The Design Journal

VOLUME 13, ISSUE 3 PP 291312

REPRINTS AVAILABLE DIRECTLY FROM THE PUBLISHERS

PHOTOCOPYING PERMITTED BY LICENSE ONLY

BERG 2010 PRINTED IN THE UK

Osmud Rahman Yan Jiang

Ryerson University, Canada Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, China

Wing-sun Liu

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to explore and investigate the functional and aesthetic attributes of denim jeans and the perceptions and behaviours generated within the youth market. In order to understand the varied considerations a consumer makes in her purchasing decisions, and within a cross-national context, the countries of China and Canada were selected for the current study. The sample consisted of 247 Chinese women and 380 Canadian women.

291

The Design Journal DOI: 10.2752/146069210X12766130824894

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans: A Cross-national Study of Functional and Aesthetic Aspects

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

The results indicate that Chinese respondents were more concerned with the functional characteristics of denim jeans, whereas their Canadian counterparts focused heavily on their aesthetic appeal. It is also evident that social conformity played a signicant role in the consumption of denim jeans among the Chinese, while self-expression/personal enhancement was more important to the Canadian consumers. The ndings of this study provide insight and implications for fashion practitioners on future product design and development, and further research on this topic is recommended.
KEYWORDS: clothing evaluation, function, aesthetic, cross-national study

Introduction
Consumers often choose a product based on multiple attributes such as function and aesthetics. The functional attributes of a product can satisfy consumer need through problem solving and prevention, whereas aesthetic attributes can generate experiential pleasures through its ownership, interaction, viewing and consumption. The functional or practical design of clothing can enhance con sumer usage and provide multiple benets to the wearers such as protection, warmth, comfort and ease of movement. Many con sumers do not seek benets of a higher level (that is, aesthetic and experiential) until their basic or essential level of needs is rst met. For example, many consumers will not consider buying a pair of trousers with a malfunctioning zipper regardless of its style. Aesthetic design does not merely offer variants to existing styles in the marketplace but also novelty, distinctiveness and pleasure to the consumer. It carries and conveys meaningful messages about the users, serving as a signicant non-verbal commun ica tor of a consumers taste, lifestyle and values. According to a study con ducted by Bruce and Whitehead (1988), 60% of respondents indicated that design was the most important determinant of new product performance. Thus, product design (both functional and aesthetic) could play a vital role in a products overall success. It directly affects the con sumers perceived values and satisfaction of a product. As Chitturi et al (2008) asserted, failing to meet a utilitarian expectation evokes anger, failing to meet a hedonic expectation evokes dissatisfaction.

The Design Journal

Focus and Objectives

Consumers with diverse cultural values may view or judge a pro duct from different perspectives. Crozier (1994) suggests that the
292

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

overall appeal of a product is greatly inuenced by socio-cultural, socio-economic, historical and technological factors. For example, Chinese consumers may perceive a pair of Levis 501 jeans as exotic and modern, whereas American consumers may view them as authentic and classic. Therefore, it is important for multinational enterprises (MNEs) and global design teams to understand what constitutes a consumers buying motivations within a global/crosscultural context, in order to maximize successful retail outcomes. With this perspective, the Peoples Republic of China (hereafter referred to as China) and Canada were selected for this study because of the signicant differences in their social, cultural and economical conditions (Hofstede, 1984). In order to understand the similarities and differences in consumer perception and behaviour, the following questions were raised to guide and direct the present study. What roles do product attributes and design features play on clothing consumption within a cross-cultural context? What type of design features may evoke cognitive and affective responses among the youth from two different nations/cultures? Do Chinese consumers perceive the same product values as their Canadian counterparts? In light of the preceding questions, denim jeans were chosen to examine and address the functional usage, aesthetic form and symbolic design features of a product. The focus of this study was placed on intrinsic product cues rather than the extrinsic cues. Therefore, the investigation of the salient effects of price, brand name or country of origin was beyond the scope of this research and will not be addressed in the present study. The objective of this cross-national study was to identify and examine the differences and peculiarities of young consumers perceptions toward denim jeans from two different nations China and Canada.

Relevant Literature Functional and Aesthetic Values

The acceptance of a clothing item is greatly related to various product attributes such as fit, colour, fabric, style and design features. In recent years, a substantial amount of literature has been devoted to the study of product form and aesthetic appearance from different perspectives (see Bloch et al, 2003; Eckman and Wagner, 1995; Workman and Caldwell, 2007). However, there has been little research examining the perceptions of young consumers with regard to the aesthetic and functional aspects of apparel products within a cross-cultural context. Many earlier researchers, such as Gersak (2002), propose that apparel products can be divided into categories with distinctive functional and aesthetic behavioural characteristics. Functional characteristics of clothing refer to properties such as usage and performance, comfort, durability and ease of care. Aesthetic

