Geo text book summary

Core: Patterns and Change

Definitions: Term Core and periphery Ecological footprint Definition The concept of a developed core surrounded by an undeveloped periphery. The theoretical measurement of the amount of land and ater a population re!uires to produce the resources that it uses and contain its aste using existing technology. The changes in global patterns of rainfall and temperature" sea level" habitats and the incidences of droughts" floods and storms" resulting from changes in the Earth#s atmosphere" believed to be mainly caused by the enhanced greenhouse effect. Gross national income &no used in reference to gross national product'G$P(. The total value of goods and services reduced ithin a country together ith the balance of income and payments from or to other countries. The movement of people" involving a change of residence. %t can be internal or external &international( and voluntary or forced. %t does not include temporary circulations such as commuting or tourism. Transfers of money+goods by foreign orkers to their home countries. - severe reduction in the !uality of soils. The term includes soil erosion" salini.ation and soil exhaustion &loss of fertility(. Can be defined as: 0 physical ater scarcity" here ater resource development is approaching or has exceeded unsustainable levels1 it relates ater availability to ater demand and implies that arid areas are not necessarily ater scarce

Global climate change

G$%

)igration

*emittances ,oil degradation /ater scarcity

0 economic ater scarcity" here ater is available locally but not accessible for human" institutional or financial capital reasons. Topic 2: Populations in transition Population change &pg 3 4 56( 7b8ective: Explain population trends and patterns in births &Crude 9irth *ate(" natural increase and mortality &Crude Death *ate" infant and child mortality rates(" fertility and life expectancy in contrasting regions of the orld. -nalyse population pyramids. Explain population momentum and its impact on population pro8ections.

$otes: .global population is almost :.6 billion .; 9illion young people are no entering their reproductive years .Thomas )althus &2<3=( believed that population control as necessary because: > food supply gro s arithmetically hereas population gro s geometrically > land is finite so food production could not continue to increase to support high populations > hen population gro th outstripped food supply it ould lead to ar" famine and disease .?o ever )althus could not have predicted the expansion into the est and the discovery of ne technologies making farming processes more efficient .starting from 2 million people in 2=;@ it took 2@@ years to add the 5nd billion" ;@ years to add the ;rd billion" 26 years to add the Ath billion" 25 years to add the 6th billion and 25 years to add the :th billion > the rate of population has begun to slo .Crude birth rate is the number of live births per 2@@@ people > The crude birth rate &C9*( is e!ual to the number of live births &9( in a year divided by the total population &P(. This number is then usually multiplied by 2@@@ to arrive at the actual crude birth rate. > C9* B &9+P( x 2@@@ .Crude death rate is the number of deaths per 2@@@ people > The crude death rate &CD*( is e!ual to the number of deaths &D( in a year divided by the total population &P(. this number is then usually multiplied by 2@@@ to arrive at the actual crude death rate

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CD* B &D+P( x 2@@@

.%nfant )ortality *ate is the death rate of young children in the first or first 6 years of their life .The average life expectancy is the number of years that a child born in a particular country in a certain year can expect to live > %ncreasing average life expectancy is the main reason for increasing population .*ate of natural increase calculates changes in population si.e excluding migration > *$% B Crude birth rate 4 Crude death rate > %f *$% is negative then there are more people dying then there are being born in said country .$et migration rate B immigration 4 emigration .Population increase B rate of natural increase C net migration rate .Dertility rate is the average number of babies that a oman ill have in a country .Population gro th in -sia contrasts Population gro th in Europe > -sia and other EEDCs have declining fertility rates > EEDCs have a very large population base and a large number of omen entering their reproductive years > Therefore population gro th is greatest in -sia > European countries and other )EDCs have a high life expectancy and a large elderly population .Population pyramids sho the age>sex distribution of a population > Developing countries tend to have ide bases and narro tops > %ndustriali.ed countries tend to have relatively stable+rectangular shape > There are usually more elderly females than males because females have longer life spans .Demographic Transition )odel analyses change in population in four stages: 2. 9oth birth and death rates are high so there is little if any population change &usually traditional societies( 5. Death rates fall due to medical advances ho ever birth rates remain high due to cultural factors ;. 9irth rates ill fall as farmers ill reali.e that larger families are no longer needed to compensate for a high death rate. -lso parents begin to desire material possessions more than a large family. 9irth rates are also reduced by omen becoming more involved in the orkforce

A. 9oth birth and death rates are lo so there is little if any population change &as seen in European countries such as 9ulgaria" *ussia" and the Fnited Gingdom(

.Population momentum is the tendency for a population to continue gro ing even after the time that a replacement level of fertility is achieved. Case study 2 4 Papua $e Guinea .A@H of population in 5@@@ is under 26 ho ever this is decreasing .population is concentrated in the mountains for safety as opposed to coasts .mountains offer many benefits: > *ich volcanic soil > *eliable" abundant rainfall > Dree from malaria .?ighlands comprise ;<H of Papua $e Guinea#s population .-verage population density is 2@ people per s!uare kilometre > compared to most developing countries Papua $e Guinea is seen as under populated .Fnder population causes too little tax revenue hich is needed for: > schools and health clinics > roads > high prices for crops .,ome parts of Papua $e Guinea are over populated hich can lead to: > food shortages > over>exploitation of the land &this leads to soil erosion and land degradation( > land disputes as people ill fight over scarce resources

.Due to uneven distribution people tend to migrate from areas of high population density to areas of lo population density *esponses to ?igh and lo fertility &pg 56 4 ;<( 7b8ective: Explain dependency and ageing ratios. Examine the impacts of youthful and ageing populations. Evaluate examples of a pro>natalist policy and an anti>natalist policy.

$otes: .)any countries in Europe have a high dependency ratio > countries in Europe have declining populations ith many elderly citi.ens > the elderly cannot ork and therefore put a strain on pension funds and social security > dependency measures the population#s percentage of dependent people &26 and under and :6 and over( > Dependency ratio B I of dependent people x 2@@ + I of people of orking age > )ore elderly citi.ens ould mean more money spent on pension and senior#s homes > )ore young citi.ens ould mean more money spent of schools and daycares .-nti>natalist policies attempt to discourage births and therefore slo population gro th. %t is achieved through three different approaches: > regulatory approach here the government implements certain policies > %ncentive approach here benefits are offered to those ho limit the number of children that they have > -rguing that lo ering fertility ill raise people#s standards of living .Pro>natalist policies attempt to encourage births and therefore accelerate population gro th Case study 5: China#s one child policy . 23A3" stage 2 of the demographic transition model" communist party came into po er in a revolution .high birth rates &6>= children per family( ere balanced out by high death rates .China had a pro>natalist policy hich as supported by )ao Jedong .China entered stage 5 during the great leap for ard because abnormal floods and droughts reduced food production > this forced China to improve its medical services

.)ao died in 23<: and the Chinese government began to use anti>natalist policies so that they could enter stage ; &to offer more resources per person( .The one child policy as introduced in 23=@ offering economic incentives to families ho complied > penalties ere also existent such as loss of government benefits and fines .There as only a fe exceptions to the one child policy such as: > some rural areas here t o children ere needed to support a farm > if the first child is disabled and therefore unable to ork > if both parents are single children .2332 The policy became stricter and allo ed: > forced abortions > sterili.ation .,ince oman 8oin the families of their husbands many baby girls ere dro ned so that their only child ould be a boy .23:@ China#s birth rate as ;<+2@@@ people .233= China#s birth rate as 2:.5+2@@@ people .,oon China ill have a very high dependency ratio Case study ;: ,ingapore#s pro>natalist population policy .,ingapore has one of the highest population densities in the orld &<<A5 people per s!uare kilometre( .,ingapore#s natural increase is :+2@@@ people .,ingapore#s population is ageing and ill peak at 5@;@ .,ingapore became an independent nation > this lead to a lot of immigration > to control population gro th they initiated the Kstop>at>t oL policy > the policy orked too ell and the population is no declining .23=< ,ingapore introduced Kthe $e Population PolicyL > it targeted young couples ho planned on putting careers and leisure before having kids .,ingapore#s aim as a fertility level of 5.2 > they ent from a record lo of 2.A to 5.@

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if the policy is unsuccessful then the population ill peak at 5@;@ ith 6.; 4 6.A million people there ill also be a high dependency load &56H( since baby boomers ill reach old age the government believes that it can accommodate 6 million people ith substantial gains in the !uality of life

.%n order to raise the talent level of the population the government: > encourages couples that are university graduates to have A children > encourages the immigration of ell educated people from other parts of -sia > discourages the emigration of university graduates )ovement responses 4 migration &pg ;< 4 A=( 7b8ective: Discuss the causes of migrations" both forced and voluntary. Evaluate internal &national( and international migrations in terms of their geographic &socio>economic" political and environmental( impacts at their origins and destinations.

