EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering IIT Delhi E-mail: prabal@mech.iitd.ac.in p

Fluid flow over solid bodies frequently occurs in practice, and it is responsible for numerous physical phenomena such as the drag force acting on the automobiles, power lines, trees, and underwater pipelines; the lift developed by airplane wings; upward d draft d ft of f rain, i snow, hail, h il and d dust d t particles ti l in i high hi h winds; and the cooling of metal or plastic sheets, steam and hot water pipes, and extruded wires.

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What is Drag?
Drag is a mechanical force. It is generated by y the interaction and contact of a solid body with a fluid. For drag to be generated, the solid body must be in contact with the fluid. If there is no fluid, there is no drag drag. Drag is generated by the difference in velocity between the solid object and the fluid

There must be motion between the object and the fluid. If there is no motion, there is no drag. It makes no difference whether the object moves through a static fluid or whether the fluid moves past a static solid object object. Drag acts in a direction that opposes the motion. (Lift acts perpendicular to the motion.)
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We can think of drag as friction, and one of the sources of drag is the skin friction between the molecules of the fluid and the solid surface of object. Because the skin friction is an interaction between a solid and a gas, the magnitude of the skin friction depends on properties of both solid and gas gas. For the solid, a smooth, waxed surface produces less skin friction. For the gas, the magnitude depends on the viscosity of the air This source of drag depends on the shape of the aircraft and is called form drag. As air flows around a body, the local velocity and pressure are changed. A varying pressure distribution will produce a force on the body. We can determine the magnitude of the force by integrating (or adding up) the local pressure times the surface area around the entire body. The component of the force that is opposed to the motion is the drag; The component perpendicular to the motion is the lift.
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Factors that affect drag

The Object Aircraft geometry has a large effect on the amount of drag generated. As with lift, the drag depends linearly on the size of the object moving through the air The cross-sectional air. cross sectional shape of an object determines the form drag created by the pressure variation around the object. If we think hi k of fd drag as aerodynamic d i friction, then the amount of drag depends on the surface roughness of the object; a smooth, waxed surface will produce less drag than a roughened surface. This effect is called skin friction and is usually i l d di included in th the d drag coefficient. ffi i t
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Motion of the Air Drag is associated with the movement of the aircraft through the air, so drag will then depend on the velocity of the air. Like lift, drag actually varies with the square of the velocity between the object and the air air. How the object is inclined to the flow will also affect the amount of drag generated. If the object moves through the air at speeds near the speed of sound, shock waves may be formed on the object which create an additional drag component called wave drag. The motion ti of f the th object bj t th through h th the air i also l causes b boundary d l layers t to f form on th the object. A boundary layer is a region of very low speed flow near the surface which contributes to the skin friction. Properties of the Air Drag depends directly on the mass of the flow going past the aircraft. The drag also depends in a complex way on two other properties of the air: its viscosity and its compressibility. These factors affect the wave drag and skin friction which hich are described abo above. e We can gather all of this information on the factors that affect drag into a single mathematical equation called the Drag Equation. With the drag equation we can predict how much drag p g force will be g generated by yag given body y moving g at a given speed through a given fluid.
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FrictionandPressureDrag

The drag force is the net force exerted by a fluid on a body in the direction of flow due to the combined effects of wall shear and pressure forces. The part of drag p g that is due directly y to wall shear stress w is called the skin friction drag (or just friction drag) since it is caused by frictional effects, and the part that is due directly to pressure P is called the pressure drag (also called the form drag because of its strong dependence on the form or shape of the body). When the friction and pressure drag coefficients are available, the total drag coefficient is determined by simply adding them,

C D = C D ,friction + C D ,pressure
The drag force FD depends on the density of the fluid, the upstream velocity, and the size, shape, and orientation of the body, among other things. The drag characteristics of a body is represented by the dimensionless drag FD coefficient ffi i t CD defined d fi d as CD = 1 2 V A P.Talukdar/Mech-IITD 2

When a fluid is forced to flow over a curved surface at sufficiently y high g velocities, , it will detach itself from the surface of the body. The low-pressure region behind the body where recirculating and back flows occur is called the separation region region. The larger the separation area is, the larger the pressure drag will be. The effects of flow separation are felt far downstream in the form of reduced velocity (relative to the upstream velocity). The region of flow trailing the body where the effect of the body on velocity is felt is called the wake. The separated region comes to an end when the two flow streams reattach reattach, but the wake keeps growing behind the body until the fluid in the wake region regains its velocity. The viscous effects are the most significant in the boundary layer, the separated region, and the wake. The flow outside these regions can be considered to be inviscid.
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 Frictionaldragcomesfromfrictionbetweenthefluidandthe surfacesoverwhichitisflowing. flowing Thisfrictionisassociated withthedevelopmentofboundarylayers,anditscaleswith Reynoldsnumberaswehaveseenabove. Pressuredragcomesfromtheeddyingmotionsthatareset upinthefluidbythepassageofthebody.Thisdragis associatedwiththeformationofawake wake. Formally,bothtypesofdragareduetoviscosity(ifthebody wasmovingthroughaninviscidfluidtherewouldbenodrag atall),butthedistinctionisusefulbecausethetwotypesof dragareduetodifferentflowphenomena. Frictionaldragisimportantforattachedflows(thatis, is thereis noseparation),anditisrelatedtothesurfaceareaexposedto theflow.Pressuredragisimportantforseparatedflows,andit isrelated l dtothe h crosssectional lareaof fthe h body. b d
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For the flow of an idealized fluid with zero viscosity past a body, both the friction drag and pressure drag are zero regardless of the shape of the body.