293

The Design Journal

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

characteristics refer to the products visual appeal (Lewalski, 1988) and aesthetic experience (Csikszentmihalyi and Robinson, 1990). Many researchers support the notion that aesthetic and functional elements have always coexisted within a product (Holbrook, 1995; Morganosky, 1984, 1987), regardless of the product type. For in stance, some physical features of a garment such as cargo pockets can be designed for aesthetic decoration as well as functional usage. Aesthetic design is inherently related to the physical form of a product, while aesthetic experience comprises the multi-sensory pleasures it induces. As individuals wear and interact with clothing, their involvement creates various concrete benefits as well as experiential pleasures. The concrete benets are usually observ able without actual consumption or usage, such as colour value (dark/ light), fabric texture (coarse/ne), or pocket size (big/small). However, experiential pleasures may only be available or better understood during the consumption stage or during its actual usage generating various pleasures such as stimulation of the senses, expression of emotions and creation of symbolic content (Fiore and Kimle, 1997). Furthermore, a product with a strong and distinctive form or appearance could be easily categorized within an individuals long-term memory. If the need for certain types of product arise, consumers are more likely to prefer ones that convey appropriate meaning and project a strong resonance for the viewer. For example, a silk dress with elaborate embroidery may portray a high societal status, low-rise skinny jeans may display a feminine or sexual image, distressed garments may suggest a sense of vintage or nostalgia, and baggy pants worn with an oversized athletic jersey shirt may be associated with hip-hop culture. Different product appearances generate different functions, meanings and inferences (Berkowitz, 1987; Bloch, 1995). Thus, the appearance of a garment reaches out to consumers in many ways that affect rst impressions, purchase intent and satisfaction playing an important role between the interaction of the wearer and the perceived responses of the viewers.

Cross-cultural Differences and Hypotheses Development Economic Variance

China has undergone tremendous change since the launch of Economic Reform in 1979. The economy has shifted from a closed market to an open market system, and total retail sales have grown about 13% a year over the past decade (McKinsey Quarterly, 2006). Despite the rapid economic growth, the disposable income of Chinese consumers is still relatively low in comparison to their Canadian counterparts. In 2005, the average annual income of Chinese urban dwellers was 18,405 yuan (about US $2,687) (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2006), while their counterparts in Canada earned $26,500 (about US $24,539) (Statistics Canada,
The Design Journal 294

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

2008). Due to the income variance, Chinese consumers are relatively cautious about their spending, and are more concerned with the quality of a product. The notion of best value for money plays a critical role in buying decisions. According to Levy (1996), 88% of Chinese consumers made his/her purchase decisions based on factual information more so than just on emotional responses.

The Social Self and Private Self

Other than the impact of personal income, the needs and aspirations of young Chinese consumers are constantly shaped and inuenced by their values and beliefs. On one hand, they are strongly inuenced by traditional values such as family, patriotism, saving face, inter dependence, modesty, perseverance and frugality (Lin, 2001; Wong and Ahuvia, 1998). On the other hand, they are experiencing changes to their value system, inuenced by Western culture and values of individualism and personal liberty (Sun and Collins, 2002). Thus, it is not uncommon to see both traditional values and Western ideology coexist among the young in these contemporary times. Although young Chinese consumers have become more recept ive to Western culture and foreign products, there is still more focus placed on the social self rather than the private self (Anderson and He, 1998). Many prior studies have reported that social status and the concept of face (mianzi) still plays a pivotal role in Chinese consumer culture, and individuals live under constant pressure to maintain or preserve their face in the public eye. As such, face could make Chinese consumers slower to accept new innovative or cutting-edge styles. In Western societies such as Canada, the inner private self is more signicant in regulating consumer behaviour. A consumers preferences, tastes and personal values play an important role on product evaluation and purchase decisions. In general, Canadian consumers do not seek approval from others when they consume clothing, but rather judge a product based on their personal needs and aspirations. Thus, there are no considerations given to the notion of face and social conformity being accepted by certain social groups is not a major purpose of life.

Collectivism and Individualism

A substantial amount of literature has examined the global notion of collectivism and individualism (Berry et al, 1992; Oyserman and Lee, 2008). According to Hofstede (1984), Chinese society is high in collectivism, whereas Canadian society is high in individualism. In a collectivistic society, consumers tend to pay more attention to the socio-cultural aspects of tradition and conformity. These con sumers do not want to take the risk of social disapproval for displaying an advanced or unique fashion image. They will use clothing to associate themselves to their desired in-group members and would rather conform to the acceptable social norm and follow the
The Design Journal 295

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

current fashion trends. For example, denim jeans that are bleached, torn or distressed are unlikely to be accepted by consumers in a collectivist society, since they connote old, used and disorderliness. However, in an individualistic society, distinctiveness and innovation is encouraged, more concern is placed on the attainment of an individuals goal and open personal expression. Therefore, torn and distressed jeans would be more acceptable since individualistic consumers are more focused on their personal wants, experiential needs and rights (Roth, 1995).

Hypotheses
Based on the preceding discussions, we proposed the following research hypotheses: H1: Young Chinese consumers are relatively more concerned with the functional aspects of denim jeans than their Canadian counterparts. H2: Young Chinese consumers are relatively less concerned with the aesthetic appeal of denim jeans than their Canadian counterparts. H3: Young Chinese consumers are less willing to take risks on new or atypical styles than their Canadian counterparts. H4: Social conformity plays a critical role for young Chinese con sumers, while individual expression is a major factor for young Canadian consumers in the evaluation and consumption of denim jeans.

