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Chapter 1
Waves carry energy, not matter, from one place to another. Sound waves carry energy as packets of particle compressions. Much like a spring that is compressed, energy is stored in the areas of compression in a sound wave and therefore the propagation of sound is a type of mechanical energy. Electromagnetic waves on the other hand, such as light and X-rays, carry energy in the form of small packets called photons. Therefore, by definition, sound waves are the cyclical compression and relaxation of particles in the medium through which they travel. Sound waves are mechanical, longitudinal waves. If the medium remains the same these waves will continue to travel in a straight line. They require a medium within which to propagate and unlike electromagnetic waves, mechanical (sound) waves will not travel in a vacuum. Two types of sound waves exist: LONGITUDINAL: particle motion is along the same direction as the propagation of the wave energy. (SOUND WAVES)
TRANSVERSE: particles move in a direction at right angles to the direction of a wave. (POND WAVES)
Sound waves are transmitted through particle motion. As the mechanical force is transmitted into the medium by the sound source, each particle will be pushed away from its resting position. As the sound wave passes, the particle returns to its resting, or equilibrium position. The distance that the particle moves is primarily a function of the magnitude of the impinging sound beam and, in reality, is very, very small. If measured in units of distance, particle movement would be less than one micron, or one-millionth, of an inch. Elastic forces, which hold molecules together, pull the particles back to their original position after the wave has passed. Of course, in diagnostic applications, the sound beam is actually vibrating particles in human soft tissue. Particles are little packets of matter just a little larger than the size of most molecules.
To simplify and standardize the discussion of waves, they are frequently displayed as a sine wave. One complete cycle, that is, from the beginning of the transfer of energy until it passes, is represented as a single sine wave. In this example, the solid line represents a single cycle. Note that since the transfer of energy occurs over a given period of time, time is represented as the arrowed, horizontal line.
Wave Parameters
Sound waves possess certain characteristics, or parameters, which can be used to describe them. These characteristics apply to any sound beam whether it is above the range of human hearing ultrasound), below the range of human hearing (infrasound) or audible sound, those frequencies that are discernible by the human ear. The SEVEN parameters describing sound are:
V = f
Wave Formula
4. 5. 6. 7.
= v/f f = v/
STIFFNESS VELOCITY STIFFNESS VELOCITY All sound, regardless of the frequency, travels at the same speed in the same medium. (Other factors may slightly affect the velocity of sound, such as ultrasonic frequency, but these factors have no perceptible influence from a medical imaging perspective) Therefore, 5 MHz and 2.25 MHz ultrasound beams will travel at approximately 1540 m/sec in all human soft tissue. It also means that audible sound, be it a human voice, or a train whistle, will travel through air (same medium) at the same speed.
FORMULA:
WHERE:
V=
Medium
Air Fat WATER (20o C) Ave. Soft Tissue WATER (50o C) Liver Blood Muscle Bone PZT (Crystal)
M/sec
330 1460 1480 1540 1540 1559 1570 1580 3500 4000
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2. Frequency
(Hertz, CPS)
In wave theory, frequency is defined as the number of waves or cycles passing a single point over a given period of time. The more cycles passing the same point in the same period of time (usually seconds), the higher the frequency. An alternative description of frequency is the rate at which the same phenomenon occurs. Both descriptions include time as a standard factor in defining frequency. Measured in cycles or occurrences per second, all sound waves have frequency whether they are in the audible range of human hearing or in the realm of ultrasound, that is, those possessing frequencies above the range of human hearing.
1 sec
In this example, three cycles can be counted over a one second period of time. Therefore, the frequency is 3 cycles/second, or 3Hz.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT: HERTZ = 1cps One HERTZ = One cycle, or wave, passing a given point each second.