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Two Opposite Situation

Drag force acting on a flat plate normal to flow depends on the pressure only and is independent of the wall shear, which acts normal to flow
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For parallel flow over a flat plate plate, the pressure drag is zero, and thus the drag coefficient is equal to the friction coefficient and the drag force is equal to the friction force
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Heat Transfer Coefficient

Nu x = f1 ( x * , Re x , Pr)
n Nu = C. Re m . Pr L

&

Nu = f 2 (Re L , Pr)

Laminar flow

1 h x .x 0 .5 Nu x = = 0.332 Re x . Pr 3 k
1 h x .x 0 .8 Nu x = = 0.0296 Re x . Pr 3 k

Pr > 0.6

Turbulent flow

0.6 Pr 60 5 x 105 Re R x 107

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Parallel flow over flat plate

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the surface geometry, surface roughness, upstream velocity velocity, surface temperature, and the type of fluid, among other things, and is best characterized by the Reynolds number. The Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge of a flat plate is expressed as

Re x =
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V x V.x =

For flow over a flat plate plate, critical Re

Vx cr Re cr = = 5x105

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Friction Coefficient

L i Laminar fl flow

v,x =

5x Re x 2
1

&

Cf ,x =

0.664 Re x 2
0.0592 Re x 5
1

Rex < 5 x 105

Turbulent flow

v,x =

0.382 x Re x 5
1

&

Cf ,x =

5 x 105 Rex 107

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Average values
ReL < 5 x 105 Laminar flow 5 x 105 ReL 107 Turbulent flow

Cf =

1.328 R L2 Re
0.074 Re L5
1 1

Cf =

In some cases, a flat plate is sufficiently long for the flow to become turbulent, , but not long g enough to disregard the laminar flow region

x cr L 1 C f = C f , x _ la min ar dx + C f , x _ turbulent dx L x cr 0

The average friction coefficient over the entire plate is determined to be

Cf = 0.074 1742 1 5 Re L Re
L

5 x 105 ReL 107

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Taking the critical Reynolds number to be Recr = 5 x 105

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Cf for turbulent flow

For laminar flow, the friction coefficient depends on only the Reynolds number, and the surface roughness has no effect effect. For turbulent flow, however, surface roughness g causes the friction coefficient to increase severalfold, to the point that in fully turbulent regime the friction coefficient is a function of surface roughness alone, and independent of the Reynolds number
A curve fit of experimental p a data da a for the average a ag friction coefficient in this regime is given by Schlichting as Rough surface, turbulent flow f
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C f = 1.89 1.62 log L

2.5

In the h absence b of f a better b relation, this relation can be used for turbulent flow on rough surfaces for Re > l06, especially when /L > 10-4.
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Variation with x

Laminar flow

1 h x .x 0.5 Nu x = = 0.332 Re x . Pr 3 k

Pr > 0.6

Cf ,x =
Turbulent flow

0.664 Re x 2
1

Rex < 5 x 105 0.6 Pr 60 5 x 105 Re R x 107

1 h x .x 0. 8 Nu x = = 0.0296 Re x . Pr 3 k

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Cf ,x =

0.0592 Re x 5
1

5 x 105 Rex 107

Average Coefficient
1 C D = C D, x dx L0
1 h = h x dx L0
1 h.L 0.5 Nu = = 0.664 Re L . Pr 3 k

Average quantities

Laminar flow

Pr > 0.6 Rex < 5 x 105 0.6 Pr 60 5 x 105 Rex 107

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Turbulent flow

1 h.L 0.8 Nu = = 0.037 Re L . Pr 3 k

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h for combined laminar and turbulent b l fl flow

In some cases, a flat plate is sufficiently long for the flow to become turbulent, but not long enough to disregard the laminar flow region
x cr L 1 h x ,la min ar dx + h x , turbulent dx h= L x cr 0

The average h over the entire plate is determined to be

T b l t flow Turbulent fl
1 h.L 0.8 Nu = = 0.037 Re L 871 . Pr 3 k

0.6 0 6 Pr 60 5 x 105 ReL 107

Taking the critical Reynolds number b to b be Recr = 5 x 105

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Liquid metals such as mercury have high thermal conductivities. However, they have very small Prandtl numbers, and thus the thermal boundary layer develops much faster than the velocity boundary layer. Then we can assume the velocity in the thermal boundary layer to be constant at the free stream value and solve the energy equation. It gives 1 h .x

Nu x =

= 0.565 Re x . Pr

Pr < 0.05

It is desirable to have a single correlation that applies to all fluids, including liquid metals Churchill and Ozoe :

h x .x 0.3387 Re . Pr 3 = Nu x = 1 2 4 k 0.0468 3 1+ Pr

0.5 x

Applicable for all Prandtl numbers and is claimed to be accurate to 1%,

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