$otes: .)igration is the movement of people > it can be permanent or temporary .Circular migration is migration that occurs periodically > EM: the rural>urban migration of seasonal farmers .)igration can be ithin a country &internal migration( or bet een countries &international migration( .)igration can be voluntary or involuntary > voluntary EM: finding employment or education > involuntary EM: refugees or evicted rural orkers .)igration is influenced by three factors: > Push factors: forces that a person from their place of residence & ar( > Pull factors: forces that attract a person to a ne area &health care( > *estraining factors: forces that encourages a person not to move but to remain in their present area of residence &family( .*efugees: migrants ho are forced to move because of political unrest or persecution .)igration is a means of e!uali.ing economic ine!ualities bet een regions > people migrate from areas here there is an excess of labour to an area here there is a shortage of labour > pressure is relieved in both areas

.*ural>urban migration is responsible for urban spra l > also causes the developments of shanty settlements because farmers do not have the skill needed and cannot afford proper housing .The government can politically force migration on its citi.ens Case ,tudy A: internal migration Papua $e Guinea .increased number of people living in urban areas since 23:@ due to ; factors: > 5@H of gro th as due to biological increase > <H of gro th as due to urban spra l engulfing surrounding villages > <;H of gro th as due to rural>urban migration .some mining to ns in 9ourgainville %sland have over 3@H of their people born else here .before orld ar t o there as a lot of chain migration in Papua $e Guinea > chain migration is the one ay movement of people in steps starting at villages and ending in cities > this as caused by the Europeans offering contracts to highlanders > the contracts gave villagers ork for a certain period of time > hen villagers returned they told stories of their travels hich encouraged more contractors .movement from densely populated mountain areas to the $e Guinea islands &9ourgainville %sland( .largest out migration is from Gulf )anus and Chimbu Provinces > Chimbu )igrants become very significant minorities hich causes tension bet een different areas in the to ns > EM: ,hanty settlement at the ,ix>)ile rubbish tip in Port )oresby often receives discrimination because of all of its Chimbu migrants .circulatory migration is common in $e Guinea > 6@H of rural 4 urban migrants return home ithin 6 years > )igrants are mostly male because ork is easier to find for males .Papua $e > > > > > > Guinea#s push factors &internal migration(: pressure on the land due to increasing population &highlands( need for cash rebelling against traditions extended adolescence due to skipping initiation ceremonies personal factors &family problems( lust for adventure

.Papua $e > > > > >

Guinea#s pull factors &internal migration(: a chance for education and develop ne skills accessibility &roads" air" shipping( desire to 8oin distant family desire for increased services from to ns belief that migration is a transition into manhood

.migrants are motivated by psychological motives > they dream of a luxurious city life but actually end up in poverty .plantations can reduce migration > they generate local 8obs > they can accelerate further development &school houses and shops( .villages that have a deficit of men due to migration still function properly > this is because traditionally omen tend to the garden and men fight > there is little need for fighting so men migrate leaving a large proportion of the population being children or elderly .migration is seen as a process of moderni.ation > ith a lack of men in the villages traditions begin to die a ay .mass migration has actually Ksucked some rural areas dryL > other areas ho ever receive money from their migrants .23:: omen began migrating to to ns to 8oin there husbands .2+A of Papua $e Guinea#s males &age 26>AA( live in to ns and make 6@H of the population .36H of rural>urban migrants have no formal 8ob training > in Port )oresby A:H have not completed a year of schooling and 2H have a leaving certificate > therefore most migrants ork as house cleaners or become criminals > high crime rate in unemployed migrants but very little prostitution .Fnemployment is a huge problem in to ns though some are illingly unemployed .%f migrants are unemployed in a to n and ish to return home there is very little stopping them > the six mile rubbish dump is an exception because in order to return to Chimbu one must fly and that can be very expensive .highlanders are the least !ualified for skilled 8obs > they tend to not reside in one urban centre continuously > they are the least likely to have their family 8oin them

.shortage of housing forces migrants to live in s!uatter settlements > they are built out of hatever garbage that they can salvage > housing shortage is caused by: o government attempting to limit and discourage rural>urban migration o lack of flat land in Papua $e Guinea o suitable land is o ned by the local population ho do not ish to part ith it .each village has a Kbig manL ho settles disputes bet een the villagers > Kbig menL don#t migrate hich causes social disorder in shanty settlements Gender and Change &pgs A= 4 6=( 7b8ective: Examine gender ine!ualities in culture" status" education" birth ratios" health" employment" empo erment" life expectancy" family si.e" migration" legal rights and land tenure.

$otes: .$G7 community aid abroad: > omen often ork t ice as many hours as men > earn 2+2@ the income of men > consume less of the food than men > o n 2+2@@ the property of men .in )EDCs fe omen have 8obs hich involve great physical labour Kmen#s orkL > EEDCs are !uite the opposite > %ncreased technological development has reduced most physical labour in the orld of ork so even if omen lack physical strength they should still be able to perform such 8obs . omen are denied education on the grounds that they ill not be orking as long as men since they are expected to have children and raise a family Case study 6: omen#s rights in China .discrimination as sho n to omen such that: > omen had no political rights > omen ere excluded from political and social life > omen ere economically dependent on men > omen had no property rights > omen had no sources of income > omen had no social status > omen ere forced to obey the dominant male in the family > omen married men chosen by there parents > omen ere not allo ed to remarry > omen had no dignity

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omen had no education omen ere forced into polygamy or prostitution many omen ere forced to have their feet bound from child hood

.Communism came to po er in 23A3 and promoted omen#s rights .the first meeting of the Chinese people#s consultative conference in 23A3 as attended by :3 omen and as the first sign of change .during the communist revolution: > omen ere given the right to vote" o n land" move a ay from home" sociali.e" ork and prostitution as banned > the female illiteracy figure declined from over 3@H &23A3( to 2;H &5@@6( > arranged marriages ere abolished in 236@ .Chinese omen are very liberated: > occupy senior positions in the orkforce > have high levels of education .rural areas still favour boys over girls because: > boys carry on the family name > girls go to ork for their husband#s family hen they marry .The Fnited $ations development program developed t o indices to measure gender ine!uality: > the gender>related development index &GD%( > the gender empo erment index &GE)( .The Gender>related development index is calculated by averaging three measures: > longevity" &female and male life expectancy at birth( > kno ledge &female and male literacy rates and combined school enrolment ratios( > income per capita &female and male earned income shares( .GD% is easily comparable to ?D% &human development index( .The Gender empo erment index measures role in decision making process ith three components > political participation &percentage of seats held by omen in national parliaments( > economic participation &percentage of omen among legislators" senior officials and managers" in professional and technical fields( > po er over economic resources & omen#s income compared to men#s( .some countries do not even collect statistics on gender empo erment and therefore cannot be represented by the GE)

Topic 5: Disparities in /ealth and Development )easurements of regional and global disparities &Pgs 63 4 <2(: 7b8ective: Define indices of infant mortality" education" nutrition" income" marginali.ation and ?uman Development %ndex &?D%(. Explain the value of the indices in measuring disparities across the globe.

$otes: .the three main groups of indicators are: > !uantitative indicators of development > !ualitative indicators of development > composite indicators of development .!uantitative indicators use statistics to try and measure certain aspects of a country and fall into three categories > economic > social > demographic .economic indicators include: > H of labour force in agriculture > Energy consumption per capita > GDP per capita > G$% per capita .social indicators include: > literacy rates > population per doctor .demographic indicators include: > life expectancy > percentage of population undernourished > infant mortality rates .G$P" GDP" and G$% are the most common indices ho ever they do not explain the distribution of ealth and they may be unreliable .!ualitative indicators describe a country#s development in terms of the factors hich influence people#s !uality of life" including: > freedom > survival > elfare > security .!ualitative indicators are not useful for ranking a country#s development

. Composite indicators combine several other measure of development into a single figure such as the ?uman development index &?D%( > developed in 233@ by the Fnited $ations Development Program &F$DP( > ?D% uses three measures to generate an index hich are: o Eiteracy o Eife expectancy o GDP &as opposed to infant mortality( > ranks countries on a scale from 2@@ to @ ith an average of the three rankings > expressed on a scale from @ to 2 > countries are classified into three groups: o high human development &?D%s of @.=@@ and above( o medium human development &@.6@@ to @.<33( o lo human development &belo @.6@@( .GD% and GE) are also composite indicators of development 7rigin of Disparities &pgs <2 4 =6( 7b8ective: Explain disparities and ine!uities that occur ithin countries resulting from ethnicity" residence" parental education" income" employment &formal and informal( and land o nership.

$otes: .disparities can arise bet een different ethnic groups > EM: $epal#s life expectancy for ?indus is :2 years and for )uslims it is A3 years > $epal#s adult literacy rate for ?indus is 6=H and for )uslims it is 55H .There can also be disparities in terms of income > EM: 9ra.il#s richest 5@H shares an income and lifestyle that is e!uivalent to one in Europe > The poorest 5@H have an ?D% e!uivalent to %ndia > The richest 5@H retains :6H of the total income .there can also be disparities in terms of residence > EEDCs tend to collect less tax money and therefore cannot afford to build sufficient housing > *ural>urban migration s ells the population of the urban area > *ural migrants become homeless or live in shanty settlements due to a lack of housing .There can be disparities in terms of education > EM: Genya has an unbalanced distribution in the !uality of education and teachers

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/hen a ne ethnic po er takes over Genya that ethnic group receives the !uality education

.There is disparities bet een the formal and informal components of employment > EM: :6H of employment in -ngola is informal due to the abundance of the urban poor > %nformal employment includes self employment and unpaid family employment > %nformal orkers could not afford safe drinking ater and had to purchase ater from an informal ater market > %nformal ater )arket produced ater hich as unsanitary and lead to numerous health problems .There is disparities in ho can o n land > EM: -ngola has shanty settlements around the coastal cities > The shanty settlements are inhabited by the urban poor > The urban poor had no legal entitlement to land because they could not afford it > The government destroyed the shanty to ns and sold the land to international companies that ould provide 8obs Disparities and change &pgs =6 4 36( 7b8ective: %dentify and explain the changing patterns and trends of regional and global disparities of life expectancy" education and income. Examine the progress made in meeting the )illennium Development Goals &)DGs( in poverty reduction" education and health.