KILOHERTZ = 1,000 Hz MEGAHERTZ = 1,000,000 Hz In discussion of audible sound, frequency is often referred to as pitch. The noticeable difference in pitch, particularly in musical applications, provides a good example of the difference in sound frequencies. (In fact, changes in audible frequencies play a role in Doppler ultrasound applications that will be discussed later). In the musical example, higher frequency is equal to higher pitch. On a piano, middle C approximately 250 cps (Hz). Each octave represents a doubling of frequency, so going up the scale, the first C above middle C is approximately 500 Hz. The human ear can detect frequencies in the range of approximately 20 - 20,000 Hz. Frequencies higher than this are called ultrasound; frequencies below the range of human hearing are call infrasound.
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Categories of Sound
The most frequently used frequencies in clinical sonographic applications are approximately 2 10 MHz (million cps). Frequency is constant within a given medium and is determined by the sound source. Therefore, whether sound is traveling in liver, brain, blood, uterus, or bone, the frequency does not change. Other parameters of the sound wave may be affected by the various characteristics of different soft tissues, but the frequency does not change. The only exception to this rule is when ultrasound interacts with moving particles, such as red blood cells. In such cases, there is a frequency change, or shift, that becomes the basis of Doppler ultrasound technology.
3. Wavelength
(mm, m)
Wavelength describes the spatial dimension of a wave, or more specifically, the length that a wave occupies in space. It is an important characteristic of ultrasound waves in that it directly affects image quality.
Wave A
Wave B
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Using the above formula, the wavelength of ultrasound beams used in clinical practice can be calculated. (The assumption is made that the velocity of sound in human soft tissue is 1540m/s.) EXAMPLE 1: Calculate the wavelength for a 2.25 MHZ transducer = V/F = 1,540m/s 2,250,000 c/s = 0.00068m x 1,000 mm/m = .68mm EXAMPLE 2: Calculate the wavelength for a 3.5 MHZ transducer = V/F = 1,540m/s 3,500,000 c/s = 0.00044m x 1,000 mm/m = .44mm EXAMPLE 3: Calculate the wavelength for a 5.0 MHZ transducer = V/F = 1,540m/s 5,000,000 c/s = 0.00031m x 1,000 mm/m = .31mm The above exercises demonstrate that as frequency increases, wavelength decreases. Therefore, frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional. FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH
Wave Phase We already know that sound waves are repetitive, cyclic variations of pressure passing though a medium. When two or more waves are passing through the same medium at the same time, they may enhance the energy transmitted or they may diminish it. Whether this happens depends on the relative phase of the each wave. A phase can reference any event in a wave, from start to finish. It is defined as the particular stage or point of advancement in a cycle measured from some arbitrary point of origin. It is related to when in time an event occurs. When two or more waves are traveling in the same or opposite directions and superimpose, the resultant waveform will depend on the phase relationship and the relative amplitude of the original waves. The principle of wave interference, or superimposition, is essential in understanding the formation of sound beams, electronic
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beam steering and focusing methods, Doppler instrumentation design, and matching layer transducer designs. If two waves of equal strength superimpose in phase, the resulting wave will be twice as strong as either initial wave. This type of positive wave superimposition is known as CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE. If two waves superimpose out-of-phase, there is a net loss of energy in the resultant wave. This is known as DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE. An example of constructive interference is two drumsticks being tapped. If both sticks are being tapped at the same time, they are in phase and the overall sound level will be louder. An example of destructive interference is white noise machines that are sometimes used to drown out or eliminate unwanted sounds.
Wave 1 Wave 2
In phase
Out of phase
Constructive Interference
Destructive interference
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Summary of Formulae
Summary of Clinical Applications HIGHER FREQUENCIES = SHORTER WAVELENGTHS SHORTER WAVELENGTHS = BETTER AXIAL RESOLUTION BETTER AXIAL RESOLUTION = MORE DIAGNOSTIC INFORMATION BUT
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4. Period
(seconds, s, s)
Period is the length of time it takes for the completion a single cycle. It is defined as the time from the beginning of one cycle to the beginning of the next cycle.
