Students Guide

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Contents
Student's Guide
49.1 49.2 49.3 49.4 49.5 49.6 49.7 49.8 Introduction to HELM HELM Workbooks HELM Electronic Learning Resources
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2 6 12 18 32 33 41 53
General Advice to Students Studying Mathematics Some Useful Websites
List of Sections in HELM Workbooks 1 to 48 Index of Engineering Contexts in HELM Workbooks 1 to 48
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Mathematics Facts and Formulae
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49.1 Int roduction to H ELM
1. Background to the HE LM project
In 1997, funding was made available by Loughborough University for the Open Learning Project in Mathematics for Engineers which provided high-quality student-centred workbooks, computer aided learning material closely allied to the workbooks, and a strategy for computer aided assessment which can be used for self-assessment and for module assessment. For students following this open learning regime, lectures are now optional as they can now choose to study, with guidance, the mathematics independently.
The success of the Open Learning Project encouraged staff to seek funding to develop further this work resulting in the HELM project which was supported by a 250,000 HEFCE FDTL4 grant for the period Oct 2002-Sept 2005, with the ultimate aim to make high quality materials available throughout Higher Education Institutions in England and Northern Ireland.
2.
The HE LM p roject
The HELM team comprised staff at Loughborough University and four consortium partners in other English universities: Hull, Manchester, Reading and Sunderland. The projects aims were to considerably enhance, extend and thoroughly test Loughboroughs original Open Learning materials. These were to be achieved mainly by the writing of additional Workbooks and incorporating engineering examples and case studies closely related to the mathematics presented, enhancing the question databanks, upgrading the CAL segments and adding some more for basic mathematics topics, and promoting widespread trialling. The HELM projects output consists of Workbooks, Interactive Learning segments and linked Revision Tests, and a Computer Aided Assessment regime which is used to help drive the student learning, a Students Guide and a Tutors Guide. The Workbooks may be integrated into existing engineering degree programmes either by selecting isolated stand-alone units to complement other materials or by creating a
2 HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
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complete scheme of work for a semester or year or two years by selecting from the large set of Workbooks available. These may be used to support lectures or for independent learning. HELMs emphasis is on flexibility the work can be undertaken as private study, distance learning or can be teacher-led, or a combination, according to the learning style and competence of the student and the approach of the particular lecturer.
3.
HE LM project Workbooks
50 Workbooks are available which comprise:
46 Student Workbooks written specifically with the typical engineering student in mind containing mathematical and statistical topics, worked examples, tasks and related engineering examples. studies. disciplines. A Tutors Guide A Workbook containing supplementary mathematical topics and physics case A Workbook containing Engineering Case Studies ranging over many engineering A Students Guide (this document)
The main project materials are the Workbooks which are subdivided into manageable Sections. As far as possible, each Section is designed to be a self-contained piece of work that can be attempted by the student in a few hours. statements of pre-requisites and the desired learning outcomes. The Workbooks include (a) worked examples, (b) tasks for students to undertake with space for students to attempt the questions, and, often, intermediate results provided to guide them through problems in stages, and (c) exercises where normally only the answer is given. Workbook typically represents 2 to 3 weeks work. Each Workbook Section begins with
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In general, a whole
HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
4. HE LM project CA L Materials
The project has 80 CAL segments, which link to most of the lower level Mathematics and Statistics Workbooks. These enable webbased versions of the Workbooks to contain some audio and simple animations. Revision exercises with randomly generated questions are provided for the benefit of students working independently.
5.
HE LM project Assessment Regime
The HELM assessment strategy is based on using Computer-Aided Assessment (CAA)
to encourage self-assessment to verify that the appropriate skills have been learned. The projects philosophy is that assessment should be at the heart of any learning and teaching strategy and Loughborough Universitys own implementation of HELM makes extensive use of CAA to support the students' learning.
HELM provides an integrated web-delivered CAA regime for both self-testing and formal assessment. HELM has around 5000 questions; most have a page of specific feedback.
6.
HE LM Consortium and T riallist Institutions and individual Contributors
HELM learning resources have been produced primarily by a consortium of writers and developers at five universities: Hull, Loughborough, Manchester, Reading, Sunderland. The HELM consortium gratefully acknowledges the valuable support of many colleagues at their own and at the institutions listed on the next page, who have been involved in additional writing, critical reading, trialling and revising of the learning materials.
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Universities
Aston Cambridge City Glamorgan Glasgow Glasgow Caledonian Hertfordshire Leicester Liverpool London Metropolitan Northumbria Nottingham Nottingham Trent Oxford Brookes Plymouth Portsmouth Queens Belfast Robert Gordon Southampton Southampton Solent Surrey Teesside Ulster
Other HE/FE Institutions

Bournemouth & Poole College Glenrothes Institute of Applied Technology Harper Adams University College Moray College Royal Forest of Dean College Sligo Institute of Technology Westminster Kingsway College West Notts College
University of Wales Institute Cardiff
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49.2 HELM Wo rkbooks
1. List of Workbooks
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 T it l e Basic Algebra Basic Functions Equations, Inequalities & Partial Fractions Trigonometry Functions and Modelling Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Matrices Matrix Solution of Equations Vectors Complex Numbers Differentiation Applications of Differentiation Integration Applications of Integration 1 Applications of Integration 2 Sequences and Series
Pages
89 75 71 77 49 73 50 32 66 34 58 63 62 34 31 51 43 40 70 73 96 53 73 37 42 58 83 53 77 64 86 80 36 63 53 45 60 27 39 22 42
Conics and Polar Coordinates Differential Equations Laplace Transforms z-Transforms
Functions of Several Variables
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Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Fourier Series Fourier Transforms Partial Differential Equations Functions of a Complex Variable Multiple Integration Differential Vector Calculus Integral Vector Calculus Introduction to Numerical Methods Numerical Methods of Approximation Numerical Initial Value Problems Numerical Boundary Value Problems Modelling Motion Sets and Probability Descriptive Statistics Discrete Probability Distributions Continuous Probability Distributions The Normal Distribution Sampling Distributions and Estimation Hypothesis Testing
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42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Goodness of Fit and Contingency Tables Regression and Correlation Analysis of Variance Non-parametric Statistics Reliability and Quality Control Mathematics and Physics Miscellany Engineering Case Studies Student's Guide Tutor's Guide 24 32 57 36 38 70 97 64 111
2. Nomenclature used for p roblems

E xamples are problems with fully worked solutions.
E ngineering Examples (found in most Mathematics Workbooks but not the Statistics Workbooks) and problems with an engineering context having fully worked solutions. T a s k s are problems with spaces for the students working. followed by fully worked solutions. Many Tasks are often broken up into stages with the answer to a stage given before the next stage is reached. E xercise s are problems for the student to do without spaces provided for the students working. In general they do not have fully worked solutions, merely answers, but exceptions are:
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Numerical Workbooks 30-33 and Statistics Workbooks 35-46 which do have fully worked solutions.
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3. Nota tion used