$otes: .globali.ation is the spread and acceptance of economic" social and cultural ideas across the orld. .%mprovements in life expectancy: > average orld death rates of children has fallen by 66H from 23:6 to 5@@= > a child born today can expect to live 25 years longer than a child born in 23:6 .Disparities in life expectancy: > over 56H of the 6.6 billion people in EEDCs still have life expectancies belo A@ years > 5.: billion people cannot access clean ater .%mprovements in education: > %n EEDCs the proportion of children enrolled in primary school has increased from less than N to about O > -dult literacy rates have improved from A=H &23<@( to =5H &5@@6(

.Disparities in education: > about 2 million primary school aged children do not attend school" 5+; of hom are girls .%mprovements in income: > 23A<>5@@< average per capita incomes more than tripled as global GDP increased 2= fold &; trillion to 6A trillion PF,( .Disparities in %ncome: > the three richest people in the orld had total assets of PF, 2=@ billion &5@@=( hich as greater that the GDP of the orld#s 6< least developed countries > more than =@ countries had a lo er per capita income in 5@@= than they did in 2336 > average income in the orld#s 6 richest countries is =@ times the level of the poorest 6 > a 9angladeshi ould need to save all of his+her ages for = years to buy a computer1 an -merican needs only one month#s salary > the number of telephones per 2@@ people in -fghanistan is one1 in )onaco it is 33 > about 5.< billion people survive on incomes of less than t o dollars &F,( per day .)GDI2: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger > decrease the number of people living on less than P2 per day by 6@H > decrease the proportion of people suffering from hunger by 6@H .)GDI5: -chieve universal primary education > ensure that all kids have complete primary schooling .)GDI;: promote gender e!uality and empo er omen > eliminate gender ine!uality in primary and secondary education by 5@@6 &all levels by 5@56( > ensure e!ual literacy bet een young men and omen > ensure e!ual representation in national parliament .)GDIA: reduce child mortality > decrease the proportion of countries ith an infant mortality rate under 6 years by 5+; > universal child immuni.ation for measles .)GDI6: %mprove maternal health > decrease maternal mortality rate ration by <6H .)GDI:: combat ?%Q+-%D," malaria and other diseases > halt+begin to reverse the spread of ?%Q" -%D," )alaria and Tuberculosis

.)GDI<: Ensure environmental sustainability > reverse the loss of forests > half the proportion of people ithout improved drinking ater in rural and urban areas > half the proportion of people ith out sanitation in urban and rural areas > improve the lives of at least 2@@ million slum d ellers by 5@5@ .)GDI=: Develop global partnership for development > reduce youth unemployment *educing Disparities &pgs 36>2@@( 7b8ective: Discuss the different ays in hich disparities can be reduced ith an emphasis on trade and market access" debt relief" aid and remittances. Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies designed to reduce disparities.

$otes: .trade and market access can reduce disparities: > industriali.ation is the key to economic development > in EEDCs technology is expensive and labour is cheap > industriali.ation allo s for import substitution &replacing manufactured goods ith imported goods > export processing .ones reduce disparities by encouraging foreign investment in industries that ill manufacture goods to export > EPJs offer many incentives such as lo interest loans" cheap labour and exemption from normal import taxes > EM: China#s special economic .ones promoted economic gro th in ,hen.hen > They allo capitalism in hat is normally a socialist economy > This brings increased business to ,hen.hen .Debt relief can reduce disparities by: > many EEDCs are essentially bankrupt because they o e more money than their annual income > EEDCs make their money by selling primary exports and spend money on manufactured imports > ?o ever the cost of manufactured imports has risen more than the cost of exports > EEDCs are borro ing money from banks in )EDCs to fund economic development pro8ects > Pro8ects did not turn enough profit so more money needed to be borro ed leading into a debt trap > EEDCs are o ing more money to )EDCs than they are receiving in aid payments

.-id is the voluntary transfer of resources from one country to another. This includes human resources .remittance: the transfer of money from one country to another for example orking abroad and sending money home > EM: migrants in Papua $e Guinea send money home from other regions of the country Topic ;: Patterns in Environmental !uality and sustainability -tmosphere and change &pgs 2@@ 4 22:( 7b8ective: Describe the functioning of the atmospheric system in terms of the energy balance bet een solar and long> ave radiation. Explain the changes in this balance due to external forcings &changes in solar radiation" changes in the albedo of the atmosphere and changes in the long> ave radiation returned to space(. Discuss the causes and environmental conse!uences of global climate change.

$otes: .incoming solar radiation is kno n as insolation .short> ave radiation from the sun is mostly visible light to ards the purple end of the spectrum .long> ave radiation is mainly infrared heat

.green house gases ill deflect out going long ave radiation back to the earth and reheat it .increased release of greenhouse gases by human activity ill trap more heat than is necessary and causes global climate change. This is no as the enhanced green house effect .causes of global climate change includes: > changing levels of solar activity > the impact of volcanic activity > variations in the earth#s orbit > changes in the humidity and cloud cover .some environmental conse!uences of global climate change include: > reduce crop yields &tropical and subtropical regions of the orld( > less availability of ater &arid regions( > higher risk of floods &temperate regions( > land degradation > rising sea levels > increased exposure to diseases &increase in mos!uitoes( > deforestation &humans ill re!uire more resources( > tropical cyclones" typhoons" hurricanes" storm surges and thunder storms .conse!uences are unevenly distributed > EEDCs ill not be able to respond as ell due to lacking funds and preoccupation ith other ordeals such as disease" famine" failing economy. > )EDCs are better prepared. %n fact" temperature change can have certain positive impacts on )EDCs" as temperate regions may increase in crop yield due to increased temperatures &gro ing season( and precipitation. .greenhouse gases include > Carbon dioxide" hich has risen ;:H since industrial revolution > )ethane" hich has risen 262H > $itrous gases" hich have risen 2<H > $ot completely agreed upon" but increased G? gases seem to be main problem for climate change > 7thers note that in 23A@ 4 23=@" ith most increase in carbon dioxide" temperatures actually fell. .the Gyoto protocol > 233<" leaders met in Gyoto" Rapan" to consider orld treaty that ould limit emissions > Disagreement on severity of situation > ;= countries agreed to cut emissions of : G? gases > %n 5@@2" 2=@ delegates met to further discuss situation in 9onn" Germany

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-greed that 66H of nations responsible for at least 66H of the emissions must ratify before protocol is officially implemented $ations must reduce carbon dioxide emissions to 6.5H belo the 233@ levels bet een 5@@= 4 5@25 Compared ith inaction" this is reduction of ;@H G? gas emissions EEDCs ill have subse!uent negotiations for their o n limitations under climate treaty Critics say that it is 8ust postponing" thus eak" or that it costs too much for the amount of gain

.%ntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change established by t o F$ bodies" F$EP and /)7 > %PCC comprises of hundreds of scientists and researchers. > 2336 findings suggests human induced changes to climate > 5@@2" findings sho ed average global temperatures may rise from 2.< to :.2C before 52@@ &forecasts no sho 2.2 > A.@C( > 9et een 23@@ and 5@@@" average temperatures increase @.:C ,oil and change: 7b8ective: Explain the causes of soil degradation. Discuss the environmental and socio-economic conse!uences of this process" together ith management strategies.

$otes: .normal erosion takes place over a very long period &a geological time( and is affected by: > rainfall > vegetation cover > slopes > the likelihood of soils to erode &texture" structure and sipersibility( .-ccelerated erosion is human induced and is often caused by deforestation . ind erosion occurs here soil particles are loose > cultivating soil breaks up the soil structures so that dry particles can be blo n a ay > cultivation in loose soils can lead to desertification ./ater erosion takes t o main forms: > sheet erosion is the removal of the surface soil to an even depth > gully erosion is the removal of soil along the path of a stream or river .Conse!uences of soil erosion in rural areas is a reduction in crop yields through: > chemical fertility &loss of the more nutrient rich top layer( > physical constitution &lo er layers of clay are revealed(

.)anagement strategies in rural areas include: > constructing terraces or broad contour banks > planting and harvesting crops on the contours > using grass ater ays to slo do n and disperse runoff > leaving crop residues rather than burning them > not overgra.ing pasture areas > organi.ing land uses in such a ay that erosion is minimi.ed Case study :: The alliance for a green revolution in -frica &-G*-( .crop cultivation is lo er than many regions of the orld and population gro th is higher .<6H of -frica#s farm lands suffer from soil degradation .the soil is granite based > granite has lo nutrients > leaches minerals and nutrients &allo s nutrients to be dissolved by rain ater( .traditional farming techni!ues are still used .shifting cultivation is practiced: > plots of land are abandoned for a year to allo the soil#s fertility to return > bush land ould gro and ould then be burned to add the productive ash to the soil .fallo periods &length of time farm land is left abandoned( are reduced due to population gro th > this leads to soils becoming gradually degraded .farmers cannot afford or do not kno of other methods of increasing soil fertility .soil degradation is an increasing cycle hich causes more poverty in -frica .-G*- is investing in A areas that are designed to address soil degradation: > improving kno ledge" application and adoption of integrated soil fertility management > improving economic access to fertili.ers for poor farmers > improving physical access to fertili.ers for poor farmers > developing policy and incentives for adoption of improved soil fertility management practices .soil degradation is also evident in urban areas > as trees and other vegetation is removed from area" erosion is accelerated > hen rural land is converted into urban landS > soil is compacted by machinery > topsoil may be stripped in leveling process &can encourage gully erosion(

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loose topsoil reduced in storms by rills &small channels( gullying+rilling common by road ays" especially if road runs up+do n slope

/ater and Change &pgs 25@ 4 253( 7b8ective: %dentify the ays in hich ater is utili.ed at the regional scale. Examine the environmental and human factors affecting patterns and trends in physical ater scarcity and economic ater scarcity. Examine the factors affecting access to safe drinking ater.