Start
End
Time
In sonographic imaging systems, typical period values range from .15 - 1 millionths of a second (.15-1s). Period is the reciprocal of frequency and therefore is inversely proportional to it. Since period varies with frequency of the transducer it is, therefore, determined by the source.
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5. Amplitude
Amplitude describes the strength of the pressure in a wave. Technically, it is the defined as the difference between the average and the maximum value of an acoustic variable. It usually refers to the distance that a particle moves from its resting point during oscillation by a sonic pulse. The magnitude of displacement is referred to as AMPLITUDE and may be compared to "loudness". For example, if the volume on a home stereo system is increased, the amplitude of the sound coming from the speakers increases. Using the stereo speaker analogy, the speaker membrane will move a greater distance from its resting position as the amplitude, or volume is turned up (increased).
P r e s s u r e Maximum variation
Resting point
Time
Amplitude is determined by the sound source and it changes as it travels through the body. The above figure demonstrates amplitude on a sine wave. It is measured at the point of maximal variation from the resting point. In this example, the amplitude of this wave is approximately 2 units.
6. Power
(Watts, mWatts)
Power is the rate at which work is performed or, in ultrasound physics, the rate at which energy is transferred into a medium. It is equal to work done (or energy transferred) divided by the time required to do the work. .
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Power is determined by the sound source and can be altered by the operator. It is proportional to the amplitude of a wave squared.
7. Intensity
(Watts/cm , mWatts/cm )
Intensity is a measure of how much ultrasound energy is present in human soft tissue. The ultimate consideration of ultrasound intensity in clinical practice relates to patient exposure during the examination process. The current discussion on acoustic variables, however, views intensity from a more purely theoretical, physical perspective. Technically, intensity is a measure of ultrasonic energy concentration. This measurement can be made over a given area (spatial intensity) or over a given period of time (temporal intensity). In either case, intensity is a statement of how much energy is present in a given unit volume. The more energy present per unit volume, the higher the intensity. A classic example of changes in intensity involves sunlight falling on a pile of dried leaves. Sunlight is the energy and if it is dispersed over an entire mound of leaves, the energy per unit volume is relatively low. If the sunlight is focused to a very small area using a magnifying glass, the energy per unit volume is dramatically increased so much so that combustion could occur and a fire could be started. In both instances, the amount of sunlight remains constant while the unit area is decreased. By reducing the area upon which the energy is falling, the intensity increases. Therefore in considering spatial intensity, area is inversely related to intensity. AREA INTENSITY AREA INTENSITY
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If the amount of energy being dispersed over the same area is increased, the intensity also increases. Therefore, quantity of energy is directly related to intensity. Intensity of an ultrasound beam is determined by the voltage, which rings the crystal as well as certain characteristics of transducer design. ENERGY INTENSITY ENERGY INTENSITY
Spatial Intensity Spatial intensity can be defined as the energy dispersed over a given area or: SI = E/A where: SI = spatial intensity E = ultrasound energy (watts, mWatts) A = area being insonated (cm2) Since the definition of intensity includes area (cm2) as a variable, the size of the ultrasound beam passing through a medium affects intensity. The size of the beam varies with focusing and crystal size and therefore varies from transducer to transducer. Intensity is inversely proportional to the area. (Area is the denominator). Therefore, as the beam gets narrower by focusing, intensity increases. For example, if the output power of a scanner is 50 mW/cm2 and the insonated area is 5 cm2, the intensity is 10 mW/cm2. If the same beam is directed into a 1 cm2 area of tissue, the intensity would be 50 mW/cm2. Also, intensity is not uniform across a beam. In the near field of a beam produced by a non-focused transducer crystal, the beam is wider ( AREA) and, therefore, spatial intensity is relatively reduced ( INTENSITY). In the far field of the same beam, where the beam diverges ( AREA), intensity is also less ( INTENSITY) than at the focal point of the beam.