Questionnaire and Participating Subjects

A self-administered survey was designed and developed for this study. In order to understand participants perceptions and prefer ences towards specic features of denim jeans, a questionnaire containing product-related behaviour measures and demographic questions was used. Visual stimuli were also incorporated in this study to offer a more realistic examination of denim jeans. As indicated in Table 1, visual stimulus was deliberately not adopted for the colour and fabric attributes; the reason being that visual stimulus was not an effective instrument to measure respondents colour preferences. For example, dark-coloured denim consists of many different shades/treatments (such as raw denim, dark indigo, rinse denim, and eight- or twelve-dip indigo), and it was not appropriate to select one shade of blue to represent the whole range of this darker colour value. In a similar vein, visual stimulus was also unnecessary for analysing fabric attributes because it could not offer interaction and tactile information (for example, weight and softness) to the respondents. From our literature review (as shown in Appendix I), nine product cues (brand name, price, country of origin, style, quality, t, comfort, colour and fabric) and seven specic design features (silhouette, leg opening, waistline/rise, pockets, back pocket embellishment, fabric and colour) of denim jeans were identied. Each design feature

296

The Design Journal

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

Table 1 Description of visual stimuli and number of variations. Design features/ physical attributes Silhouette Leg openings Waistline/rise Pocket: B  ack pocket Coin pocket Back pocket embellishment Visual stimuli Number of variations 4 4 4 2 2 6 Description Loose, straight, slim, Stretch (form tting) Tapered leg, boot-cut, ared leg, wide leg Ultra-low-rise, low-rise, regular, high-rise Important, not important Important, not important Six different designs from current brands: a. Rock & Republic (simple design) b. True Religion (simple design) c. Seven for All Mankind (fancy design) d. Citizen of Humanity (fancy design) e. Antik Denim (simple design) f. Paige Premium Denim (fancy design) Stretch, non-stretch, doesnt matter Light blue, blue, dark blue, black, other

Fabric Colour

3 5

Results and Discussions

Subjects for this study were a convenient sample of female college students from Hangzhou, China and Toronto, Canada. In total, usable data from 247 and 380 participants was collected in China and Canada respectively. The subjects from these two countries were similar in age, with the vast majority falling between eighteen and twenty-four years old (as indicated in Table 2). The average

297

The Design Journal

consisted of two to six variations (see Table 1 for description of the variations). Additionally, several open-ended questions were used to discover the underlying motivations associated with consumer preferences (see Appendix II). This allowed respondents to use their own words in explaining motives, expressing viewpoints and describing experiences associated with denim jeans. For instance, if they liked or disliked ultra-low-rise jeans, a brief explanation for their reasons could be included. The open-ended questions were analysed by means of content analysis, and closed items were analysed using the statistical package SPSS. This questionnaire was developed in English for Canadian re spondents, and the back-translation method was used to prepare the Chinese version for use in China (Brislin, 1986). Prior to the pre-test, visual stimuli were assessed by ve judges two fashion designers and three fashion professors. This validation process was employed to avoid errors or misunderstandings. The survey was then pre-tested on a sample of fteen female students in each country to identify any potential problems and ambiguities, and corresponding amendments were made before the actual questionnaire was administered.

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

Table 2 Prole of the Chinese and Canadian consumer samples. Country Number of respondents (usable data) Age 1824 Mean age Frequency of wearing denim jeans Almost everyday (4 to 6 days a week) Daily Occasionally During weekday (1 to 3 days) During weekend Never Average number of jeans currently owned Mean score China 247 86.2% 22.4 66.4% 15.8% 10.1% 2.0% 1.2% 0.4% 5.7 Canada 380 72.4% 22.7 58.2% 13.3% 4.9% 8.4% 12.8% 2.2% 9.7

age of the Chinese and Canadian samples was 22.4 and 22.7 respectively. On average, Chinese samples owned ve to six pairs of jeans (n=219, X =5.7), while the Canadian samples owned nine to ten pairs (n=380, X =9.7). Over fty per cent of the respondents from both samples wore denim jeans almost every day (Table 2).

Product Cues
In this study, a nine-point Likert scale (anchored by most important to least important) was adopted to measure and examine the use of nine product cues (price, brand, country of origin, style, quality, t, comfort, colour, fabric) as the respondents evaluative criteria. As indicated in Table 3, the relative importance of each product cue was measured and presented by the mean score. Chinese respondents ranked comfort as the most important evaluative criterion, followed by t and quality. This result is consistent with a study of Western-branded jeans in Shanghai (Wu and DeLong, 2006) and a study of casual wear in six cities in China (Zhang et al, 2002) where comfort and t were ranked as two of the most signicant criteria in making purchase decisions. However, for most of the Canadian respondents, t ranked as the most important evaluative cue, followed by style and quality. The comfort cue ranked fourth and was not perceived as the most signicant factor as it was for the Chinese. Despite the differences of the salient effects among the top four product attributes (t, quality, comfort and style), both countries ranked brand and country of origin as two of the least important attributes. According to this nding, the tangible attributes/intrinsic cues of denim jeans were ranked relatively higher than intangible attributes/extrinsic cues (price, brand, country of origin). In addition, the Chinese respondents were more concerned with the functional benets (comfort, t and quality), whereas Canadian respondents

298

The Design Journal

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

Table 3 Rankings of product cues importance. China Product attribute Comfort Fit Quality Style Colour Fabric Price Brand Country of origin
*S.D., standard deviation.