$otes: .@.;H of ater on earth is non fro.en fresh ater in rivers or lakes .access to safe drinking ater is a ma8or concern in many EEDCs > Drinking ater: ater used for domestic purposes" ie" drinking" hygiene" etc > -ccess: ater is less than 2km a ay from place of use. Possible to obtain 5@E per member of household per day on reliable basis > ,afe drinking ater: bacterial" chemical" physical characteristics are up to /?7+national standards > Fnclean ater leads to disease" ie" cholera" diarrhea" etc. . ater needs include: > household use > manufacturing > irrigation > recreation > navigation .physical ater scarcity is hen the demand for ater exceeds the supply .economic ater scarcity is hen ater is available but some people cannot afford to it .areas hich suffer from ater stress are sub8ect to fre!uent ater shortages and have less than 2<@@m; per year . ater stress areas have problems ith food production and economic development .5.; billion people live in ater stressed areas > ith current trends ;.6 billion &A=H of the orld#s pro8ected population( in 5@56 .;<@@ km; of ater is used per year .agriculture is the largest ater consumer

> > >

crop irrigation has risen by :@><@H industry uses 5@H of ater municipal uses 2@H

.population gro th" urbani.ation and industriali.ation have increased ater use .by 5@56 global availability of fresh ater may drop to an estimated 62@@ m; per person per year &56H decrease( Case study <: managing ater scarcity in Turkmenistan .Turkmenistan suffers from ater scarcity because 3@H of it is covered by the Garakum dessert .huge range of temperatures > belo free.ing and above 6@ degrees .Turkmenistan statistics > population is 6.5 million people > population density is 8ust 2@.< people per s!uare km > 5@@: GDP per capita as PF,A=5: > ?D% as @.<5= &2@=th in the orld( . heat and barley ere being cultivated as early as :@@@ 9C > early urban settlements formed around oases > )erv as a city hich served as an important trade centre > During the 25th century it as the largest city in the orld &5@@ @@@ people( > Effective ater management must have been present . ater management is necessary for agriculture > agriculture is 5@H of the GDP and A=H of the orkforce but used only A.<H of the area &year 5@@:( .irrigation is necessary heat production > production is limited by ater scarcity and lo levels of technology .cotton is the most important crop > the cost of irrigating the dessert is very high > 5@@< the government decided to expand the land for cotton to 2@@ @@@ hectares &F,P<A million( > This ill re!uire extra irrigation and ill strain Turkmenistan#s ater resources .Turkmenistan is home to the orld#s larges irrigation canal: the Garakum Canal > 2;<6 kilometers long > Transports 2; km5 of ater annually from the -mu Darya &a ma8or river( > %t passes through the capital city of -shgabat

.cotton industry could not exist ithout the canal .silting is a ma8or problem ith the canal .poor !uality construction of the canal allo s almost half of the ater to escape creating lakes and ponds .net orks of the canals raises the ater table > this brings salt to the surface > ,talini.ation forces people to abandon fields . ater can sometimes flo back into the canal and bring pesticides ith it .mining in the mountains near the -mu Darya is responsible for heavy metal deposits in the canal .Pollution is a problem for -shgabat > <@@ @@@ residents receive their drinking ater from the Garakum canal .Turkmenistan does not manufacture pipes so the government pays to maintain infrastructures .in 5@@A plans ere announced to build the P= billion Turkmen lake > the lake ill be filled ith runoff ater > ill enable A@@@ km5 of ne farmland > 5@H increase in the country#s arable land > A6@ @@@ tonnes of cotton > ;@@ @@@ tonnes of grain 9iodiversity and change &pgs 253 4 2;:( 7b8ective: Explain the concept and importance of biodiversity in tropical rainforests. Examine the causes and conse!uences of reduced biodiversity in this biome.

$otes: .ecosystem is an interdependent community of plants and animals that have adapted together > Eargest ecosystem suggested being 9ra.il#s rainforests. .hot" et climate encourages year round plant gro th .all trees are evergreens because no other no other trees can compete for the light

.tallest trees are the emergents: they reach :@m high > thick buttress roots spread out above the ground > interlocking tree cro ns called the canopy > canopy makes the rainforest a dark environment > therefore little vegetation at ground level and rapid decay due to the abundance of micro organisms . oody climbing plants &lianas( > may be several hundred meters in length > stretch from tree to tree and bind the canopy together .Parasitic plants depend on other plants to survive > parasitic plants gro by sending their roots into other trees > strangler fig is a type of parasitic plant > begin as epiphytes but as they gro they send their roots to the ground and become independent > they then encase the host tree in their roots" killing it .rainforest has great bio diversity > more plant diversity than animal diversity .rainforest plants get most of their nutrients from eathered rock > mature rainforest plants get their nutrients from living biomass and decaying organic matter > phosphorus and potassium are cycled almost entirely from biomass to litter and back again > most of the roots lie either on the surface or half a meter underground > nutrient recycling is largely independent from the soil in the rainforest so rainforests can gro on poor soils .nutrients can be lost if the fragile recycling mechanisms are disturbed > rainforest plants have adapted to lo nutrient soils under the conditions of high rainfall and temperature > a root mat forms over soil and under litter > roots can absorb some nutrients from litter > some leaves begin returning nutrients to the tree before shedding occurs > some leaves have chemicals hich repel insects .multilayered structure of the rainforest acts to filter nutrients from rain ater > nitrogen fixation occurs in bet een the root mat and the soil > nutrient flo in animals is relatively small compared to plants .humans use the rainforest for: > shifting cultivation > s iddening

.shifting is also kno n as slash and burn agriculture > EM: Tierra Dirme forests on lateritic gravels in southern Qene.uela > Eand is used for ;>A years and is then left abandoned to fallo > The process is relatively harmless to the environment hen practiced by a lo density population .s idden plot has a closed cover > cover comes from trees that are left standing and ne tree crops that are planted &bananas( > lots of plant diversity arranged in random order .2>5H of the orld#s remaining rainforest is cultivated for other land uses &extensive in 9ra.il and %ndonesia( > clearing of the rainforest over volcanic soils can result in stable farming > clearing over poorer soils is disastrous .clearing the rainforest for pulp ood immediately exports nutrients out of the biome > logging e!uipment can disturb soil hich can lead to devastating soil erosion > this takes years to recover and lead to the destruction of roads and the siltation of reservoirs .cutting rainforests results in plants no longer taking up nutrients > this increases drainage ater passing through the system > this causes increased rates of decomposition because soil temperature and moisture are higher .cutting do n the rainforests is thought to lead to be bi>directional > bi>directional means that it causes global arming and cooling at the same time > clear cutting raises the area#s albedo &3H albedo in tropical areas but ;<H in desert areas( > clear cutting also releases carbon dioxide .robust biodiversity it not only necessary to maintain the natural food eb" but loss of species deprives humans of beneficial products > many resources are found in the rainforests such as rubber" palm oil" cocoa" teak and mahogany > some plants can be used in medicine > EM: a tropical peri inkle plant provides chemicals used to fight leukaemia > Eoss of rainforest species ill be a significant loss for humanity .global forest cover is expected to increase by 2@H by 5@6@ .deforestation is highest in EEDCs here timber is a valuable resource > this only provides short term economic gain and long term biodiversity loss

,ustainability and the Environment &pgs 2;: 4 2;<( 7b8ective: Define the concept of environmental sustainability. Evaluate a management strategy at a local or national scale designed to achieve environmental sustainability.

$otes: .sustainability is maintaining something at a certain rate or level .environmental sustainability is any process that interacts ith the environment and replenishes at least hat it uses so that the process is capable of continuing in perpetuity .using resources faster than they can be replaced is unsustainable Case study =: %celand#s national management strategy .$ordic countries are leading in environmental sustainability because they have the money and the determination .%celand as one of EuropeTs poorest countries but then discovered ne technology that allo ed it to use its natural resources and fishing grounds .%celand has the highest ?D% rating .%celandTs environment is the source of income because of tourism and fishing ./elfare for the future: an =@ page policy for environmental sustainability .policy is designed to carry %celand for ard to 5@5@ .policy is supported by a strong program of environmental education .very little ork has been done to define and develop indicators in the field of environmental sustainability .does collect statistics but information as not designed to be a measure of progress in achieving environmental sustainability &correcting this is a part of the elfare for the future policy( .2< goals each of hich relates to several key sectors of %celandUs economy > Goal 2: clean air &reducing road traffic in *eyk8avik( > Goal 5: Clean fresh ater &some areas still use untreated surface ater( > Goal ;: ,afe food products &increasing diet diversity past 8ust fish( > Goal A: Chemicals &)onitoring pesticides" toxic and o.one removing chemicals( > Goal 6: 7utdoor activities &Travelers must treat the land ith respect(

> > > > > > > > > > > >

Goal :: $atural disasters &experiences a ide range of natural disasters( Goal <: %celand#s animal and plant life &very fe remaining undisturbed etlands( Goal =: Geological formations &beautiful scenery is threatened by human activities( Goal 3: ilderness areas &conservation of large expanses of ilderness areas( Goal 2@: Eiving marine resources &fishing is the backbone of the %celandic economy( Goal 22: ,oil conservation &soil erosion and desertification are said to be %celandTs greatest environmental issue( Goal 25: *ene able energy &<@H %celand uses more rene able energy than any here else in the orld( Goal 2;: aste &improve the handling of aste( Goal 2A: Clean ocean & ater are the cleanest in the orld but are a little polluted due to other countries( Goal 26: climate change &%celandic government has fulfilled itTs Gyoto protocol( Goal 2:: 7.one layer &hole above -ntarctica( Goal 2<: 9iological diversity &destruction of habitats due to cultivation(

. %n comparison to Canada" %celand... > has a very impressive environment and they ork hard to maintain it &other countries sacrifice environmental sustainability for development( > uses their environment for development &They fish and use their beautiful environment as a tourist attraction for income( > follo ed through on its goals for the Gyoto protocol to protect its vast biodiversity" unlike canada Topic A: patterns in resource consumption Patterns of resource consumption &pgs 2A6 4 26A( 7b8ective: Evaluate the ecological footprint as a measure of the relationship bet een population si.e and resource consumption. %dentify international variations in its si.e. Discuss the t o opposing vie s &neo-)althusian and anti-)althusian( of the relationship bet een population si.e and resource consumption.