Fo nts use d In general HELM uses italic serif font letters (e.g. f (x) ) to represent functions, variables and constants. However, as exceptions HELM Workbooks use the following non-italic sans-serif letters:
Mathematics e for the exponential constant and for the exponential function i where i2 = 1 ln for natural logarithm Statistics E for Expectation P for Probability V for Variance
Complex numbers HELM uses i rather than j to represent (1) so i2 = 1, although there are one or two exceptions to this (in Workbook 48: Engineering Case Studies). Vectors HELM uses underlining of vectors rather than using bold e.g. a
for the unit normal vector n but does not put the ^ on the basic unit HELM uses n vectors in the x, y and z directions which have the standard symbols i, j, k.
Identities Although HELM introduces and uses the identity symbol extensively in Workbook 1: Basic Algebra and Workbook 4: Trigonometry it is not normally used elsewhere and the more normal = is used except where emphasis seems advisable. (HELM is therefore not consistent.)
4.
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Description of HE LM Workbook layout
On the following three pages are reproduced from the Students Guide explanatory pages concerning Workbook Layout.
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49.3 H ELM Elect ronic Learning Resources
1. Introduction
HELM has 50 Workbooks and 80 Interactive Learning Segments and linked Revision Questions (with inbuilt randomisation). The Interactive Learning Segments provide webbased versions of some Sections of many of the more elementary Workbooks and contain animations to generate interest and have linked Revision Exercises where randomly generated questions are provided for the benefit of students working independently.
These Interactive Learning Segments and linked Revision Exercises have been found to be especially useful for supporting students who find it difficult to cope with the mathematical demands of their programmes.
The animations are also useful for illustrating lectures and for revision. The tutor will provide guidance as to how the materials are to be used.
2.
Accessing HE LM electronic learning resources
The web based versions of HELM CAL resources can be accessed via http://helm.lboro.ac.uk/cal/ or via any specific web address (url) given to you by your tutor. Once you access this web page, you will see four links as shown below:
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Clicking on either an icon or the hypertext link below the icon will take you to the corresponding web page containing links to the selected learning resources. Workbo o k s: There are fifty HELM Workbooks available to HEFCE-funded Higher Education Institutions in England and Northern Ireland from the Mathematics Education Centre at Loughborough University.
Access to these Workbooks is restricted to staff and students of these institutions and is controlled by each institution.
The List of Workbooks and Sections and some samples can be viewed on the HELM Website. Interactive Les s ons a nd Revi si on Que stio ns:
HELM Interactive Lessons and Revision Questions are Authorware 7 applications. Prospective users need to have the appropriate Macromedia Authorware player (a web browser plug-in) installed in order to use these. The Authorware player could be downloaded free of charge from:
http://www.macromedia.com/shockwave/download/alternates/#ap (correct as at August 2005) It is important to c hoose the c orrect versio n o f the player to support the browser and the computer platform being used. See the on-screen help file (by clicking HELP icon or the hyperlink) for further details. Only selected sections of Workbooks 1-20 and 35-39 have associated Interactive Lessons and Revision Questions. Caveat: Most of the Interactive Lessons and Revision Questions are derived from Loughboroughs Open Learning Project, which predated the HELM project, so the Workbook text may differ from that in the corresponding HELM Workbook.
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Once you are in the page giving links to available lessons or questions, select the link you wish to continue with. An example for a lesson introduction page is given below.
The introduction page presents you with the title of the Workbook and the section that is covered by the resource you selected. It will also state the prerequisites and the learning outcomes.
Click on the button labelled Enter to launch the Interactive Lesson or the Revision Questions. Provided that the correct web player plug-in is installed, the introduction page to the Interactive Lesson or the Revision Questions chosen will be displayed within the web browser. Patience may be needed as in some cases it may take a few seconds to load the application on to your web browser. The front page of the lesson will look similar to the following example.
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As you see, there may be one or more buttons that will take you to a particular subsection of the lesson. For example, referring to the figure given below, clicking on the top button would take you to a section on Parametric differentiation; clicking the bottom button would take you to a section on Higher Derivatives.
After you click on one of the buttons, the front page will disappear and you will see the first page of your chosen section. Look at the top right-hand corner of the screen: inside a box you will see in g reen something like Page 1/2. This means that the section contains two pages of material and that you are on the first page. Note that a page can contain several screens of material. The learning material is multimedia: a mix of text, graphics and sound. We think that the audio aspect of the material is useful, so you should use headphones if at all possible. The material is also interactive: most sections contain questions that you are expected to answer before proceeding. These questions might require you to use the mouse - to draw a
HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide 15
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vector, for instance. More often, they will require you to enter a number as the answer to a calculation. So be prepared: when you sit down at the computer make sure that you have with you a pen, some paper and a calculator. Follow the instructions on the screen. Often, this means that you are presented with some text (maybe with some graphics) and then have to press the continue button in order to see more text. You will gain most from this activity if you think about the material. Try to anticipate what will come next; try to complete the next stage in an argument before it is there and idly press the continue button! presented to you; if you are asked to do something before proceeding - do it. Don't just sit
When a page is completed, the box at the top right-hand corner of the screen will turn r ed. You can then either navigate to the next page in the section, or return to the front page to choose another section. Or perhaps you want to quit the lesson altogether. These tasks are
accomplished by using the navigation toolbar at the bottom right-hand corner of the screen and it is shown below. This toolbar is always visible. If you move your cursor over any icon in the toolbar, you will see a short pop-up message describing the icon's function. Once you have some experience with the system, this might prove irritating. You can turn off the pop-ups at any time by using the menu item entitled Pop-ups, found at the top left-hand corner of your screen.
So that you have a permanent record, the icon functions are also described below. To move to the next page of a section, click on: To move to the previous page of a section, click on: To return to the front page, click on: To quit the lesson at any time, click on: To move to the first page of a section, click on:
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To move to the last page of a section, click on: To get a list of previously viewed pages, click on: the list to visit that page. To search for a word or a phrase, click on: In practice, the three navigation icons you will use most often are: 1. The icon that takes you to the next page 2. The icon that returns you to the title page 3. The icon that lets you quit. and then select one from
Feel free to view each page of the Interactive Lessons as many times as you like. Note that many of the pages have random variables embedded within them, so that each time you view the page you see slightly different examples.
Similarly, you may attempt the Revision Questions as often as you wish. Nearly all of the Revision Questions are generated using random numbers so that you seldom get the same question twice. These questions are presented within the context of the theoretical material that is applicable to a particular Workbook. Once you have worked through a Workbook, though, you might want to gain more practice at doing questions without having to wade through the relevant background theory.
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49.4 General Advice to Students Studying M athem atics
1. Communication with the lecturer or tutor
When your lecturer or tutor writes something that you cannot understand, says something, which you dont hear clearly, or provides notes which seem unintelligible or wrong, don't be reluctant to query it! Almost certainly you wont be the only one with this problem. Help yourself and the rest of the class. You will also be doing the lecturer or tutor a favour. Furthermore, ask the question as soon as you reasonably can. Waiting until the end of class can be very frustrating for all concerned!
2.
Reading instructions
It seems human nature not to want to read instructions properly (if at all) when faced with a practical task. This even applies to mathematics problem sheets, to coursework and to examination papers. Careful reading of instructions is especially important in mathematics, otherwise you can finish up giving the right answer to the wrong problem and so gaining little or no credit when credit is really due. Miscopying the question is easily done in mathematics and can have dire consequences. It is easy to turn a simple problem into a fiendishly difficult one by doing that and not only losing credit for that question but also wasting a lot of time (which may well indirectly lead to further loss of credit).
3.
If your handwriting is not clear your tutor will have difficulty reading your work when trying to help you, and when marking your work may misread what you intended or get frustrated and lose patience and so not award the mark that the work merits. It has even been known for students to find it hard to read their own writing a few days later! What are your particular idiosyncrasies in handwriting, which lead to misreading? aware and avoid them when it really matters! Here are some possibilities for confusion (but there many others!) Be
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H andwriting
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+ and t 0 and o and O (zero and lower and upper case letter oh) 1 and l and / and I and i (one ; letter ell ; slash or solidus; letters I and i) 2 and z j and y and g
x and x (times sign and letter x )
Clarifying what you mean by use of brackets is discussed later, but here is an example where you either must write very clearly or resort to brackets to avoid ambiguity:
What do you mean by 3/2? Is it (3)/2 or (3/2)? You can express whichever you mean 3 3 more clearly by writing it as either or , or by using brackets. 2 2
4.
Calculators
Although calculators are much better at doing calculations than students they do not always give the right answer.
One of the commonest error with calculators is f orgetting to switch between degrees and r adi ans. Radians are invariably used in calculus and it is sensible to keep your calculator in this mode. (It is only if x is in radians that the derivative of sin( x ) is cos( x ), for example.)
Another error arises when using graphics facilities. Some graphic calculators only display the right half of the graph y = x
1/3
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if the general root key ( x y ) is used but will give both
halves if there is a special cube root button ( 3 ) which is used. (The explanation lies in the fact that the general root key ( x y ) uses logarithms during the computational process and, since the log of a negative number is not defined, the negative part is lost.)
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5. Brackets (aka p a rentheses)
Omitting pairs of brackets can lead to faulty algebraic manipulations and incorrect numerical computations. Expanding 2 x (p q) should lead to 2p + 2q but if (through laziness) it is expressed as 2 x p q then the outcome is likely to be 2p q or maybe 2p 2q. Expressing 3( x + 1)2 as 3 x x 2 + 2 x + 1 is a recipe for disaster leading to
2 2 3 x + 2 x + 1 instead of 3 x 6 x 3.
(Incidentally, a more subtle error is the belief that a minus s i gn means a negative number. This is not true if x is a negative number, of course.)
Writing fractions can be a problem. For instance, if you write "2/7y" do you mean "(2/7)y" or "2/(7y)" ? To be safe you can insert brackets in such an expression or write it 2 2 as appropriate. clearly as y or 7y 7 In integration, too, problems can easily arise:
2 (4 x 3 + 4 x 3) dx = 2 x x 4 + 2 x 2 3 x + constant = 2 x 4 + 2 x 2 3 x + C
It should be
4 2 4 2 2 (4 x 3 + 4 x 3) dx = 2( x + 2 x 3 x ) + C = 2 x + 4 x 6 x + C
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WRONG !
RIGHT !
In general, i f in any doubt put in br ac kets. This nearly always works.
6.
BODMAS to the rescue!
Or der o f operations Common mathematical practice is to perform particular mathematical operations in certain orders. Such conventions reduce the number of brackets needed. For example, it is understood that " 4 x + 3" means "( 4 x + 3)", and never
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4( x + 3) In general
HELM 2005
Workbook 49: Students Guide
multiplication is performed b efore (has precedence over) addition. This priority can be reversed by inserting brackets if necessary. It is essential to use the correct order (precedence) of these operations in arithmetic and algebra. What is 42 ? It is tempting to think that the expression means (4)
2
which is +16 but
the mathematical convention is to perform the exponentiation operation before applying the negation operation (represented by the minus sign), and so 42 is actually (42 ), which is 16.
These conventions are encapsulated in the BODMAS rule for deciding the order in which to do mathematical operations. (This is introduced in HELM Workbook 1.)
B ODMA S: (B B rackets, O O f, D ivision, M ultiplication, A ddition, S ubtraction):
Brackets take highest priority deal with items inside a pair of brackets first O f is a form of multiplication (e.g. half of 10 means 1/2 x 10) and comes next D ivision and M ultiplication come next and left-to-right order is required (e.g. 4 7 x k is evaluated as (4 7) x k and not as 4 (7 x k)) A ddition and S ubtraction come last (in either order will do but left-to-right is normal) When faced with several operations at the same level of precedence the left to right order is normally used, but it is not essential. Beware o f c alcul ator s Not all calculators follow these conventions in all circumstances, and ambiguities can arise, so you should check what you get for operations such as 4 7 x 7, 2 32 and 32+1. Inserting brackets will sort out these problems if you are unsure what your calculator will do, or if you want to force it to do something it wont do otherwise.
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7.
Equality and Identity
The equals sign (=) is often wrongly used as a shorthand symbol for "gives" or "leads to"
3 or like phrases. For instance, when finding the third derivative of x +2 x 3, some students
will write
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d3 ( x 3+2 x 3) = 3 x 2+2 = 6 x = 6 3 dx
These four expressions are not equal of course. This practice is more annoying to the tutor than harmful to the student! The use of = is commonplace throughout mathematics and hides the distinction between expressions which are true for particular values (e.g. 2x = 2) and those, which are ALWAYS true (e.g. 2x = x + x). The special identity symbol ( used for these: e.g. 2x
) is (or rather can be)
x + x. This symbol has been used sometimes in the HELM
Workbooks where emphasis is important (especially in Workbook 1: Basic Algebra and mathematicians and engineers work! context, which is meant.
Workbook 4: Trigonometry) but we have not done so consistently it just isnt the way In practice it is nearly always obvious from the
8.
Notational problems
Square root symbol
Every positive number n has two real square roots. The expression
"the n on-negative square root of n ," but many think it can represent either of the square roots of n i.e., it represents two numbers. This error is actually encouraged by the common practice of referring to
carefully worded "the p os itive square root of n ". In fact even that phrase isnt quite correct in all circumstances since it could be zero! The graphs of y =
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n actually means
n as "t t he square root of n " instead of the more
x and y2 = x below illustrate the point:
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If you want to refer to both roots then you must use , as in the quadratic formula:
x=
b b 2 4 ac 2a
1
What about x 2 ? Usually this is taken to mean work, it can mean a ny value of the root. shown above! Another common error is to replace be expressed as | cos |. Trigonometric inverse s
x but, particularly in complex number