Canada n 245 242 242 239 241 241 240 232 231 Rank 4 1 3 2 6 7 5 8 9 Mean 6.41 7.81 6.43 7.29 5.30 4.65 5.99 3.42 1.81 S.D.* 2.12 1.62 2.07 1.78 2.11 2.22 2.16 2.27 1.61 n 369 371 368 370 368 365 369 370 369

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Mean 7.82 7.74 7.72 7.59 6.94 6.81 6.39 3.16 1.84

S.D.* 1.62 1.78 2.07 1.78 2.11 2.22 2.16 2.27 1.61

were more focused on the aesthetic aspects of denim jeans (t and style). It is important to point out that the t attribute can often generate both functional benets (that is, ease of movement) and aesthetic values (that is, visual appeal, trendiness). According to Liechty et al (2000), a good t is based on three factors balance, room for movement and appearance. Nevertheless, it is evident that the hypotheses H1 and H2 were partially supported.

Specic Design Features

Respondents were asked to view the visual stimuli and rate their favourite waistline, t, leg opening, and colour on a four-point Likert scale ranging from the most favourite (=4) to the least favourite (=1); and to give explanations for their preference of specic design features (Table 4). According to the present study, Chinese respondents favoured the regular waistline jeans, whereas their Canadian counterparts were signicantly in favour of the low-rise style. In terms of the most unfavourable or least desirable waistline, Chinese and Canadian respondents cited ultra-low-rise and high-rise respectively. It is evident that Chinese consumer preference for the regular waistline jeans was based on its moderate style and functional attributes (comfort and ease of movement). In addition, they also rated low-rise and ultra-low-rise jeans relatively low as compared with their Canadian counterparts. Some Chinese respondents perceived low-rise jeans as fashionable, trendy and youthful while others expressed that they were too revealing, indecent and inappropriate. In particular, the ultra-low-rise jeans seemed aesthetically unpleasing to many respondents. However, we are not implying that Chinese consumers are conservative or insensitive to fashion trends. Rather, they appear to be more cautious in their response towards new trends and cutting-edge styles. In general, the Chinese choose to present themselves in a socially acceptable

299

The Design Journal

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

Table 4 Preferences of specic design features.

Design elements Waistline Chinese Canadian Regular nf215, X =3.36; [1] n=287, X =2.60; [2] Low-rise n=201, X =3.12; [2] n=346, X =3.67; [1] Variations High-rise n=176, X =2.01; [3] n=270, X =1.35; [4] Ultra-low-rise n=177, X =1.48; [4] n=284, X =2.40; [3]

Fit/silhouette Chinese Canadian

Slim n=221, X =3.38; [1] n=334, X =2.95; [2]

Straight n=216, X =2.89; [2] n=327, X =2.59; [3]

Loose n=202, X =2.41; [3] n=324, X =1.81; [4]

Form-tting (stretch) n=207, X =2.14; [4] n=339, X =3.04; [1]

Leg opening Chinese Canadian

Flared n=233, X =3.48; [1] n=361, X =2.82; [2]

Boot-cut n=219, X =3.01; [2] n=367, X =3.37; [1]

Tapered n=210, X =1.96; [3] n=354, X =2.29; [3]

Wide n=210, X =1.65; [4] n=356, X =1.60; [4]

The Design Journal

Back pocket embellishment

a. Rock & Republic

b. True Religion

c. Antik

d. Seven

e. Citizen

f. Paige

300

Respondents preference: Chinese n=236 34.4%; [1] Canadian n=380 24.5%; [1]

21%; [2] 19.3%; [3] 8.8%; [4] 8.0%; [5] 20%; [2] 9.1%; [5] 19.7%; [3] 18.4%; [4]

7.6%; [6] 7.6%; [6]

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

Design elements Back pocket Chinese Canadian Coin pocket Chinese Canadian Colour Chinese Canadian Fabric stretch Chinese Canadian Important: n=195, 79.9% Important: n=321, 84.5% Important: n=118, 48.4% Important: n=85, 22.4% Dark blue n=221, X =3.00; [1] n=365, X =3.45; [1] Stretch n=100, 41.0% n=215, 56.6% Blue n=218, X =2.8; [2] n=363, X =2.86; [2] Non-stretch n=68, 27.9% n=51, 13.4%

Variations Not important: n=49, 20.1% Not important: n=51, 13.4% Not important: n=126, 51.6% Not important: n=282, 76.8% Light blue n=221, X =2.78; [3] n=358, X =2.20; [3] Dont care n=76, 31.1% n=108, 28.4% Black n=209, X =2.21; [4] n=359, X =1.82; [4]