The beam emitted from the transducer in the above example will have a higher intensity at the focal point than it will near the face (near field). As the beam narrows, the concentration of energy (measured in Watts/cm2) must increase because the area is less. As the beam diverges in the far field, the area again increases, so the intensity will
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decrease. One of the primary methods of measuring the intensity of ultrasound in the human body is based on where exactly it is measured. This is the spatial method of measurement. Spatial peak (SP) is measured along the central beam at the narrowest point. Spatial average (SA) is the average intensity in the sound beam and is usually measured at the transducer face. The amount of spread of an ultrasound beam in space can be described and is called the BEAM UNIFORMITY RATIO or BEAM UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT. It is the defined as the ratio between spatial peak and spatial average intensities and is denoted as the SP/SA FACTOR.
FORMULA
SP/SA FACTOR =
Note: SP/SA FACTOR 1. EXAMPLE: If the spatial peak = 2 mW/cm2; spatial average = 1 mW/cm2 SP/SA factor = 2 mW/cm2 1 mW/cm2 = 2:1 The SP/SA factor is analogous to the duty factor, except that it relates to space rather than time. Since the SP intensity must exceed the SA intensity, the ratio between the two must be at least 1. The closer the SP/SA factor is to 1, the more "even" or homogenous the beam is. The larger the SP/SA factor is, the brighter the center is in comparison to its sides.
Temporal Intensity Intensity also varies with time. The word temporal describes when in time intensity is measured. Generally, intensity is less at the beginning and end of a pulse than it is during the middle. It takes a few microseconds for the intensity to reach its maximum value after the voltage is applied to the crystal. Peak intensity does not occur instantaneously. The point in time when the intensity reaches its maximum value is called temporal peak (TP). There are a number of methods of measuring the temporal intensity. If the average intensity of all the pulses occurring is calculated, it is called the temporal average. Since an ultrasound transducer crystal is not continuously emitting sound but, rather, spends most of the time listening for echoes returning from transmitted pulses, it wouldn't be fair to measure the OFF time when calculating temporal average. Therefore, only ON time is included in measuring temporal average. ON time is called duty factor and will also be discussed under pulsed imaging techniques. Temporal average is determined by multiplying the temporal peak intensity by the duty factor.
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Note: DUTY FACTOR values between 0 and 1. Since temporal average is directly proportional to both temporal peak intensity and duty factor, increasing either of these will increase the temporal average intensity. By changing the pulse repetition frequency (PRF), the duty factor changes and, will subsequently, change the TA intensity. Temporal factors vary significantly if the sound beam is pulsed, as it is in all imaging systems. TEMPORAL PEAK TEMPORAL AVERAGE DUTY FACTOR TEMPORAL AVERAGE
Intensity Measurement In measuring the intensity of a sound beam, complications arise because the intensity is not always constant throughout the beam at any given time. In medical ultrasound applications, there are two types of sound beam emissions: continuous wave (CW) that is used primarily in non-imaging Doppler applications; and pulsed wave (PW) that is utilized for all sonographic imaging modalities. Obviously, temporal intensities will vary significantly between the two types of insonating beams.
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Definitions Exactly how to measure intensity at a given point in space and time is confusing because it varies so much. Four definitive terms relate to the measurement of ultrasound intensity and they are spatial, temporal, peak and average. SPATIAL: where in SPACE is intensity measured (depth in the body). TEMPORAL: when in TIME is intensity measured. PEAK: the MAXIMUM value AVERAGE: the average, or mean, value These definitions can be combined as follows in referring to the intensity of an ultrasound beam: SPTP - spatial peak, temporal peak - HIGHEST VALUE SATP - spatial average, temporal peak SPTA - spatial peak, temporal average MOST COMMONLY REFERENCED IN BIOEFFECTS SATA - spatial average, temporal average - LOWEST VALUE SPPA - spatial peak, pulse average - AVERAGE OVER DURATION OF PULSE ONLY.