1
So y = x 2 could mean either of the graphs
1 sin 2 by cos (because 1 sin 2 cos 2 ). This
is wrong because cos can be negative whereas
The expression sink x is interpreted in different ways, depending on the value of k.

sin 3 x ( sin x )3
and similarly for cos, tan, sec, cosec and cot
but
1
sin x means the inverse sine function, sometimes written as arcsin(x), and similarly for
cos, tan, sec, cosec and cot.
1 1 Note that arcsin(x) (sin x) but cosec(x) (sin x) because
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sin1 is the i nverse f unction to sin 1/sin is the r eciprocal f unction of sin, which is called cosec.
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is never negative, so the result should
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Checking your work
Human nature seems to lead to most of us being overconfident in our ability to be accurate. In day-to-day life some imprecision is often acceptable (such as when driving a car, unless in a Formula One race perhaps). But this is not so in mathematics where abs o lute accuracy is demanded. It is vitally important to check your work. (Of course in a
timed examination the benefit and disadvantage of checking have to be weighed against each other and will depend upon the circumstances and personal traits.) Ideally you should check by using some alternative method but whether you use the same method or a different one is less important than the act of checking itself. When solving an algebraic equation (or differential equation), normally an easy way to check the answer is to substitute the result back into original equation, and see if it satisfies the equation. This leads us onto the next more specific situation where checking is very important.
10.
Irreversible steps in solving equations
If you apply the same operations to both sides of an equation, the result must be another equation (i.e. the equality must be preserved). The new equation must have all the solutions that the original equation has. B UT it might al s o have some new s o lutions. This may not seem logical or even possible but unfortunately it is the case when you apply certain operations (which are not reversible). Revers ible operations
Multiplying both sides of an equation (except by zero) is reversible: e.g. "multiply
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2 both sides by 3": the set of values of x which satisfy 2x = 11x 5 is exactly the 1 same as the set of values of x that satisfy 6x2 = 33x 15 [ x = 5 and x = ]. 2 1 (We can simply reverse the operation here by multiplying both sides by .) 3
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Cubing both sides of an equation is reversible: e.g. the set of values of x which satisfy x + 1 = 3 is exactly the same as the set of values of x that satisfy (x + 1)3 = 27 [x = 3 only]. (We can simply reverse the operation here by cube rooting both sides.)
Subtraction is reversible: e.g. "subtract 8 from both sides". The set of values of x which satisfy 2x2 = 8 is exactly the same as the set of values of x that satisfy
2 2x 8 = 0. [x = 2 and x = 2]
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(We can simply reverse the operation here by adding 8 to both sides.) Irrevers ible operations Some operations are not reversible, and using them can introduce new solutions (called extraneous solutions) not applicable to the original equation. Square rooting is irreversible: e.g. x = 9 has only one solution, which is x = 9 of
2 course, but after squaring both sides we get x = 81, which has two solutions, x =
9 and x = 9.
Multiplication of an equation in variable x by x is irreversible: this always introduces a solution x = 0: e.g. 2x2 = 8 has two roots 2 and 2 but 2x3 = 8x has three roots 2 and 2 and 0.
Multiplication of an equation in variable x by x c is irreversible: the resulting equation will have the additional new solution x = c. factor x c is zero when x = c.] [The reason is that multiplying any equation by zero preserves the equality and the
When any steps ta ken involve an irrevers i ble operation, then it i s e s sentia l to check f or extraneous root s at the end.
The most common irreversible operation used in solving equations is squaring. .
11.
Many students confuse operations which are additive and those which are not. The normal (wrong) assumption is that the operation will be additive. An operation f is a dditive if it satisfies f (x + y) = f (x)+ f (y) for all x and y. E.g.
2( x + y ) = 2 x + 2 y .
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Additivity of operations
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This is t rue for s ome operations. Examples are: Algebra: k ( p + q) = kp + kq Differentiation: d ( u + v ) / dx = du / dx + dv / dx