context; yet, they also like being fashionable and stylish. This be comes an ongoing struggle between standing out and blending in for many consumers. In this particular cultural context, social conformity obviously played a critical role in the evaluation and consumption of denim jeans for young Chinese consumers, and hypotheses H3 and H4 were supported. On the other side, the Canadian respondents frequently described low-rise jeans as stylish, trendy, attractive, appealing and most attering. Body image also played an important part with many respondents, who reported that low-rise jeans could accentuate or enhance their body gure to look slimmer, elongate the torso and show the body silhouette better. Other than the aesthetic percep tions of low-rise jeans, some respondents also expressed that the low-rise jeans were psychologically sexy, making them feel more physically desirable or attractive when wearing these style of jeans. Additionally, the majority of the Canadians preferred form-tting and slim-t jeans for similar reasons. They found both models/ silhouettes to be fashionable, aesthetically pleasing, comfortable and sexy. According to this nding, hypothesis H4 was also supported. In terms of pocket features, both Chinese and Canadian re spondents reported that they preferred denim jeans with back pockets but not necessarily with the coin pocket (as shown in Table 4). Although no signicant differences were found, more Canadian respondents (n=282; 76.8%) reported that the coin pocket was insignicant while their Chinese counterparts (n=126; 51.6%) viewed the coin pocket as an important feature due to its authenticity or originality. They extended that a pair of typical denim jeans should consist of ve pockets two scoop pockets at the front, one coin pocket and two back pockets. This nding is in line with Triandis (1989, 1990). His study explained that individuals in more rigid,

301

The Design Journal

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

structured or tight cultures (Eastern societies) prefer predictability, certainty and security, whereas individuals from independent or loose cultures (Western societies) prefer creativity and diversity (1989). Therefore, this particular nding supported hypothesis H3 as well. Additionally, respondents were asked to view and select their favourite back pocket embellishment from six variations. All the em bellishments were chosen from current premium denim jeans brands with different designs ranging from simple to fancy. The results of this study indicated that our respondents preferred simple designs (a: Rock & Republic and b: True Religion) to the fancy or complex designs (Table 5). Fancy embellishments on the back pocket were disliked because it was perceived that they would draw additional attention to the hips area. In order to discover whether the respondents could recognize the brand solely by these design embellishments, they were asked to identify the brand name prior to making their choices. The results showed that only a small number of respondents (Chinese, n=10; Canadian, n=35) attempted to answer this particular question; and two pocket embellishments (True Religion and Seven for all Mankind) were identied correctly by ve Canadian respondents. In other words, the majority of the respondents failed to recognize the brand name. Thus, it is believed that the choices for favourite design were based on aesthetic and personal taste rather than brand preference. The Chinese and Canadian samples were also asked to choose their favourite leg opening, fabric and colour. According to the ndings of this study, no signicant differences were found. A vast majority of both samples preferred ared and boot-cut, stretch denim fabric and dark blue colour for their jeans.

Conclusion Functional Benets and Aesthetic Experience

The specific design of a pair of jeans can generate and elicit a varied range of psychological, aesthetic and behavioural responses. Manipulation, modication or elimination of any single design element could affect the overall perceived value of a product. According to the results of this study, the functional or instrumental values of denim jeans were deemed to be of vital importance to many Chinese consumers. In other words, these functionally oriented consumers were more likely to value needs over wants, practicality over creativity and convenience over appearance. For example, many respondents have indicated that regular t and stretch denim jeans offer ease of movement, comfort and superior quality, and these reasons have increased their perceived value and expected lifespan for the product. Therefore, fashion practitioners should pay attention to material selection, product quality and t engineering in order to meet the needs of young Chinese consumers.

302

The Design Journal

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

In contrast, Canadian consumers were more concerned with their individual self rather than the social self; and therefore, aesthetic values played a signicant role in jeans evaluation and consump tion. Selection of their favourite jeans was based on t, style and quality. The t/silhouette attribute especially assisted consumers in assessing and understanding the importance of the product and self-congruency. As the most important cue, it enhanced physical pleasure and functional usage, as well as generated stronger aesthetic values and psychological benets. In other words, if a pair of jeans did not t body type, enhance self-image, nor provide experiential pleasure, these consumers were unlikely to buy the product. A substantial number of Canadian consumers agreed that the lowrise skinny jeans could accentuate desired body parts, camouage perceived gure faults, and make the wearer appear more appealing, sexually attractive and desirable. As Auty and Elliot (1998) point out in their study of denim jeans, It is more important to full the symbolic needs of consumers because their functional needs in this case are to a large extent dependent on their symbolic ones. In other words, if the jeans do not satisfy a consumers image requirements, they will not be perceived to be well cut or comfortable either.

Conformity and Individuality

A consumers prior knowledge and experience with denim jeans could affect her perceptions and understanding of the product quality and performance (Kahmann and Henze, 2002). In many cases, consumers may infer the functional usage and benets based on product features and characteristics. In other words, distinctive and specic design features are more likely to be retrieved from memory and used as a guideline or yardstick to predict and evaluate the benets (both cognitive and affective) of a product. According to the results of our study, moderate styles (that is, regular waistline and slim t) with unied and prototypical design features in dark blue colour were more acceptable to the Chinese youth market. The reasonable explanation is that consumers in collectivistic societies tend to pay considerable attention to the socio-cultural aspects of tradition and conformity. Individuals use clothing to reinforce social membership and to avoid rejection by their peers. In other words, the desire to conform is an important criterion in purchase decisions. Many Chinese consumers will not take the risk of social disapproval for unusual, progressive or cutting-edge fashion styles. In this respect, this may explain the preference for regular waistline and slim-t jeans rather than the ultra-low-rise and form-tting style by the Chinese respondents. In a similar vein, a modication or disruption of a unied design (that is, removal of coin pocket or back pockets) could exert a negative effect on consumers who are following a cultural norm. As Schtte and Ciarlante (1998) assert, Chinese tend to choose the middle-of-the-road style or brand rather than one that would make them stand out.