$otes: .a resource is something that is useful to humans .ecological footprint is the theoretical measurement of the amount of land and ater a population re!uires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its aste under prevailing technology

> > > >

uses units of bio>productive area &global hectares( to assess the nature and scale of the environmental impact of a country" region" community" organi.ation" product or service average biologically productive area is 5.<global hectares per person &area needed per person( the global average bio>capacity is 5.2 gha per person &area available per person( there is a deficit of @.: hectares per person

.ecological footprint can vary bet een countries > EM: ecological foot print in the F, is 3.A gha hereas in China it is 5.2 gha . hen biological capacity as first estimated for a population of : billion it as 2.; hectares per person ho ever this did not include marine resources such as fisheries .countries that have ecological reserves tend to have lo population densities or lo er levels of economic development &consume less resources( > it is a $eo>)althusian measure of population si.e and resource consumption .carbon footprint is the total !uantity of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual" organi.ation" event" product or nation .carbon offset schemes involve individuals or companies identifying the carbon footprint of their actions and then pay money to a fund or a company that does something to absorb an e!uivalent !uantity of carbon .a resource can be determined by existing technology and culture > EM: t o sticks are a resource to a $e Guinean highlander but not to people ho live in the urbani.ed orld > EM: coal as present in -ustralia but a use as not found for it so it as not a natural resource to them > EM: 7il only became a useful resource hen proper drilling techni!ues ere developed .a natural resource is a naturally occurring material that a society perceives as being useful to its economic and+or social ell>being" and hich can be used or exploited .rene able resources are those materials that can be regenerated in nature faster than they are being exploited by society > EM: soil" plants and animals .$on>rene able resources regenerate so slo ly in nature that they are considered to have a finite !uantity > EM: fossil fuels" minerals and nuclear fuels > $on>rene able resources can be recycled hich means that they can be used repeatedly

.resources can be divided into five broad categories: > energy resources &fossil fuels" geothermal reserves" ater" nuclear materials" biomass etc( > mineral resources &metallic and non>metallic( > organic resources &soils" forests and animals( > ater resources &non energy uses( > landscape .$eo>)althusians &such as Paul Ehrlich( believe that limited resources keep populations in check and reduce economic gro th > population should be controlled or else pressure on scarce resources ill trigger a catastrophe that ill reduce the population .-nti>)althusians &such as Rulian ,imon( believe that true scarcity is not the physical !uantity of the resource but rather its price > if something is becoming scarce then its price ill rise > the price of almost every natural resource is decreasing indicating that they are becoming more abundant > this is caused by a combination of ne discoveries" recycling and ne technology > previously inaccessible reserves of resources can become accessible ith advances in technology raising the estimates of the amount of that resource .,imon and Ehrlich had a bet to determine hose reasoning as correct > 6 resources ere selected to determine hether the price ould go up or do n > Ehrlich chose copper" chrome" nickel" tin and tungsten > The prices for all of them decreased over the 2@ years &23=@>233@( and therefore ,imon on .in the short run" higher population ill increase the demand and price of a resource ho ever higher prices ill motivate people to find alternate resources to use as substitutes and therefore prices ill go do n Changing patterns of energy consumption &pgs 26A 4 2:2( 7b8ective: Examine the global patterns and trends in the production and consumption of oil. Examine the geopolitical and environmental impacts of these changes in patterns and trends. Examine the changing importance of other energy sources.

$otes: .main source of energy orld ide is oil &including petroleum( > its consumption is rising and is expected to keep rising

.=<H of energy use is expected to be using hydrocarbon fuels in 5@56 .peak oil is the point in time in hich the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached > after peak oil the rate of production enters terminal decline > difficult to predict due to rapidly changing variables .recent predictions of the timing of oil peak focus on the 52st century > based on measurements hich sho that the net difference bet een annual orld oil reserves additions and annual oil consumption is declining .trends in oil production and oil consumption are not uniform around the orld > there is a difference bet een the place here oil is produced and here it is consumed > the top ; oil producers are ,audi -rabia" *ussia and the F,> the top ; oil consumers are the F,-" China and Rapan > Coal and oil have aided in ealth and development hich idens the disparities &EEDCs likely cannot use coal or oil so they export it to )EDCs( .,mall countries such as 9runei have a very small population and can export excess oil to make money to provide for its people > ealth is uneven because oil producing states get more money .nations such as Rapan" Drance and Germany must import huge !uantities of oil each year but can do so by selling their manufacturing ealth > Drance and Germany have such success because they had access to coal during their early industrial revolution > They have not had much luck accessing oil on their o n .Qene.uela as one of the first countries to retrieve large !uantities of oil from under the ocean due to technological advances .oil could become so important that it could lead to geopolitical tensions > EM: the ,pratly islands of the south China sea have been claimed by : different nations because of the oil in its vicinity .occupying land can be more important than legal claim to the land > 9runei" China" Qietnam and Philippines have been building small bases to guard hichever islands they think they have a chance of keeping > ,ome of these islands are only a fe meters across > ,udden military push could change the situation > EM: -pril 2336 China raised its flag on )ischief *eef and stationed several ar ships nearby to ensure that the Philippines ould not try to retake it > EM: since 23=2 the F,- has kept military forces stationed in the middle east to protect the Persian Gulf &it is also believed that the 5@@5 invasion on %ra! as to protect oil supplies(

.if oil becomes scarcer than ma8or exporters such as *ussia and %ran ill become influential in orld politics. .if predictions are accurate then by 5@56 there ill be a ma8or transition from hydrocarbon fuels to other sources of energy > this ill shift the balance of po er to the greatest producer Conservation strategies &pgs 2:2 4 2<A( 7b8ective: Discuss the reduction of resource consumption by conservation" aste reduction" recycling and substitution. Evaluate a strategy at a local or national scale aimed at reducing the consumption of one resource.

$otes: .reduction: refers to using less energy .substitution: refers to using one resource rather than another: the use of rene able resources rather than non>rene able .landfill: burying of aste in the ground and then covering over the filled pit ith soil and other material. .flytipping: hen people or companies dump aste and old e!uipment. %t is a gro ing problem. There are many reasons for the increase including: increased cost of landfill" more consumer goods such as tvs and computers hich have restrictions on ho they can be disposed of" introduction of ne regulations that stipulate a high proportion of products must be recycled .conservation is the development of more efficient ays to use a resource > usually the aim is to increase the profit from said resource rather than reduce its rate of use > effort is put into finding ne supplies and finding better ays to obtain modify and market the resource to potential users > EM: The F,- and -ustralia have such abundant supplies of coal that at current rates of consumption they can last for thousands of years > There have been extensive research to increase the value of coal so that they can sell more of it rather than use less of it > They ork to make the industry more efficient at every stage: exploration" mining" transportation and use. .*ecycling refers to the processing of industrial and household aste so that materials can be reused > Earge cities generate 5@ @@@ tonnes of garbage per day and much of it could have been used again

> > > > > > >

*ural economies focus on recycling plant and animal aste EM: using animal aste as fertili.er EM: composting EM: food and plant scraps that cannot be given to humans is given to pigs The pigs# droppings ash into ponds This stimulates fish gro th The fish are eaten by people 7ption D: ?a.ards and disasters'risk assessment and response

Definitions Term Disaster

?a.ard

?a.ard Event

*isk

Qulnerability )agnitude

Dre!uency

Definition - ma8or ha.ard event that causes idespread disruption to a community or region that the affected community is unable to deal ith ade!uately ithout outside help. - threat & hether natural or human( that has the potential to cause loss of life" in8ury" property damage" socio>economic disruption or environmental degradation. The occurrence &reali.ation( of a ha.ard" the effects of hich change demographic" economic and+or environmental conditions. The probability of a ha.ard event causing harmful conse!uences &expected losses in terms of deaths" in8uries" property damage" economy and environment(. The susceptibility of a community to a ha.ard or to the impacts of a ha.ard event. ,i.e of the event" ie" Dorce 2@ on the 9eaufort scale" maximum height or discharge of a flood" or the si.e of an earth!uake on the *ichter scale ?o often an event of a certain si.e occurs. Dor example" a flood 2m high may occur" on average" every year. 9y contrast" in the same stream a flood of 5m might occur only every 2@ years. The fre!uency is sometimes called the recurrence interval &Gumbel#s la s(. The larger the event" the less fre!uently it occurs. ?o ever" it is the

Duration

-real extent

,patial concentration+dispersion

,peed of onset

*egularity &temporal spacing(

very large events that do most of the damage &to the physical environment" to people" properties and livelihoods( The length of time that an environmental ha.ard exists. This varies from a matter of hours" such as ith urban smog" to decades" in the case of drought" for example The si.e of the area covered by the ha.ard. This can range from very small scale" such as an avalanche chute" to continental" as in the case of drought. The distribution of ha.ards over space1 hether they are concentrated in certain areas" such as tectonic plate boundaries" coastal locations" valleys" and so on. This is rather like the Ktime lagL in a flood hydrograph. %t is the time difference bet een the start of the event and the peak of the event. %t varies from rapid events" such as the Gobe earth!uake" to slo time> scale events such as drought in the ,ahel of -frica. ,ome ha.ards" such as cyclones" are regular1 hereas others" such as earth!uakes and volcanoes" are much more random

2. Characteristics of ha.ards Characteristics 7b8ective: Explain the characteristics and spatial distribution of the follo ing ha.ards. 0 Either earth!uakes or volcanoes 0 ?urricanes &tropical cyclones" typhoons( 0 Droughts 0 -ny one recent human>induced &technological( ha.ard &explosion or escape of ha.ardous material( Distinguish bet een the chosen ha.ards in terms of their spatial extent" predictability" fre!uency" magnitude" duration" speed of onset and effects. Earthquakes: .Earth!uakes are sudden" violent shaking of the earth#s surface.