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Integration:
(u + v )
dx =
u
dx + v dx
Laplace transformation:
L( f + g ) = L( f ) + L( g )
T T T Matrix (transposition): (A + B) = A + B
It is n ot t rue for mo st operations. Examples are: Trigonometric identities: e.g. sin(x + y) sin(x) + sin(y) Raising to a power: e.g. (x + y )2 x 2 + y 2 Taking square root: e.g.
x2 + y2 x2 + y2 x + y
Exponentiation: exp(x + y) exp(x) + exp(y) Matrices (inversion): (A + B)1 A1 + B1
Taking logarithm: log(x + y) log(x) + log(y)
This is a common mistake made by first year undergraduates who have not studied mathematics for some time.
12.
Commutativity of operations
Two operations f and g c ommute if you get the same result when you perform them in either order: i.e. f(g(x)) = g(f(x)). E.g. if f means doubling and g means trebling then f(g(5)) = f(15) = 30 and g(f(5)) = g(10) = 30 so f(g(5)) = g(f(5)) This is t rue for s ome combinations of operations. Examples are: Powers and roots of positive numbers: ( x ) 3 =
(x 3 )
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Multiplication by a constant and integration: 2 u dx =
2u
dx
It is n ot t rue for mo st combinations of operations. Examples are:

26
Doubling and Adding 1 Adding 1 and Doubling

3 3 3 Powers and addition: (x+1) x + 1
Taking cosine and squaring: cos(x2) {cos(x)}2 Multiplication and differentiation: ( u x v ) u x v Division and integration:
(u / v )
dx
u
dx /
v
dx
13. Dimensions and scaling
Dimensional analysis is an important topic for engineers and is treated in Workbook 47. It doesn't tell you if you have the right formula or answer, but it can indicate that something must be wrong. Here are some simple examples: If you're asked to find a length, and your answer is some number of square cms, then you must have made an error somewhere.
If you're asked to find an area and your answer is a negative number, then you an area below the axis may be represented as a negative quantity).
know you've made an error somewhere UNLESS it is a calculus problem (where
The formula for the area, S, of a triangle with sides a, b, c must have dimensions of area so it cannot possibly be either S = a x b x c or S = a + b + c It might in theory be S = ( a + b + c)2
which has the right dimensions for area, though that isnt actually correct of
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There is in fact a complicated formula involving only a , b , c for S, called Herons formula: S ={(a + b + c) (b + c a) (c + a b) (a + b c)/16}.
You can check that this is dimensionally correct. Unit Co nversio n A related problem is converting from one unit to another. Just because 1 m = 100 cm does not mean that 1 m3 = 100 cm3. Obvious, perhaps, but an easy mistake to make when not
concentrating. In fact, of course, there are three dimensions here so the scale factor is 1003 and 1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3. Sc a l ing error If the question is a real-world problem, you should ask: Is my answer sensible? For instance, if you are given a list of the main components used in the manufacture of a truck of given dimensions and are asked to estimate its unladen weight, and you come up with an answer of 1000 tonnes, then you must have made a mistake either in the calculations or in the units.
14.
Some further traps
It is important to remember the following: ( a ) C a ncelling in fr actions
Dont fall into the trap of partial cancelling. This is correct:
( x 1)( x + 2) ( x 1) = (provided x 2 ) ( x + 3)( x + 2) ( x + 3)
but this is NOT correct:

( x 1) + ( x + 2) ( x 1) + 1 = ( x + 3) ( x + 3)( x + 2)
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You only cancel once when the factors in the numerator are multiplied but you must cancel each time when the factors in the numerator are added (or subtracted).
( b) Inequa l ities x 2 and x 1 can be combined to give 1 x 2

BUT x 2 and x 1 cannot be combined to give 2 x 1, which makes no sense. It is not possible to express these as a single equality (because it would imply 2 1!).
(c ) So lving equations (x 1)(x 2) = 0 x 1 = 0 or x 2 = 0 TRUE! BUT (x 1)(x 2) = 2 x 1 = 2 or x 2 = 2 FALSE! It is only with zero right-hand side that such factorisation is valid.
( d) Di f ferentiation The term
dy indicates differentiation of the expression y with respect to the variable x . dx d . It is not strictly correct to The operation of differentiation itself can be expressed as dx dy separate out the dy and the dx as in = x 2 dy = x 2 dx but this does work (in solving dx differential equations), however mathematicians dont like it!
(e ) Integration
x
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BUT = ln | x | + c
15. Stationa ry Points Points of Inflection

Most students have an imperfect understanding of the definitions of local maximum, local minimum and point of inflection. Use simple graphs to illustrate these features and be careful to emphasise the distinction between local features and global features, explaining why differentiation deals with local features.
29
Of the following three statements only the first two are known with any certainty by most: Given a twice differentiable function f for which f '( a) = 0 (1) If f "( a) > 0 , then f ( x ) has a minimum when x = a, (2) If f "( a) < 0 , then f ( x ) has a maximum when x = a, (3) If f "( a) = 0 , then f ( x ) has minimum or a maximum or a point of inflection when x = a Many students think (3) a l ways leads to a point of inflection but f ( x ) = x 4 clearly shows this to be untrue when x = 0 .
Another misconception is that a point of inflection r equire s f '( a) = 0 . This is not true as can easily be seen, for example, on the sine curve. This illustrates another point for any continuous function there is always a point of inflection between every local minimum and local maximum. The graph below highlights these features.
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Maxima a nd Minima without Ca lculus Students all too readily turn to the calculus when needing to find maxima and minima. There are, however, cases when alternative approaches are simpler, quicker or more informative:
Example 1
Find the minimum value of f ( x ) x 2 + 2 x + 3. Completing the square gives f ( x ) = ( x + 1) 2 + 2 This clearly is a minimum when x = 1 and there f ( x ) has value 2.
Example 2
Find the maximum value of f ( x ) 2sin( x ) + 3cos( x ) .
Using the trigonometric identity sin( A + B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B and utilising the triangle in the diagram we have
2 3 sin x + cos x f ( x ) 13 13 13
13 [cos sin x + sin cos x ]
13 sin( x + ).
This clearly has a maximum value of
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13 at x =
(for example). 2
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49.5 So me Useful Websites
(a) The reader is referred to the excellent website http://atlas.math.vanderbilt.edu/~schectex/commerrs/ in which useful discussion of many intriguing errors and pitfalls are found and tips on avoiding them. In particular, errors in calculus including integration by parts and solving differential equations are discussed at some length. (b)
See also the Maths Mistakes website (a site dedicated to the listing of mathematical mistakes made by advertisers, the media, reporters, politicians, activists and others) where you can marvel at the mistakes which others (not students) make: http://members.cox.net/mathmistakes/
(c)
Another valuable site is Eric Weissteins Mathworld supported by Wolfram Research: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
which has a wealth of material, where you can look up definitions and formulae etc. (d)
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Finally, the Wikipedia free encyclopaedia has a section on Mathematics where you can look up almost anything, useful or otherwise: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Mathematics
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There are, of course, hundreds of other websites to explore .
32
49.6 List of Sections i n HELM Workbooks 1 to 48
Workbo o k 1 B a s ic A lgebra (89 pa ge s )