303

The Design Journal

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

In short, social and functional benets were more prominent in the minds of Chinese consumers; and it appears that many Chinese consumers would prefer a product that offers a socially acceptable status, good quality and functional value. For their Canadian counterparts, psychological and aesthetic values were more critical; their concerns being placed on the private self and aesthetic experience. As part of an individualistic society, Canadian consumers tend to use clothing to build identity, express individual self and enhance outward appearance. They are more focused on their personal needs, wants and rights rather than with social comparisons, norms, or prestige. Wheeler et al (1989) point out that the Chinese place stress on harmonious interactions with others, whereas Westerners focus on the expression of private self.

Final Notes
It is important to point out that due to the differences in socio-cultural contexts, the general acceptance of fashionable clothing may vary across nations or societies. With these perspectives, multinational fashion companies should produce products with a mixed assort ment of design features and merchandise categories that cater to different needs and wants across diverse market segments. We also suggest that an incremental design approach (slow evolutionary changes) may be more appropriate and effective in a collectivistic market than a radical design approach (image of extreme individuality) that would entail rapid or revolutionary changes over a short period of time. Nevertheless, we should be cautious with this notion because cultural values and beliefs are not static. They erode and evolve through time and globalization. Marketers should constantly monitor and identify the tastes and desires of young consumers while fashion designers and practitioners must pay attention to both the functional and aesthetic features of the products they design. If fashion enterprises want to be successful in todays Chinese and Canadian milieu, they must discover what product attributes could trigger particular cognitive and affective responses among young consumers.

Limitations
It is important to understand how denim jeans shape todays con sumer identity, subjectivity and behaviour. Likewise, it is also critical to understand how and why individuals seek meaning and value within a pair of denim jeans. We believe this research study provides insights to international fashion companies and practition ers for future product design innovation and marketing strategies. However, as with most studies, there are a number of limita tions to this current research. Firstly, the effects of product cues may not be perceived consistently or equally across all apparel categories. Although denim jeans are widely accepted by young
The Design Journal 304

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

consumers globally, further research should be conducted on other apparel products to better understand consumer perception and preferences. Secondly, consumer response toward product design and specic features may vary across diverse consumer markets. Validity and reliability could be higher if this study were conducted across multiple collectivistic and individualistic societies. Thirdly, different demographic groups and geographic location could be included. Consumers may have different needs and desires when belonging to different age groups and socio-cultural environments. Therefore, more research is needed to further substantiate the validity and extend the concept of this study.

References
Anderson, P. M. and He, X. (1998). Price inuence and age seg ments of Beijing consumers. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 15(2), 152169. Auty, S. and Elliot, R. (1998). Fashion involvement, self-monitoring and the meaning of brands. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 7(2), 109123. Berkowitz, M. (1987). Product shape as a design innovation strat egy. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 4, 274283. Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. P., Segall, M. H. and Dasen, R. R. (1992). Cross-cultural Psychology: Research and Applications. New York: Cambridge University Press. Bloch, P. E. (1995). Seeking the ideal form: Product design and consumer response. Journal of Marketing, 59(3), 1629. Bloch, P. H., Brunel, F. F. and Arnold, T. J. (2003). Individual differ ences in the centrality of visual product aesthetics: Concept and measurement. Journal of Consumer Research, 29(4), 551565. Brislin, R. W. (1986). The wording and translation of research instruments. In Lonner, W. J. and Berry, J. W. (eds), Field Methods in Cross-cultural Research: Cross-cultural Research Method ology Series. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, Vol. 8, pp. 137164. Bruce, M., and Whitehead, M. (1988). Putting design into the picture: the role of product design in consumer purchase behavior. Journal of the Market Research Society, 30(2), 147162. Chitturi, R., Raghunathan, R. and Mahajan, V. (2008). Delight by design: The role of hedonic versus utilitarian benets. Journal of Marketing, 72, 4863. Crozier, W. R. (1994). Manufactured Pleasures: Psychological Response to Design. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Csikszentmihalyi, M. and Robinson, R. E. (1990). The Art of Seeing: An Interpretation of the Aesthetic Encounter. Los Angeles, CA: J. Paul Getty Museum. DeLong, M., LaBat, K., Nelson, N., Koh, A. and Kim Y. (2002). Global products, global markets: Jeans in Korea and the United States. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 20(4), 238245.