.occur in lithosphere > 7ccurs here there is a build up of pressure bet een plates > Earth#s surface is made up of multiple KplatesL > Plates move at varying rates" from 2 4 2=cm+yr > Plates are moving in different directions" thus" moving together at points" moving a ay at others. > )oving because earth#s mantle underneath plates is more dense > )ovement maybe from convection currents in mantle caused by radioactive decay > Earth!uakes occur in areas of colliding plates &convergent plate margins" aka destructive plate margins(. > Dor example" pacific plate and -ustralian plate are colliding > Edge of one plate is forced under the other plate &usually the denser of the t o ill go under( > This area is called subduction .one" friction causes earth!uakes > -s plate moves under" eventually melts" giving off gas" creating volcanic eruptions" sometimes resulting in volcanic peaks as islands in oceans. > Docus &place beneath ground here they take place( deep 4 focus earth!uakes usually occur near these subduction .ones" hile shallo >focus earth!uakes occur along constructive+conservative boundaries > Epicentre is point on the ground surface directly above focus. .there are many factors affecting earth!uake damage" for example... .,trength and number of aftershocks > ,tronger" more aftershocks" greater the damage. > *ichter scale calculates strength 4 scale is logarithmic .population density > ?igher the density" more damage that occurs &ie" Tokyo" Rapan( .type of buildings > )EDCs have better buildings" emergency services" insurance cover" funds to cope ith disaster. .time of day > ?igh density times such as rush hour can e!uate to higher damage .distance from the centre > Closer to the epicentre B more damage .type of rocks and sediments > ,olid rock is safer" as loose rock is less stable in the event of an earth!uake. .secondary ha.ards

>

)udslides" tsunamis" fires" contaminated ater" disease" hunger" hypothermia etc can increase damage.

.human causes for earth!uakes include... > $uclear testing > 9uilding large dams > Drilling for oil > Coal mining .there are three basic options for people to cope ith earth!uakes > Do nothing" accept ha.ard > -d8ust living environment" ie" make house stronger > Eeave area .main ays of dealing ith earth!uakes include... > 9etter forecasting and arning > 9uilding design" location and emergency procedures . ays of prediction and monitoring include... > Crustal movement &small scale movement of plates( > Changing in electrical conductivity > ,trange and unusual animal behaviour" especially carp fish > ?istoric evidence 4 trends" timelines of regional occurrence etc. .other characteristics include... > Temporal spacing 4 slightly random > ,patial dispersion 4 concentrated > ,peed of onset 4 fast > -real extent 4 limited > Duration 4 short > Dre!uency 4 rare Volcanoes .defined as opening in earth#s crust through hich hot molten magma &lava(" molten rock" and ash are erupted onto the land. > )agma 4 molten materials inside earth > Eava 4 outside earth > Chamber 4 reservoir of magma deep inside volcano > Qent 4 channels that allo s magma ithin volcano to reach surface during eruption .found on plate boundaries" ith exceptions &ie" ?a aii( > -t spreading ridges especially &constructive plate margins( > ?a aii is hotspot" here hot rising mantle is close to surface

.volcanoes have caused millions of dollars in damage in recent years > ?omes must be re>built > Coastal lines have been reshaped .key facts > Greatest eruption as Tambora" %ndonesia &2=26( here 6@>=@km; of material as blasted into atmosphere > 2==;" explosion of Grakatoa as heard A<<:km a ay > Eargest active volcano is )auna Eoa" ?a aii" at 25@ km long and 2@@ km ide .types of volcanoes . ,hield volcanoes like those of ?a aii > made from runny" hot magma. > Eocated near constructive boundaries+hotspots. > ?ave runny basaltic lava hich travels do n sides in lava flo s > Gases easily escape Cone>shaped volcanoes &Plinian type( > result from many eruptions over long time. > Parts may be blasted a ay. > -ssociated ith destructive plate boundaries. > Gas rushes up past sticky lava" blasts ash and fragments into sky in huge explosions > Gas clouds+lava can also rush do n slopes .active volcanoes are those that have erupted in recent times. &)ount Pinatubo" 2332" )ontserrat" 233<(. These could erupt again .dormant volcanoes have not erupted for many centuries" but may erupt again. &)ount *ainier" F,-( .extinct volcanoes are not expected to erupt again &Gilaman8aro" Genya( .volcanic strength > )easured via volcanic explosive index > 9ased on amount of materials e8ected" height of cloud" amount of damage. > -bove lvl 6" very large and violent > $ever been one at lvl =. .volcanic eruptions e8ect many different materials... > Pyroclastic flo s: super hot &<@@C( flo s of ash and pumice &volcanic rock( at speeds of over 6@@km+h > -sh: very fine grained" sharp > Cinders: small si.ed rocks and coarse

.predicting volcanoes > ,eismometers: records earth!uakes that occur as magma rises > Chemical sensors: sulphur levels > Easers: physical s elling > Fltrasound: lo fre!uency aves in magma resulting from surge of gas+magma .living ith volcanoes > %slands such as Philippines and %celand created by volcanoes > ,oils are rich" deep" fertile B intensive agriculture. > Tourism > ,ymbolic" ie" )ount Du8i" Rapan. Hurricanes > > > > > > > > -tmospheric pressure is usually 2@25 kPa at sea level. Eo pressure .ones are called cyclones" hile high pressure .ones are called anti>cyclones Extremely lo pressure .ones that cause great damage are kno n as tropical cyclones in -ustralia" Typhoons in -sia" or ?urricanes in $orth -merica. Calm conditions at centre -ir moves from high to lo " parallel to isobars&lines 8oining points of e!ual air pressure( Coriolis force causes inds to move clock ise in northern hemisphere" anticlock ise in southern hemisphere /hen air moves from lo to high" direction is reversed. Due to convergence of inds from north and south" e!uator is lo pressure" called inter>tropical convergence .one

./hat the guide book says on hurricanes... > %ntense ha.ards" brings heavy rainfall" strong inds" high aves" other ha.ards such as flooding and mudslides. > Enormous !uantities of ater > Fp to 6@@mm of rain in 5Ahrs causes flooding > Path difficult to predict outside of 25 hours" as their paths are erratic .ho they are formed > Develops as lo pressure system over tropical oceans > /inds spiral rapidly around a calm central area aka eye > -lthough large" up to =@@km in diameter" strongest inds found in narro belts up to ;@@km ide > Pressures can fall to as lo as ==>3:kPa > ,trong contrast in pressure bet een center and outside alls B gale force inds > )ove excess heat from lo er latitudes to higher

> >

Developed on est ard flo ing ind 8ust north of e!uator &aka easterly ave( Go through stages 2( Tropical depression" lo pressure makes arm air rise" causing thunderstorms 5( Tropical storm" ith inds of up to 22<km+h ;( ?urricane" ith inds over 22=km+h

.conditions for hurricane formation... > ,ea temperatures must be over 5<C" heat drives hurricane > Eo pressure area far enough from e!uator so that Coriolis force creates rotation in rising air mass .?urricane Gatrina > F,-#s orst natural disaster > ?it land near $e 7rleans" -ugust 53" 5@@6 > Category A > Eingered in area" instead of passing through > 7ver 2=;@ people killed > Cost F, economy approximately P=@ billion > *escue operations critici.ed for not helping enough ith poor > )any ithout aid ere of poor neighbourhoods" here hurricane did most damage. .Cyclone $argis > 2;A @@@ deaths > 9urma" may 5@@= > -round 36H of all buildings in area destroyed > /inds exceeded 23@km+h > %ntense rain > 26 to nships in %rra addy delta had suffered orst > ,even of them had lost 3@>36H of homes" ith <@H of population missing+dead > Disaster management experts failed to get appropriate visas B frustrations gre > %rra addy delta as lo lying > <million of 9urma#s 6;million people lived there > $early 5 million there live less than 6m above sea level > -gricultural loss in fertile delta rice fields lost. Droughts > - long period usually months or years during hich an area experiences a shortage of precipitation &lo levels of ater vapour in the air( > Especially hen stable air masses linger . ind masses can be stable or unstable > ,table: parcel of air cannot rise" thus clouds and rain do not form

>

Fnstable: parcel of air can rise" thus clouds+rainfall is likely

.lapse rates measure relationship bet een temperature and altitude > -ir is cooler at higher altitudes > *ate at hich air becomes cooler is environmental lapse rate > -verage" :C per 2@@@m .but rising air masses does not change temp at EE*" instead" dry adiabatic lapse rate is used. > 2@C per 2@@@m > De point is point at hich air can no longer hold moister bet een molecules due to condensation > -fter this point" air cools slo er aka et adiabatic lapse rate 4 6.6C+2@@@m > Dlat bottom clouds 4 air before flat bottom is not saturated . hen EE* is less than D-E*" air is stable and vice versa > ,table air masses occur in high pressure .ones > -ir descends from high altitude" arming up > Thus" near cool ocean currents" droughts often occur > Currents fluctuate" ie" El $ino ,outhern 7scillation" during hich droughts can occur any here" but particularly" -ustralia" bra.il" india" %ndonesia" phillippines" eastern and southern -frica" central -merica" parts of F,-. %n general" e!uatorial and tropical areas are more drought prone than mid latitudes ./hat the guide book says... .Qariations in *ainfall > ,emi>arid: areas ith less than 6@@mm of rain+yr > -rid: less than 56@mm+yr > Extremely arid: less than 256mm+yr > -reas of lo rainfall+dry areas have variable rainfall > This means as total rainfall decreases" variability increases" ie" rainfall of 6@@mm have annual variability of;;H" hich means rainfall can range from ;;@mm to :<@mm .Defining a drought > Extended periods of dry eather leading to conditions of extreme dryness. > -bsolute drought is period of 26 consecutive days ith less than @.5mm of rainfall > Partial: 53 consecutive days ith less than @.5mm of average daily rainfall .arid conditions are caused by number of factors > Global atmospheric circulation. Dry" descending air from subtropical high> pressure belt > Distance from the sea &continentality( limits ater carried by inds

> > >

,ome areas like -tacama and $amib deserts" cold offshore currents limit amount of condensation into overlying air *ain>shado effects as air passes over mountain" ie" Patagonian desert ?uman activities like unfit agriculture" ie" desertification