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Mathematical Notation and Symbols Indices Simplification and Factorisation Arithmetic of Algebraic Fractions Formulae and Transposition
Workbo o k 2 B a s ic Functions (75 pa ge s )

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Basic Concepts of Functions Graphs of Functions and Parametric Form One-to-one and Inverse Functions Characterising Functions The Straight Line The Circle Some Common Functions
Workbo o k 3 Equations, Inequa litie s and Partia l F r actions ( 7 1 page s )

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Solving Linear Equations Solving Quadratic Equations
Solving Polynomial Equations Solving Inequalities Partial Fractions
Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations
Workbo o k 4 Trigonometry (77 page s )

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Right-angled Triangles Trigonometric Functions Trigonometric Identities Applications of Trigonometry to Triangles Applications of Trigonometry to Waves
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Workbo o k 5 Functions and Modelli ng ( 49 pa ge s )

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 The Modelling Cycle and Functions Quadratic Functions and Modelling Oscillating Functions and Modelling Inverse Square Law Modelling
Workbo o k 6 Exponentia l and Logarithmic F unctions ( 7 3 page s )

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 The Exponential Function The Hyperbolic Functions Logarithms The Logarithmic Function Modelling Exercises Log-linear Graphs
Workbo o k 7 Matrices ( 50 page s )

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Introduction to Matrices Matrix Multiplication Determinants The Inverse of a Matrix
Workbo o k 8 Matrix So lution o f Equati ons ( 32 pa ge s )

8.1 8.2 8.3 Solution by Cramers Rule Solution by Inverse Matrix Method Solution by Gauss Elimination
Workbo o k 9 Vectors ( 66 page s )

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Basic Concepts of Vectors Cartesian Components of Vectors The Scalar Product The Vector Product Lines and Planes
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Workbo o k 10 Complex numbers (34 pa ges )

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Complex Arithmetic Argand Diagrams and the Polar Form The Exponential Form of a Complex Number De Moivres Theorem
34
Workbo o k 11 Di f ferentiation (58 pa ge s )

11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Introducing Differentiation Using a Table of Derivatives Higher Derivatives Differentiating Products and Quotients The Chain Rule Parametric Differentiation Implicit Differentiation
Workbo o k 12 Appl ications o f Di f ferenti ation (6 3 page s )

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 Tangents and Normals Maxima and Minima The Newton-Raphson Method Curvature Differentiation of Vectors Case Study: Complex Impedance
Workbo o k 13 Integration (6 2 page s )

13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 Basic Concepts of Integration Definite Integrals The Area Bounded by a Curve Integration by Parts
Integration by Substitution and Using Partial Fractions Integration of Trigonometric Functions
Workbo o k 14 Appl ications o f Integration 1 (34 pa ge s )

14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Integration as the Limit of a Sum The Mean Value and the Root-Mean-Square Value Volumes of Revolution Lengths of Curves and Surfaces of Revolution
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Workbo o k 15 Appl ications o f Integration 2 (31 pa ge s )

15.1 15.2 15.3 Integration of Vectors Calculating Centres of Mass Moment of Inertia
35
Workbo o k 16 Sequences a nd Ser ie s ( 5 1 page s )

16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Sequences and Series Infinite Series The Binomial Series Power Series Maclaurin and Taylor Series
Workbo o k 17 Co nic s and Pol ar Coordi nates (43 pa ge s )

17.1 17.2 17.3 Conic Sections Polar Coordinates Parametric Curves
Workbo o k 18 Functions o f Several V ar i able s ( 4 0 page s )

18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Functions of Several Variables Partial Derivatives Stationary Points Errors and Percentage Change
Workbo o k 19 Di f ferentia l Equations ( 7 0 page s )

19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Modelling with Differential Equations First Order Differential Equations Second Order Differential Equations
Applications of Differential Equations
Workbo o k 20 The Lapl ace Trans f orm (73 pa ge s )

20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 Causal Functions The Transform and its Inverse Further Laplace Transforms Solving Differential Equations The Convolution Theorem Transfer Functions
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Workbo o k 21 z-Trans f orm s ( 96 page s )

21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 The z-Transform Basics of z-Transform Theory z-Transforms and Difference Equations Engineering Applications of z-Transforms Sampled Functions
36
Workbo o k 22 Eigenvalue s and Eigenvectors (53 page s )

22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Basic Concepts Applications of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Repeated Eigenvalues and Symmetric Matrices Numerical Determination of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Workbo o k 23 Four ier Serie s (7 3 page s )

23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 Periodic Functions Representing Periodic Functions by Fourier Series Even and Odd Functions Convergence Half-range Series The Complex Form An Application of Fourier Series
Workbo o k 24 Four ier Trans f orm s (37 page s )

24.1 24.2 24.3 The Fourier Transform Properties of the Fourier Transform Some Special Fourier Transform Pairs
Workbo o k 25 Partial Di f ferential Equa tions (42 page s )

25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Partial Differential Equations Applications of PDEs
Solution using Separation of Variables Solutions using Fourier Series
Workbo o k 26 Functions o f a Complex V ari able ( 58 pa ge s )

26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 Complex Functions Cauchy-Riemann Equations and Conformal Mappings Standard Complex Functions Basic Complex Integration Cauchys Theorem Singularities and Residues
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Workbo o k 27 Multiple Integration (83 page s )

27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 Introduction to Surface Integrals Multiple Integrals over Non-rectangular Regions Volume Integrals Changing Coordinates
Workbo o k 28 Di f ferentia l Vector Ca lculus ( 53 page s )

28.1 28.2 28.3 Background to Vector Calculus Differential Vector Calculus Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
Workbo o k 29 Integral Vector Ca lcul us ( 77 pa ge s )

29.1 29.2 29.3 Line Integrals Involving Vectors Surface and Volume Integrals Integral Vector Theorems
Workbo o k 30 Introduction to Numerical Methods (6 4 page s )

30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 Rounding Error and Conditioning Gaussian Elimination LU Decomposition Matrix Norms
Iterative Methods for Systems of Equations
Workbo o k 31 Numerical Methods o f A pproximation (8 6 page s )

31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Polynomial Approximations Numerical Integration Nonlinear Equations Numerical Differentiation
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Workbo o k 32 Numerical Initia l V a lue Problems ( 8 0 page s )

32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 Initial Value Problems Linear Multistep Methods Predictor-Corrector Methods Parabolic PDEs Hyperbolic PDEs
38
Workbo o k 33 Numerical Boundary V a lue Problems (3 6 page s )