305

The Design Journal

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

Eckman, M. and Wagner, J. (1995). Aesthetic aspects of the consumption of fashion design: The conceptual and empirical challenge. In Kardes, F. R. and Sujan, M. (eds), Advances in Consumer Research . Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, Vol. 22, pp. 646649. Fiore, A. M. and Kimle, P. A. (1997). Aesthetics for the Merchand is ing and Design Professional. New York: Fairchild Publications. Forney, J. C., Park, E. J. and Brandon, L. (2005). Effects of evaluative criteria on fashion brand extension. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 9(2), 156165. Gersak, J. (2002). Development of the system for qualitative pre diction of garments appearance quality. International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, 14(3), 169180. Herbst, F. and Burger C. (2002). Attributes used by young con sumers when assessing a fashion products: A conjoint analysis approach. Journal of Family Ecology and Consumer Studies, 30, 4045. Hofstede, G. H. (1984). Cultures Consequences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Holbrook, M. B. (1995). Consumer Research . London: Sage Publications. Hsu, H. J. and Burns, L. D. (2002). Clothing evaluative criteria: A cross-national comparison of Taiwanese and United States Consumers. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal , 20(4), 246252. Kahmann, R. and Henze, L. (2002). Mapping the userproduct relationship. In Green, W. and Jordan, P. (eds), Pleasure with Products: Beyond Usability. New York: Taylor and Francis, pp. 297306. Kawabata, H. and Rabolt, N. J. (1999). Comparison of clothing purchase behaviour between US and Japanese female university students. Journal Consumer Studies & Home Economics, 23(4), 213223. Kwan, C. Y., Yeung, K. W. and Au, K. F. (2004). Decision-making behaviour towards casual wear buying: A study of young consumers in Mainland China. Journal of Management & World Business Research, 1(1), 110. Levy, G. R. (1996). Consumer Marketing in China: Chasing Billions, Catching Millions. Hong Kong: Economist Intelligence Unit. Lewalski, Z. M. (1988). Product Esthetics: An Interpretation for Designers. Carson City, NV: Design & Development Engineering Press. Liechty, E. G., Pottberg, D. N. and Rasband, J. A. (2000). Fitting and Pattern Alteration: A Multi-method Approach. New York: Fairchild Publications. Lin, C. A. (2001). Cultural values reected in Chinese and American television advertising. Journal of Advertising, 30(4). 8395. Lin, E. A. C. and Ang, S. H. (2007). Hedonic vs. utilitarian con sump tion: A cross-cultural perspective based on cultural condition ing. Journal of Business Research, 61, 225232.

306

The Design Journal

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

307

May, J. K. and Koester, A. W. (1985). Clothing purchase practices of adolescents. Home Economics Research Journal , 13(3), 226236. McKinsey Quarterly (2006). Serving the new Chinese consumer. McKinsey Quarterly, Special Edition, 3233. Morganosky, M. A. (1984). Aesthetic and utilitarian qualities of clothing: Use of a multidimensional clothing value model. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 13(1), 1220. Morganosky, M. A. (1987). Aesthetic, function, and fashion consumer values: Relationships to other values and demographics. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 6(1), 1519. National Bureau of Statistics of China (2006). National Bureau of Statistics of China [online]. Available at: http://www.stats.gov.cn [accessed 3 October 2008]. Oyserman, D. and Lee, S. W. S. (2008). Does culture inuence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 311342. Roth, M. S. (1995). The effects of culture and socioeconomics on the performance of global brand image strategies. Journal of Marketing Research, 32(2), 163175. Schtte, H. and Ciarlante, D. (1998). Consumer Behavior in Asia. New York: New York University Press. Statistics Canada (2008). Individuals by total income level, by province and territory. Statistics Canada [online]. Available at: www.statcan.ca [accessed 3 October 2008]. Sun, X. and Collins, R. (2002). Attitudes and consumption values of consumers of imported fruit in Guangzhou, China. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 26(1), 3443. Swinker, M. E. and Hines, J. D. (2006). Understanding consumers perception of clothing quality: A multidimensional approach. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30(2), 218223. Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 506520. Triandis, H. C. (1990). Theoretical concepts that are applicable to the analysis of ethnocentrism. In Brislin, R. W. (ed.), Applied Crosscultural Psychology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 3455. Wang, Y. and Heitmeyer, J. (2006). Consumer attitude toward US versus domestic apparel in Taiwan. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 30(1), 327352. Wheeler, L., Reis, H. T. and Bond, M. H. (1989). Collectivismindividualism in everyday social life: The middle kingdom and the melting pot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(1), 7986. Wong, N. Y. and Ahuvia, A. C. (1998), Personal taste and family face: Luxury consumption in Confucian and Western societies. Psychology and Marketing, 15(5), 423441.

The Design Journal

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

Workman, J. E. and Caldwell, L. F. (2007). Centrality of visual product aesthetics, tactile and uniqueness needs of fashion consumers. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 31, 589596. Wu, J. and DeLong, M. (2006). Chinese perceptions of Westernbranded denim jeans: A Shanghai case study. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 10(2), 238250. Zhang, Z., Li. Y., Gong, C. and Wu, H. (2002). Casual wear product attributes: A Chinese consumers perspective. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 6(1), 5362.

Biographies
Osmud Rahman is an Assistant Professor and Program Director for Fashion Communication in the School of Fashion, Ryerson University, Toronto. He teaches both Fashion Design and Fashion Communication programs. His works have appeared in various international conferences and journals such as The European Academy of Design Conference, The World Textile Institute Conference, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management and International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education. His research interests are consumer behaviour, fashion design, fashion culture and branding. He is currently involved in a research study of consumer behaviours and perceptions of both high- and low-involvement products in a cross-cultural context. Yan Jiang is an Associate Professor at the Fashion School of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, China. The strong cultural orientation in the fashion market of China has become a mainstay in her research interest. Dr Wing-sun Liu is a Lecturer at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. His research interest lies in the areas of symbolic meaning of consumption, fashion, postmodernism, consumption culture and design. The titles of some of his recent studies are: Consumption of Pain, Lolitas, Perfumes, Louis Vuitton in a Government-Aided Housing Project.

