolului Structura orizontului superior i a subsolului

Bolintin Fluvisoluri calcarice Fluvisoluri fluvicalcarice aluviuni argiloase materiale neconsolidate

Fcu

Vadu Lat

Sistem de clasificare

Luvisoluri cromice Luvisoluri cromice loess depuneri eoliene

Material parental

aluviuni argiloase

loess

aluviuni argiloase 0-8 %

loess

cmpii joase i intermediare ridicat (> 3000C) fr difereniere fr difereniere difereniere sczut mecanic sau fizic

Parametri fizici, mecanici i chimici

2:1 i 2:1/1 minerale fr dilatare 2:1 i 2:1/1 minerale fr dilatare foarte adnc (>120 cm) 2:1 minerale fr dilatare adnc (80-120 cm) medie medie normal ridicat

Clasa textural dominant a orizontului superior Clasa textural dominant a susolului Carbon organic din orizontul superior Saturaia n baze a orizontului superior Saturaia n baze a subsolului Capacitatea de schimb cationic a orizontului superior Capacitatea de schimb cationic a subsolului Capacitate hidrologic disponibil a orizontului superior Capacitate hidrologic disponibil a subsolului Capacitatea hidrologic potenial a orizontului superior Capacitatea hidrologic potenial a subsolului Adncimea pn la orizontul gleic Adncimea pn la un strat impermeabil Clasa hidrogeologic Tipul hidrogeologic al materialului parental Crustificare Degradare fizic Erodabilitate Factori fizico-chimici ai crustificrii i erodabilitii Factorul textural al crustificrii Factorul textural al erodabilitii

mediu-fin (nisip<15%, argil<35%) mediu-fin nisip<15%, argil<35%)

fin (argil >35%) fin (argil: 35 - 60%) sczut (1-2%) ridicat (>75%) mare (>50%)

sczut (<15 cmol+/kg) sczut (<15 cmol+/kg) foarte ridicat (>190 mm/m) foarte ridicat (>190 mm/m) foarte ridicat (>190 mm/m) foarte ridicat (>190 mm/m)

medie (15 - 40 cmol+/kg) medie (15 - 40 cmol+/kg) ridicat (140-190 mm/m)

ridicat (140-190 mm/m)

Parametri hidrologici

ridicat (140-190 mm/m)

medie (100-140 mm/m) foarte adnc

adnc (> 80 cm) 2

puin adnc (< 80 cm) 1

permeabil, permite stocare foarte puternic puternic impact mediu foarte nefavorabil nefavorabil slab slab impact favorabil mediu mediu