33.1 33.2 Two-point Boundary Value Problems Elliptic PDEs
Workbo o k 34 Modelling Motion (63 pa ges )

34.1 34.2 34.3 Projectiles Forces in More Than One Dimension Resisted Motion
Workbo o k 35 Set s and Probabil ity (53 page s )

35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 Sets Elementary Probability Addition and Multiplication Laws of Probability Total Probability and Bayes Theorem
Workbo o k 36 Descriptive St ati stic s (4 5 page s )

36.1 36.2 Describing Data Exploring Data
Workbo o k 37 Di screte Probabi lity Di stributions ( 60 page s )

37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 Discrete Probability Distributions The Binomial Distribution The Poisson Distribution
The Hypergeometric Distribution
Workbo o k 38 Co ntinuous Probabi lity Di stributions (27 pa ge s )

38.1 38.2 38.3 Continuous Probability Distributions The Uniform Distribution The Exponential Distribution
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Workbo o k 39 The Normal Di stribution ( 39 pa ge s )

39.1 39.2 39.3 The Normal Distribution The Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution Sums and Differences of Random Variables
Workbo o k 40 Sampli ng Di stributions a nd Est imation (2 2 page s )

40.1 40.2 Sampling Distributions Interval Estimation for the Variance
39
Workbo o k 41 Hypothesi s Te sting (4 2 page s )

41.1 41.2 41.3 Statistics Testing Tests Concerning a Single Sample Tests Concerning Two Samples
Workbo o k 42 Go odne s s o f F it a nd Contingency Table s (24 pa ge s )

42.1 42.2 Goodness of Fit Contingency Tables
Workbo o k 43 Regres s i on and Correl ation (32 pa ge s )

43.1 43.2 Regression Correlation
Workbo o k 44 Ana lys i s o f V ar i ance (57 page s )

44.1 44.2 44.3 One-Way Analysis of Variance Two-Way Analysis of Variance Experimental Design
Workbo o k 45 Non-par ametric Stati stics (36 page s )

45.1 45.2 Non-parametric Tests for a Single Sample Non-parametric Tests for Two Samples
Workbo o k 46 Rel i abil ity and Qua lity Control ( 38 page s )

46.1 46.2 Reliability Quality Control
Workbo o k 47 Mathematics and Physic s Mi scell any (69 page s )

47.1 47.2 47.3 Dimensional Analysis in Engineering Mathematical Explorations Physics Case Studies
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Workbo o k 48 Eng ineering C a se Studie s (97 page s )