Addresses for Correspondence

Osmud Rahman, School of Fashion, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5B 2K3. Tel: +1 416 979 5000 ext. 6911 Fax: +1 416 979 5227 Email: orahman@ryerson.ca Yan Jiang, School of Fashion, Sci-Tech University, Xiasha University Town, Hangzhou, China, 310018. Tel: + 86 571 8684 3078 Fax: + 86 571 8684 3481 Email: amyjiangyan@hotmail.com

308

The Design Journal

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

Wing-sun Liu, Institute of Textiles & Clothing, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong. Tel: + 852 2766 6444 Fax: + 852 2773 1432 Email: tcliuws@inet.polyu.edu.hk

Appendix I Prior research studies on apparel product cues.

Author Year Journal* Country Sample size/ subject n=490 (276 Juniors: 912; 145 Intermediates: 1315; 69 Seniors: 1619) n=186 (US female college students) n=278 (Japanese female college students) Product Product cue

May and Koester

1985

HERJ

USA

Clothing

Fit, style, quality construction, price, care, colour, brand, coordinate with other clothes, latest fashion Fit, style/design, quality, price, care/maintenance, colour, fashion, brand name, durability, country-of-origin, bre content Colour, style/design, brand name, t of rise, tactile quality, details, price, fabric quality, comfort, t Brand, style (cut/t), place of purchase (store), price

Kawabata and Rabolt

1999

JCSHE

USA and Japan

Clothing

DeLong et al.

2002

CTRJ

South n=34 (Korean Korea and university students) USA n=32 (US university students) South Africa n=213 (81 male and 132 female high school students) n=203 (119 Taiwanese and 84 US college women)

Jeans

Herbst and 2002 Burger

JFECS

Jeans

Hsu and Burns

2002

CTRJ

Taiwan and USA

Zhang et al. 2002 JFMM

China

n=3,534 respondents

Kwan et al 2004 JMWBR

China

n=161 (female Casual wear Adaptability to different university students) occasions, brand, colour, colourfastness, comfort, country-oforigin, durability, easy for care, enhancement of self image, fashionability, bre content, t, price, rarity, sex appropriateness, store image, style, uniqueness, ventilation and workmanship

309

The Design Journal

Size/t, comfort, style, coordination with other clothing, colour, appropriateness for campus wear, quality, fabric, price, pleasing to others, brand name, and location of manufacturer Casual wear Fit, comfort, style, colour, workmanship, price, permeability, fabric softness, trendiness, durability, easy care, brand, bre content, warmth, fabric thickness

Clothing

Osmud Rahman, Yan Jiang and Wing-sun Liu

Author

Year

Journal*

Country

Sample size/ subject n=739 surveys (female consumers) n=146 (93% female and 7% male college students)

Product

Product cue

Forney et al 2005 JFMM

USA

Casual Image, quality, design/beauty and apparel colour/style &casual home furnishings Clothing Style/t, price, fashionability, colour, fabric feels, design features, brand name, wrinkle properties, durability, dimensional stability of fabric, pilling Care instruction, brand name, quality, bre content, comfort, colour, attractiveness, fashionableness, good t, good price, ease of care, suitability, appropriate for occasion, overall attitude Comfort, t/shape, design/ cut, fashion, quality, durability, casualness, good, price, fabric, care, style, workmanship, brand, character, versatility, country-ofbrand-origin, authenticity/classic, various feelings

Swinker 2006 IJCS and Hines

USA

Wang and 2006 IJCS Heitmeyer

Taiwan

n=485 (344 female Apparel and 141 male consumers)

Wu and DeLong

2006 JFMM

China

n=219 (shoppers wearing jeans)

Jeans

*Abbreviations of cited journals: CTRJ, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal; HERJ, Home Economic Research Journal (now Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal); IJCS, International Journal of Consumer Studies; JCSHE, Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics (now International Journal of Consumer Studies); JFECS, Journal of Family Ecology and Consumer Studies; JFMM, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management; JMWBR, Journal of Management & World Business Research.

310

The Design Journal

Evaluative Criteria of Denim Jeans

Appendix II Open-ended questions.

Is it important to have back pockets on denim jeans? Yes No Why? Is it important to have coin pocket on denim jeans? Yes No Why? What do you prefer? a. Stretch denim b. Non-stretch denim c. Doesnt matter

Why? Why? Why?

What is your favourite waistline? Please rate the following items on the scale of 1 to 4. (4=most favourite, 1=least favourite) a. Ultra-low-rise Why? b. Low-rise Why? c. Regular Why? d. High-rise Why? What is your favourite t? Please rate the following items on the scale of 1 to 4. (4=most favourite, 1=least favourite) a. Loose Why? b. Straight Why? c. Slim Why? d. Stretch Why? What type of leg opening do you prefer? Rate the following items on the scale of 1 to 4. (4=most favourite, 1=least favourite) a. Boot-cut Why? b. Flared leg Why? c. Tapered leg Why? d. Wide leg Why? What is your favourite colour? Please rate the following items on the scale of 1 to 4. (4=most favourite, 1=least favourite) a. Dark blue Why? b. Blue Why? c. Light blue Why? d. Black Why? e. Other Why?

311

The Design Journal