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Acoustic Variables
Sound is a form of energy that propagates through a medium in the form of a wave. Waves carry energy, not matter, from one place to another. A wave can be defined a traveling, cyclic variation of energy. The variations that occur in the wave over time can be analyzed and quantitated (measured). These measurable quantities are known as acoustic variables and they describe various parameters of sound waves. Acoustic variables vary in time and space as the sound waves travel through a medium. They include:
1. 2. 3. 4.
1. Pressure
(Newtons/m )
Pressure is defined as the ratio of a force acting on a surface of an object. Any fluid (liquid or gas) exerts pressure on objects immersed in it. For example, the air around us exerts a pressure on us (since we are "immersed" in air), which can be measured with a barometer. Scuba divers can attest to the force exerted on their bodies by the weight of the water above and surrounding them. When a substance, such as the water surrounding the scuba diver, is at rest (equilibrium) and is not being disturbed by the transfer of some form of energy, the difference in pressure points within this fluid is totally dependent on the density of the water. When energy is introduced into this water, such as it is when ultrasound waves are sent into human soft tissue, equilibrium is disturbed, and pressure changes occur. If there were no forces, everything would be in a state of constant of the rest or steady motion. The law of inertia explains it well. A body in motion will remain in motion, or a body at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by a force. A gyroscope would continue spinning throughout eternity if not slowly stopped by friction, a force acting upon it. And an automobile certainly wouldn't be able to move if not for the mechanical force supplied by the engine overcoming the inertia of rest of the wheels. Forces change the state of rest or motion of matter. Ultrasound shakes human soft tissue out of its state of rest. When considering sound, the force per unit area is called pressure. AREA PRESSURE AREA PRESSURE
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The same amount of force applied to an object may produce markedly different results if the pressures at which it is applied are different. If, for example, a small force is applied by a hand to a balloon, it will simply move. If that same small force is applied by a sharp needle, the balloon will break. The difference is that the needle applies the same amount of force over a much smaller area (a very high pressure), breaking the balloon.
FORMULA P =
where: F = force A = area
F A
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2. Particle displacement
(units of distance)
Displacement is the distance that a body has moved after being impinged upon by a force. It is the distance that particles move from their equilibrium positions.
EQUILIBRIUM
DISPLACED
3. Density
(Kg/M2, g/cm2)
Density is a property that is common to all matter, and it's also one property that makes each type of matter unique. Basically it is defined as mass per unit volume. The more mass confined to a given volume, the greater the density. For example, compare the density of a 1 cubic centimeter (cm3) marshmallow to a 1-cm3 piece of hard candy. Since a marshmallow contains a great amount of air interspersed with molecules of sugar, the mass of sugar in 1-cm3 is small. Therefore, density is low. Hard candy, on the other hand, contains less air and more sugar in the same unit volume so the density is higher.
FORMULA : D =
where:
m v
HIGH DENSITY
LOW DENSITY
In ultrasound physics, density is referred to as mass density and can be defined as the mass of the object divided by its volume. It is an important material property that has a direct effect upon some ultrasonic properties such as propagation speed which is determined by the density and stiffness of a particular material. Propagation speed increases when density decreases as discussed earlier.
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4. Temperature
(Co, Fo)
Temperature is the measure of relative warmth or coolness of an object. The temperature of a substance measures not its heat content but rather the average kinetic energy of its molecules. Temperature also is the condition of a body that determines transfer of heat to or from other bodies. No heat flow occurs when two bodies of equal temperature come in contact with each other. However, when one body is cooler than the other, heat flows from the warmer body into the cooler one. Temperature becomes important in considering ultrasound because the speed of sound varies with the temperature of the medium through which it travels. While the change in speed is not significant, it does occur. There is about one-tenth (0.1%) of one percent change in speed per degree Centigrade change.
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Acoustic Variables
PARAMETER PRESSURE DENSITY PARTICLE DISPLACEMENT TEMPERATURE FORMULA P F/A D = m/v N/A N/A BASIC UNITS newtons/m2 Kg/M3, g/cm3 distance, m C0
Formula
SPTA (SP/SA) factor SATA duty factor SPTP x duty factor
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