Engineering Case Studies 1 to 20
40
49 .7 Index of Engineering Contexts in Wo rkbooks 1 to 48
Engineering Topic Acceleration in polar coordinates Admittance of an electronic circuit Aerofoil Aircraft Aircraft wings Aircraft wings Airline booking Alloy impurities Alloy spacers Alloy stretching Alloy-twisting resistance Aluminium alloy tensile strength Aluminium sheet faults Amplifier Amplitude Amplitude modulation Amusement rides
Wo rkbook Wbk 47 Wbk 3 Wbk 26 Wbk 9 Wbk 42 Wbk 45 Wbk 39 Wbk 41 Wbk 44 Wbk 45
Pag e Number 67 69 14, 19 13 4 26 29 18 4, 16 27 26 4
An LC circuit with sinusoidal input Angular velocity of Earth Anti-lock brakes Arrhenius' law Asteroid
An RC circuit with single frequency input
Assembly machines Atomic theory
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Wbk 45 Wbk 44 45 Wbk 42 Wbk 10 26 Wbk 3 67, 74 47 Wbk 4 Wbk 34 Wbk 19 Wbk 19 Wbk 34 Wbk 45 Wbk 6 Wbk 44 Wbk 17 Wbk 47 Wbk 40 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 41 Wbk 19 Wbk 20 Wbk 48 Wbk 48 Wbk 19 48 26 40 11 32 33 22 13, 14 19 49 26 15 65, 67 52 20 15 64
m o .c
6, 43-50
Ball bearing diameters Banked tracks Basketball Battery lifetime Beam Beam Beam deflection Beam deformation Beats HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
41
Bending moment for a multiple structure Bending moment of beam Bending moment of beam Bicycle Black body radiation Bolt hole diameters Bottle design Brake Buckling of a strut Buckling of columns Buffer Cable Cable Cable breaking strength Cable suspended Calculator battery life Capacitor Car accessories Cartons for powder Castings Catalysts CD player output Centre of mass Chain alloy Charge Centre of pressure Wbk 48 Wbk 19 Wbk 43 Wbk 34 Wbk 47 Wbk 40 Wbk 31 Wbk 4 Wkb 12 Wbk 48 Wbk 20 Wbk 15 35 65 18 41 38, 41, 43, 46 20 52-54 14 44 26 39 21
Charge on a capacitor Chemical process Chemical reaction Circle cutting machine Circular motion Coconut shy Columns buckling Communication network Communication network Component lifetime Component variation Compressive strength of blocks 42
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Wbk 43 7, 12 Wbk 45 Wbk 41 31 Wbk 48 40 15 Wbk 20 Wbk 35 Wbk 41 Wbk 41 Wbk 44 Wbk 42 Wbk 27 Wbk 27 Wbk 45 Wbk 9 Wbk 20 Wbk 44 Wbk 6 Wbk 17 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 48 Wbk 1 Wbk 7 Wbk 38 Wbk 39 Wbk 45 49 18 9 49 7 55-65 15 27 40 49 49 32 10 35 25 26 52 27 24, 25 13
m o .c
17, 18-20 4, 14 HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
Compressive strength of concrete Concrete compressive strength Conductor coating Conservation of energy Control charts Cornering of vehicle Crank mechanism Crank used to drive a piston Current Current associated with magnetic field Current in line Current in loop Currents in a ladder network Currents in three loops Currents in two loops Cutting steel quality Dam Defective components Defects (in components and products) Deflection of a beam Wbk 44 Wbk 44 Wbk 38 Wbk 34 Wbk 46 Wbk 34 Wbk 4 Wbk 12 Wbk 11 Wbk 28 Wbk 29 Wbk 29 Wbk 8 Wbk 21 Wbk 8 43 43 21 28 24-38 36-39, 51 62 33 21 28 26, 67 27 60
Deflection of a uniformly loaded beam Deflection of a uniformly loaded beam Demodulation Diffraction Detecting a train on a track
Diffusion equation - see Heat conduction equation Dimensional analysis Diode Divergence of a magnetic field Drag Drag Dynamometer Earth horizon Elastic behaviour Electric circuit Electric circuit HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
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30 9 16 Wbk 45 Wbk 27 Wbk 35 Wbk 37 Wbk 48 Wbk 19 Wbk 20 Wbk 4 Wbk 30 Wbk 4 Wbk 23 Wbk 47 Wbk 31 Wbk 28 Wbk 34 Wbk 47 Wbk 14 Wbk 4 Wbk 13 Wbk 12 Wbk 18 2-23 20 43 56 15, 23 16 8 19 26 38 48 20 67 52 40 62 6
m o .c
3, 15, 36 8, 19, 20, 23, 24,
40, 42, 54-58
43
Electric circuit Electric current Electric current Electric current Electric current to screen Electric fan Electric field Electric field Electric field Electric field Electric meters Electric motor Electric potential Electric wire Electrodynamic meters Electromagnetic power Electromotive force Electron Electronic circuits Electronic component failure Electronic component lifetime Electronic filters Electrostatic charge Electrostatics Energy Energy Engine power Equipotential curves Error in power to a load resistance Estimating the mass of a pipe Exponential decay of sound intensity Extension of spring Feedback applied to an amplifier Feedback convolution 44 Electronic monitoring components Electrostatic potential Electrostatics Energy Wbk 20 Wbk 29 Wbk 35 Wbk 38 Wbk 41 Wbk 38 Wbk 9 Wbk 11 Wbk 13 Wbk 29 Wbk 39 Wbk 29 Wbk 28 36. 44. 49 46 33, 39, 40 20 24, 28, 35 25 39-44 16 11 19 28 27 50
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Wbk 33 10 Wbk 14 Wbk 6 16 50 Wbk 11 Wbk 3 21 9 Wbk 47 69 6 2, 60 5, 6 11 16 39-44 13 13 10, 28 18 22 14 38 27 46 21 26 75 Wbk 42 Wbk 46 Wbk 12 Wbk 42 Wbk 13 Wbk 11 Wbk 9 Wbk 47 Wbk 14 Wbk 34 Wbk 47 Wbk 41 Wbk 26 Wbk 18 Wbk 3 Wbk 6 Wbk 43 Wbk 10 Wbk 21 19
m o .c
Field due to point charges Field strength around a charged line Field strength on a cylinder Flight overbooking Fluid flow Fluid flow Fluid power transmission Fluid theory Force on a loop from an electric field Fraunhofer diffraction Fuel injection system efficiency Fuel injection systems Fun ride - rollercoaster Fun ride - 'Rotor' Fun ride - 'Yankee Flyer' Gain Gauss' law Harmonic oscillator Heat conduction Heat conduction equation Heat conduction equation Wbk 9 Wbk 29 Wbk 29 Wbk 39 Wbk 26 Wbk 48 Wbk 12 Wbk 47 Wbk 29 Wbk 47 Wbk 45 Wbk 44 Wbk 34 40 67 68 29 36-37 80, 86, 91 31 14, 20 27 56, 60 18 10 44
Heat conduction through a furnace wall Heat flow in an insulated metal plate Height of building Helmholtz's equation Hooke's law Hooke's law Horizon distance Hydraulic brakes Hypertension and noise Ideal gas equation Ideal gas law Ideal gas law and Redlich-Kwong equation Impedance Instant coffee production HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
High frequency line equation
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Wbk 34 46 Wbk 34 47 26 Wbk 10 Wbk 29 63 Wbk 23 Wbk 48 Wbk 25 Wbk 32 Wbk 25 Wbk 1 Wbk 18 Wbk 25 Wbk 25 Wbk 43 Wbk 47 Wbk 4 Wbk 12 Wbk 43 Wbk 47 Wbk 18 Wbk 18 Wbk 12 Wbk 46 69 76 8, 14 48 32 85 34 18 16 21 6 8 31 8 18 13, 18 18 60-63
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30, 32, 35 45
Insulating blocks Interference field Interference fringes Interference fringes Inverse square law decay of electromagnetic power Joukowski transformation Kepler's laws Kinetic energy Kinetic energy Kinetic energy Kirchhoff's law Kirchhoff's law Kirchhoff's law Ladder network Laplace's equation Laplace's equation Laplace's equation Lifetime Lift Light bulb lifetime Light bulbs Light rays Light rays Light waves Light ray propagation Wbk 45 Wbk 47 Wbk 47 Wbk 4 Wbk 6 Wbk 26 Wbk 47 Wbk 1 Wbk 6 Wbk 34 Wbk 3 4, 14, 29 51 64 31 50 19 12 79 32 10, 28 10
Light waves Light waves
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Wbk 8 28-30 49 Wbk 20 Wbk 21 60 Wbk 25 Wbk 26 11 Wbk 33 Wbk 38 Wbk 47 Wbk 46 Wbk 38 Wbk 47 Wbk 12 Wbk 17 Wbk 4 Wbk 47 Wbk 48 Wbk 29 Wbk 29 Wbk 47 Wbk 11 Wbk 28 Wbk 29 Wbk 13 Wbk 29 15 5 11 53 29 16 31 48 13 46 27 16 21
m o .c
7, 17, 25, 36 19, 27, 30, 34 11, 13, 24, 25
Lightning strike Lorentz force Mach number Magnetic field Magnetic field Magnetic field from a current line Magnetic flux Magnetic flux 46
28, 43, 45 29 51 43 HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
Magnets Manufacturing components Masses on spring Maximum height of projectile Maximum range of projectile Measuring the height of a building Metal bar temperature Microphones Mixture - pressure in Modelling vibrating systems Models - beetles Models - carton Models - falling rock Models - ferry Models - profit Models - rain Models - rain level Models - road level Models - rocket Models - satellite Models - snowfall Models - sound Models - tide level Modulation Network Network Models - supply and demand Wbk 39 Wbk 35 Wbk 20 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 18 Wbk 32 Wbk 48 Wbk 31 Wbk 23 Wbk 5 Wbk 5 Wbk 5 Wbk 5 28 48 47 12 14 34 53-57, 60-64 10 79-81 68 18 33
Newton's law of cooling Newton's laws of motion Newton's second law Newton's second law Newton's second law Newton's second law Noise Noise barriers Noise reduction by sound barriers Ohm's law HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
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18 Wbk 5 18, 30 Wbk 5 12 Wbk 5 15 14 10 Wbk 5 Wbk 5 Wbk 5 Wbk 5 Wbk 5 Wbk 5 Wbk 5 Wbk 4 Wbk 1 Wbk 7 Wbk 32 Wbk 47 Wbk 9 Wbk 15 Wbk 28 Wbk 34 Wbk 43 Wbk 4 Wbk 4 Wbk 3 10 17 46 21 39-44 40 52
6-10, 26-30
m o .c
4, 25-28 3 13 13 3 6 60 8 6 6 25 47
Ohm's law Optical interference fringes due to glass plate Orbit Orifice plate flow meter Output signal Paint weathering Parabolic mirror Parachute Parachute Parallel design of components Pareto charts Pendulum Pendulum Pipe Pipe mass Piston ring diameter Planetary motion Plastic bottle design Plastic tube tensile strength Point - scratch resistance Point - shock resistance Poisson's equation Poisson's equation Pressure Pressure Pressure Wbk 29 Wbk 4 Wbk 17 Wbk 47 Wbk 20 Wbk 44 Wbk 47 Wbk 6 Wbk 34 Wbk 46 Wbk 46 Wbk 47 47 31 22 20 64 29 27, 28, 29 48 58 7-9 35
Population dynamic models
Pressure in an ideal multicomponent mixture Pressure of gas Production line data Projectile Projectile - angled launch Projectile - energy Projectile - height Projectile - horizontal launch Projectile - inclined plane Projectile - range Projectile - without air drag 48
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Wbk 48 50, 51 Wbk 47 20 Wbk 3 27 Wbk 39 17 Wbk 47 Wbk 31 12 52 Wbk 44 Wbk 35 Wbk 35 Wbk 25 Wbk 33 Wbk 32 Wbk 9 Wbk 27 Wbk 47 Wbk 31 Wbk 18 Wbk 46 Wbk 4 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 47 20 20 18 8-11 4
7, 10-11
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19, 28, 31
3, 15, 36 16 79 13 27, 30, 32, 35, 36 47 12 10, 28 12 9 30 14 9 HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
Propagation time difference Propellant Pulley belt tension Pumping engine bearing lifetime Quadratic resistance Quality control Quality control Radiation Radiation emitted by microwave oven Radioactive decay Railway signals location Range of projectile Redlich-Kwong equation Refraction Refraction Relays Reliability in a communication network Reservoir Resistance - linear Resistance - quadratic Resisted motion Reverberation Rocket Roadholding of car Wbk 47 Wbk 45 Wbk 14 Wbk 46 Wbk 34 Wbk 37 Wbk 46 Wbk 47 Wbk 42 Wbk 27 Wbk 48 53 6, 7, 16 8 12-13 57, 59, 62 8 21-38 38, 41, 43, 46 9 58 72
Rocket fuel shear strength Rollercoaster ride Roundabout Route network Sampling Satellite motion Schrdinger's equation
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Wbk 34 12 Wbk 18 18 Wbk 12 29 Wbk 48 13 Wbk 41 Wbk 27 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 6 Wbk 44 Wbk 8 Wbk 45 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 7 Wbk 21 Wbk 48 Wbk 25 Wbk 46 Wbk 19 Wbk 43 Wbk 13 Wbk 34 10 Wbk 1 52 42, 54 56 56-63 46 31 31
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57, 59, 62
6, 7, 16 44 36 27 3, 85-95 60, 63 18 7, 9 65 18 19 22 49
Series design of components Shear force and bending moment of a beam Shear strength Shear stress and strain Shot putting HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
Signal sampling Simple harmonic motion Simple harmonic motion Skateboarding Skiing Snowflake falling Solenoid Solid rocket fuel Sonic boom Sound Sound intensity Sound intensity Sound waves Spot welds Spring Spring Spring - damped Springs Steel alloy corrosion Steel bar Steel cables Stiffness Strain Strain Streamlines Stress Stress Strain gauge resistance Wbk 21 Wbk 4 Wbk 25 Wbk 34 Wbk 34 Wbk 48 Wbk 13 Wbk 45 Wbk 14 Wbk 48 Wbk 5 Wbk 6 Wbk 4 85-95 68 6 31 15 56 51 6, 7, 16 12 2, 7, 10 46 46 6
Stresses and strains on a section of material String Submarine equation Surface tension Suspended cable Suspended cable Switches System reliability System response Tank - ellipsoidal 50
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Wbk 43 18 Wbk 43 21 6 Wbk 47 Wbk 20 39 Wbk 20 Wbk 44 Wkb 13 Wbk 41 Wbk 13 Wbk 8 Wbk 13 Wbk 39 Wbk 26 Wbk 8 Wbk 13 Wbk 8 Wbk 47 Wbk 25 Wbk 47 Wbk 15 Wbk 48 Wbk 41 Wbk 46 Wbk 20 Wbk 27 47 21 19 18 10 19 18-20 14 10 19 10 5, 7 16 14, 17 21 40 10 7-9 71 79
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25, 29, 37
Tank - elliptic Telegraph equation Temperature of wire Tensile strength Tensile strength Tension Tension in spring Tension in string Terminal velocity The current continuity equation The web-flange Thermal diffusivity Thermal insulation Tiddly-winks Tolerance limits Torque Torque Torque Torsion Torsion Torsion of mild-steel bar Total energy Traffic flow Train on a track Transmission line equation Turbochargers Turbulence Wbk 27 Wbk 25 Wbk 33 Wbk 41 Wbk 44 Wbk 14 Wbk 47 Wbk 47 Wbk 6 Wbk 29 Wbk 17 Wbk 32 Wbk 1 37 16 10 21 45, 47 8 6 7 49 46 13 46 85
Transverse vibrations equation
Two dimensional fluid flow Tyre mileage Undersea cable fault location van der Waals' equation Velocity of a rocket Velocity on a bend Vibrating system Vibration Vibration of string HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide
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Wbk 34 Wbk 9 19 52 Wbk 46 24 Wbk 13 19 6 Wbk 28 Wbk 13 Wbk 17 Wbk 13 Wbk 34 Wbk 37 Wbk 30 Wbk 25 Wbk 25 Wbk 41 Wbk 47 Wbk 26 Wbk 38 Wbk 3 Wbk 47 Wbk 8 Wbk 34 Wbk 20 Wbk 23 Wbk 47 19 13 19 28 11, 46 62 16 18 17 16 36 13 25
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18, 19, 23 31 51 47 69 5 51
Vintage car brake pedal mechanism Viscosity Volume of liquid in an ellipsoidal tank Volume of liquid in an elliptic tank Washing machine faults Water flow Water height in an open channel Water wheel efficiency Waterflow Wave equation Waves Waves Waves Wear on rollers Weathering of paint Woodscrew size variation Work done moving a charge in an electric field Young's modulus Young's modulus Wbk 4 Wbk 47 Wbk 27 Wbk 27 Wbk 42 Wbk 47 Wbk 48 Wbk 12 Wbk 28 Wbk 32 Wbk 4 Wbk 47 14 14, 15, 16 79 37 20 20 45 28 12, 13, 25, 30 70 40-42 17
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Wbk 48 Wbk 40 Wbk 44 11 6 29 Wbk 40 Wbk 29 Wbk 8 Wbk 20 19 10 52
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2, 7, 10
52
49.8 M athematics Facts and Fo rmulae
On the following pages are collections of useful Facts and Formulae. They were developed by Tony Croft and Geoff Simpson and are reproduced with the permission of Loughborough University Mathematics Education Centre.
Mathematical Topic s Algebra Trigonometry Hyperbolic Functions The Greek Alphabet Differentiation Integration Complex Numbers Vectors
Sequences and Series
Matrices and Determinants
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The Binomial Coefficients Graphs of Common Functions The Sine Rule and Cosine Rule
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64