.Europe#s drought of 5@@; > Death toll from Drench heat ave as high as ;@ @@@. > ?arvests ere do n ;@>6@H in 5@@5 > a+c and fridge use increased electrical demand > nuclear plants" <6H of Drance#s energy" ere operating at reduced capacity due to lack of coolant & ater( > Portugal reported state of emergency after orst forest fires in ;@ years > Temperatures reached A;C in Eisbon" aug. 5@@; &26C hotter than average for that month( > 7ver 2;@@ dead by first half of august" up to ;6 @@@ ha of forests+farmlands+scrubs ere burned > <@ people arrested for arson" as they sought insurance > ,ome countries faced orst harvest since end of /orld /ar 5 > Countries that usually export had to import > EF heat production decreased by 2@ million tonnes aka 2@H .Drought in -frica > 5@@;" parts of southern Ethiopia experienced longest drought recorded > /orld#s largest food aid programme implemented" but inade!uate > ,ixth poor rainy season in three years B 5@ million people needed help > /orse than 23=A famine" during hich 2@ million people needed food. Technological Hazards > %nclude ar" nuclear materials" oil spills" industrial accident" and contamination of ater+soil > )isuse of technology endangers lives and property" but mainly people" not tech" that causes disaster Class Examples Multiple extreme hazards $uclear ar &radiation(" recombinant D$-" pesticides Extreme hazards %ntentional biocides Chainsa s" antibiotics" vaccines Persistent teratogens Franium mining" rubber manufacture *are catastrophes Ei!uefied natural gas &E$G( explosions" commercial aviation &crashes( Common killers -uto crashes" coal mining &black lung( Diffuse global threats Dossil fuel &C75 release(" sea surface temperatures &o.one depletion( Hazards ,accharin" aspirin" appliances" skateboards" bicycles

.%ndustrial pollution: case study 4 9hopal > 5" December 23=A" toxic gas settled over sleeping population of 9hopal" capital of )adhya Pradesh state" central %ndia > Eeak of pesticide plant o ned by -merican T$C" Fnion Carbide > )ethyl isocyanate &)%C( attacks internal organs" esp. Eungs" preventing oxygen from entering blood. > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > %mpacts include... 7ver N million people exposed to fumes /ithin hour" thousands died" tens of thousands suffering blindness" skin irritation" breathing troubles ,till persistent today. /orld#s orst industrial disaster *eports from 5@@; sho that children exposed to gas &and those born to parents ho ere exposed( sho ed gro th retardation -lthough local administration say ;@@@ people died that night" estimates say as high as 5@ @@@. 7fficial death total by 5@@A as 25 @@@ 9et een 26@ @@@ and :@@ @@@ have been in8ured or suffer ill health as result of leak Enduring impacts... )iscarriage rates is seven times average for %ndia ?igh number of cases of respiratory illnesses and cancers 7ne of highest rates of breast and lung cancer in %ndia Cancer rates high to those exposed to leak /hose responsibilityV 2335" Fnion Carbide paid %ndian gov#t PA<@ million )any survivors did not receive ade!uate compensation /hen F.C. left site in 2333" thousands of tonnes of toxins+chemicals left behind ,ome have seeped into soil+ ater &some by monsoon rains( *ecent tests sho that ater may be 6@@ times higher in contamination than /?7 recommendations F.C. no part of Do Chemicals" orld#s largest chemical firm -nnual sales orth P;5.: billion Cleaning plant ould cost around P5;million.

Qulnerability Qulnerable populations: Explain the reasons hy people live in ha.ardous areas Why people live in hazardous environments

.a distinction > ?a.ard is perceived natural event hich threatens both life and property" disaster is reali.ation of ha.ard > Thus" not all extreme events are ha.ards > Environmental ha.ards are caused by people#s use of dangerous environments > Dailure to recogni.e the potential ha.ard and acting appropriately . hy do the poor often live in ha.ardous environmentsV > 9ehavioural school of thought: environmental ha.ards caused by natural events" people put themselves at risk > ,tructuralist school of thought: stresses the constraints placed on the poor people by prevailing social and political systems of the country" thus" people live in dangerous areas due to the fact that they have no here else to live. > Eink bet een environmental ha.ards and underdevelopment and economic dependency of many countries. .resource or ha.ardV > Delta provides silt" fertile soils" ater" potential trade and communications" but are also sub8ect to floods" ie" 5@@= floods in %rra addy delta " 9urma and those caused by ?urricane Gatrina in $e 7rleans &5@@6(" but usually" ater levels are at a point here it is considered resource" not ha.ard. > ,ame for volcanic environments: provide rich fertile soils" minerals to mine. -ttract tourists" create ne land. %n case of eruption" evacuation is re!uired &Plymouth in )ontserrat" 233<" or Chaiten" Chile" 5@@=( .Changing patternsV > ,ome places" sheer number of people triggers ha.ards > Example: megacities B large number of vehicles degradation of air !uality > Concentration of manufacturing industry in certain regions" ie" south>east china and south>east %ndia" B decline in air !uality" increasing ater pollution" and acidification > )ore people moving to urban areas B alterations to natural habitat B increase in ha.ards > ,ome places" changing climate patterns are putting people at risk" ie" southern ,pain and Portugal" increasing dry years turning large areas into deserts" problem compounded ith overuse of ater for golf courses and other recreational facilities. Ground ater levels are declining" soils are drying" vegetation is dying and land is becoming desertified. Eeads to increase risk of ind and ater erosion" further declining productivity. .other reasons > People may have to pay off landlord > lacking finances to move > extended families > lacking skills to ork else here

>

do not reali.e the ha.ard

Qulnerability Discuss: vulnerability as a function of demographic and socio>economic factors" and of a community#s preparedness and ability to deal ith a ha.ard event hen it occurs. Explain the reasons for some sectors of a population being more vulnerable than others. .Qulnerability is the geographical conditions that increase the susceptibility of a community to a ha.ard or to the impacts of a ha.ard event .the progression of vulnerability 2( root causes > limited access to o po er o structures o resources > ideologies o political systems o economic systems 5( Dynamic pressures > Eack of o Eocal institutions o Training o -ppropriate skills o Eocal investments o Eocal markets o Press freedom o Ethical standards in public life > )acro>forces o *apid population gro th o *apid urbani.ation o -rms expenditure o Debt repayment schedules o Deforestation o Decline in soil productivity ;( Fnsafe conditions > Dragile physical environment o Dangerous locations o Fnprotected buildings and infrastructure > Dragile local economy o Eivelihoods at risk o Eo income levels > Qulnerable society o ,pecial groups at risk o Eack of local institutions

>

Public actions o Eack of disaster preparedness o Prevalence of endemic disease

.factors affecting vulnerability > Population density o %ncreasing large number of dense cities occur in ha.ardous areas" ie" $e 7rleans > Fnderstanding of the area o $e migrants maybe una are > Public education o Programs in Rapan help to decrease vulnerability to earth!uakes > - areness of ha.ards o 5@@A tsunami in south -sia alerted many to dangers caused by tsunamis > Existence of early arning system o $umber of deaths due to hurricanes in F,- usually lo due to early arning > Effective lines of communication o Earth!uake in ,ichuan" China in 5@@= brought !uick response from gov#t" mobili.ed 2@@ @@@ troops and foreign aid. > -vailability and readiness of emergency personnel o ,hortage of personnel caused many deaths in Cyclone $argis" 9urma > %nsurance cover o Poor have no cover" thus are most vulnerable due to poor housing !uality > Construction styles and building codes o )any schools in ,ichuan" China earth!uake destroyed due to poor building code > $ature of society o Dailure of foreign aid during cyclone $argis caused increased death rate due to disease" malnutrition > Cultural factors that influence public response to arnings > Certain groups of people are more vulnerable o Poor do not have access to resources &poor housing" food supply etc( o /omen in certain parts of orld also have lo er access" vulnerable to exploitation after event o Elderly are often neglected" are eaker" and respond slo er o Woung children are often sub8ect to exploitation after events and long term psychological effects > Political state o Creates a dangerous environment for response

isk and risk assessment -nalysis of risk: Examine the relationships bet een the degree of risk posed by a ha.ard and the probability of a ha.ard event occurring" the predicted losses and a community#s preparedness for it. Explain the reasons hy individuals and communities often underestimate the probability of ha.ard events occurring. Discuss the factors that determine an individual#s perception of the risk posed by ha.ards. .risk: probability of a ha.ard event causing harmful conse!uences &expected losses in terms of earth" in8uries" property damage" economy and environment(. .risk perception Dactors tending to increase risk perception %nvoluntary ha.ards &radioactive fallout" ie" Chernobyl 23=:( %mmediate impact &Cyclone $argis( Direct impact &,ichuan earth!uake" 5@@=( Dreaded impact &cancer" -%D,( )any fatalities per disaster &hurricane Gatrina( Death grouped in space or time &9hu8 earth!uake" %ndia" 5@@@( %dentifiable victims &chemical plant orkers" 9hopal( Processes not ell understood &nuclear accident" ie" ,ellafield" FG( Fncontrollable ha.ard &hurricane Gatrina( Fnfamiliar ha.ard &tsunami" %ndonesia 5@@A( Eack of belief in authority &young population( )uch media attention &nuclear ha.ards" ie" Chernobyl or )o.ambi!ue floods 5@@@( Dactors tending to reduce risk perception Qoluntary ha.ards &professional mountaineers( Delayed impact &drought in Ethiopia" 5@@;" 5@@=( %ndirect impact &drought in spain and Portugal and effect on tourism( Common accident &car crash( De fatalities per disaster &FG floods" 5@@<( Death random in space and time &,tomach cancer( ,tatistical victims &cigarette smokers( Processes ell understood &flooding( Controllable ha.ard &ice on roads( Damiliar ha.ard &river flood( 9elief in authority &university scientist( Eittle media attention &factory discharge in ater or atmosphere(

.factors affecting the perception of risk > Experience o )ore experience" higher the ad8ustment > )aterial ell>being o 9etter off people have more choices > Personality o EeaderV Dollo erV *isk takerV *isk minimiserV > Three options

o Do nothing o -d8ust to environment o Eeave .Predicting volcanoes > ,atellites offer global coverage from space > %n 2332" )ount Pinatubo eruption" only ;5@ killed" 6= @@@ evacuated due to early arning > ,tate of the art monitoring tech used > -ccurately predicted > ?a.ard .onation maps in circulation months before eruption > -lert and arning system designed > *esponse machinery mobili.ed on time .predicting earth!uakes > )easurement of small scale ground changes > ,mall scale uplift or subsidence > Ground tilt > Changes in rock stress > -nomalies in earth#s magnetic field > Changes in radon gas concentration > Changes in electrical resistivity of rocks > > > Parkfield" California on ,an -ndreas fault is extensively studied. ?eavily instrumented Wet" 233A !uake not predicted.