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General Advice to Students Studying Mathematics Some Useful Websites

List of Sections in HELM Workbooks 1 to 48 Index of Engineering Contexts in HELM Workbooks 1 to 48

Mathematics Facts and Formulae

50 Workbooks are available which comprise:

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

HE LM project Assessment Regime

The HELM assessment strategy is based on using Computer-Aided Assessment (CAA)

HE LM Consortium and T riallist Institutions and individual Contributors

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

Other HE/FE Institutions

University of Wales Institute Cardiff

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

Conics and Polar Coordinates Differential Equations Laplace Transforms z-Transforms

Functions of Several Variables

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

2. Nomenclature used for p roblems

3. Nota tion used

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

Description of HE LM Workbook layout

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

Accessing HE LM electronic learning resources

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

x and x (times sign and letter x )

if the general root key ( x y ) is used but will give both

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

In general, i f in any doubt put in br ac kets. This nearly always works.

BODMAS to the rescue!

Workbook 49: Students Guide

which is +16 but

B ODMA S: (B B rackets, O O f, D ivision, M ultiplication, A ddition, S ubtraction):

Equality and Identity

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

) is (or rather can be)

x + x. This symbol has been used sometimes in the HELM

Square root symbol

n as "t t he square root of n " instead of the more

x and y2 = x below illustrate the point:

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

x but, particularly in complex number

So y = x 2 could mean either of the graphs

1 sin 2 by cos (because 1 sin 2 cos 2 ). This

is wrong because cos can be negative whereas

The expression sink x is interpreted in different ways, depending on the value of k.

and similarly for cos, tan, sec, cosec and cot

cos, tan, sec, cosec and cot.

1 1 Note that arcsin(x) (sin x) but cosec(x) (sin x) because

is never negative, so the result should

Checking your work

Irreversible steps in solving equations

Multiplying both sides of an equation (except by zero) is reversible: e.g. "multiply

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

The most common irreversible operation used in solving equations is squaring. .

This is t rue for s ome operations. Examples are: Algebra: k ( p + q) = kp + kq Differentiation: d ( u + v ) / dx = du / dx + dv / dx

HELM 2005 Workbook 49: Students Guide

Exponentiation: exp(x + y) exp(x) + exp(y) Matrices (inversion): (A + B)1 A1 + B1

Taking logarithm: log(x + y) log(x) + log(y)