.four indices to measure risk of a ha.ard occurring > Disaster deficit index o )odels conse!uence in macro economic and financial terms *epresenting max loss and country#s capacity to deal ith it o Designed to sho planners the gap bet een need for funds and capacity of gov#t in terms of access to local or foreign money to restore goods that ere affected o cost of impact measured by financial cost divided by economic resilience of gov#t measured by funds gov#t can raise to combat ha.ard greater than 2.@ B insufficient funds > Eocal disasters index o ,ocial and environmental problems at local scale" especially those of poorest group o -dds number of expected deaths" people affected" and losses of people affected from different local areas. > Prevalent vulnerability index o %ndicator of exposure and susceptibility" indicator of socio>economic fragility" indicator of &or lack of( resilience > *isk management index

o %nstitutional organisation" capacity and development to reduce losses o Combines for factors" risk identification" risk reduction" ha.ard education" effectiveness of governance Disasters Definition: Distinguish bet een a ha.ard event and a disaster. Explain hy this distinction is not al ays completely ob8ective. )easuring disasters: Describe the methods used to !uantify the spatial extent and intensity of disasters. Explain the causes and impacts of any one disaster resulting from a natural ha.ard. Explain the causes and impacts of any one recent human>induced ha.ard event or disaster. Examine the ays in hich the intensity and impacts of disasters vary in space and have changed over time. ?a.ard: - threat & hether natural or human( that has the potential to cause loss of life" in8ury" property damage" socio>economic disruption or environmental degradation. Disaster: - ma8or ha.ard event that causes idespread disruption ith significant demographic" economic" and+or environmental losses" and hich the affected community community is unable to deal ith ade!uately ithout outside help. ,tages in a disaster %. Phase 2 Phase 5 %%. Phase ; Phase A Phase 6 Phase : %%%. Phase < Phase = *ecovery and reconstruction Clean>up and Kemergency communitiesL *econstruction and restoration &months" years( Preconditions Everyday life &years" decades" centuries( Premonitory developments & eeks" months" years( The disaster Triggering event or threshold &seconds" hours" days( %mpact and collapse &instant" seconds" days" months( ,econdary and tertiary damage &days" eeks( 7utside emergency aid & eeks" months(

.t o disasters of 5@@= > The ,ichuan earth!uake" China o )ay 5@@= o <.3 richter scale o ,ichuan o :3 @@@ killed" 2= @@@ missing

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o A.= million homeless o )any rivers blocked due to landslides" ;A K!uake lakesL formed o *isk of landslide increased due to summer rains o Praised for s ift rescue ad openness for foreign aid Cyclone $argis" 9urma o 9urmese government received criticism o 7ver 2;A @@@ people killed" 6: @@@ missing o Disaster cost P2@ billion in damage o *efused foreign aid at first

!d"ustments and responses to hazards and disasters *esponses to the risk of ha.ard events: Discuss the usefulness of assessing risk before deciding the strategies of ad8ustment and response to a ha.ard. Describe attempts that have been made to reduce vulnerability by spreading the risk &aid" insurance( and by land>use planning &.oning(. 9efore the event: Describe strategies designed to limit the damage from potential ha.ard events and disasters. ,hort>term" mid>term and long>term responses after the event: Describe the range of responses" at the community "national and international levels" during and after a ha.ard event or disaster. Distinguish bet een rescue" rehabilitation and reconstruction responses. Explain ho these responses are affected by individual and community perceptions. Examine the factors that affected the choice of ad8ustments before" and responses to" actual ha.ard events or disasters. Discuss the importance of re>assessing risk" and re>examining vulnerability" follo ing any ma8or ha.ard event or disaster. .Coping ith ha.ards > Depends on... o Type of ha.ard o *isk of ha.ard o Cost of ha.ard > /ays of managing the conse!uence of a ha.ard o )odifying event via building designs" location" emergency procedures o ,haring costs via insurance or disaster relief .building design > ,ingle story has !uick response to earth!uakes" hile high rises have slo response" ith shock aves increasing higher up > Close together B vibrations may amplify bet een buildings" increasing damage > /eakest part is here elements meet > Elevated roads vulnerable due to many parts > -reas of vulnerability include

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o /eak rocks o Daulted rocks o ,oft soils )any pipelines near areas of high activity are built on rollers so that they may move ith !uake" instead of fracturing

,hort+mid+long term responses after an event > Emergency rescue o %mmediately after" goal is to rescue people o ,earch and rescue teams o ,niffer dogs o Thermal sensors o -fter <5 hours" substantially less survivors Though during ,ichuan" reports of survivors after 5@ days > *ehabilitation+restoration o People making their houses safe again and being able to live there once again > *econstruction % o Can take place if rehabilitation is not possible o Can be long dra n out process" taking up to decades for ma8or construction programs > *econstruction %% o -lso" reduce impacts of future events o ,ystems constructed to reduce impacts of future events 7ption D: The Geography of Dood and ?ealth Term Definition Dood miles - measure of the distance that food travels from its source to the consumer. This can be given either in units of actual distance or of energy consumed during transport. ?-EE ?ealth>ad8usted life expectancy" based on life expectancy at birth but including an ad8ustment for time spent in poor health &due to disease and+or in8ury(. %t is the e!uivalent number of years in full health that a ne born can expect to live" based on current rates of ill health and mortality. Transnational Corporation - firm that o ns or controls productive operations in more than one country through foreign direct investment. Disability 4 ad8usted life years - health measure based on years of

Calorie intake -ccess to safe drinking ater -ccess to health services

KhealthyL life lost by being in poor health or in a state of disability The amount of food &measured in calories( per person per day -ccess to ater that is affordable" at sufficient !uantity and available ithout excessive effort and time Fsually measured in the number of people per doctor or per hospital

Health Qariations in health: Describe the variations in health as reflected by changes in life expectancy at national and global scales since 236@. Explain the patterns and trends in terms of differences in income and lifestyle. )easuring health: Evaluate life expectancy" infant mortality rate &%)*( and child mortality" ?-EE &health>ad8usted life expectancy(" calorie intake" access to safe ater and access to health services as indicators of health. Prevention relative to treatment: Discuss the geographic factors that determine the relative emphasis placed by policy>makers" in one country or region" on prevention as opposed to treatment of disease. .%)* > > has large range throughout orld" from 5Ho in %celand to over 26@Ho in -ngola" -fghanistan" ,ierra Eeone ,trong correlation ith ?D% and %)* o ?igh ?D% B lo %)* and vice versa

.life expectancy > Qaries from =@ in rich countries to under A@ in Jambia" Jimbab e" -ngola" , a.iland o *eason for lo EE in sub>,aharan -frica due to -%D,+?%Q > )any countries expect to see rise over time ith better food supply" clean ater" ade!uate housing o ,ome countries say decrease bet een 23<@ 4 5@@6" such as Jambia" &6@ 4 ;3( Jimbab e &66 > A@( possibly due to onset of -%D, o %n contrast 9urma" )yanmar" one of poorest -sian country sa rise from 6; to over :@ Disability 4 ad8usted life years > D-EWs for outdoor air pollution sho high levels in countries such as -ngola" Turkey" Eibya" *omania

> > >

Eo in countries such as ,outh -frica" -ustralia" Canada" F,)ay be due to population density and level of development -lso" type of economy" fuels burnt

.Calorie intake > Qaries from 26@@ calories+day in -fghanistan and Eritrea to highs of t ice that in )EDCs. > Eargest in F,- &;<<A( Portugal &;<A@( Greece &;<52( > $e ly industriali.ing countries such as China and %ndia have rising .access to safe drinking ater > Drom 2@@H to 55H > =;H globally > 66H in sub>,aharan -frica > Eo for parts of east -sia .access to health service > 2doctor+2@@ @@@ to 2doc+6@ @@@ to 2+5=@ > China 4 2+:2@ > %ndia 4 2+23:@ > -lso" facilities available affects access .?ealth ad8usted life expectancy > Combines age+sex specific health data and mortality data into single stat > )easure number of expected years of life e!uivalent to years lived in full health" based on average experience in a population > -s education increases" gap bet een ?-EE and EE decreases > Gap referred as burden of ill health > Wears of life eighted by health status > ,urvey in Canada &233A>6( o 9urden of %? higher for omen o ?ighest among early elderly" not very elderly o ,ensory problems and pain comprise the largest components of the burden of ill health o ?igher socio status B lo er burden of ill health > Calculating... o Eife expectancy" ,ullivan#s method &number of remaining years" at a certain age" hich an individual can expect to live in a healthy state( /eight assigned to different disabilities > Problems include lack of data from EEDCs. Variations in health .changes in life expectancy > Global EE rose from A: to :: from 236@ 4 66 to 2336 4 5@@@ o 9ut in many s.s. -frican countries" EE falling due to -%D,

> >

*easons for increase in EE include greater food production" greater availability of clean ater" better living conditions" and better healthcare especially for young and old. ?ides large scale geographic &spatial( variations ithin countries o 9ra.il" death rates much higher in shanty to ns than better>!uality environments o *icher south>east region of bra.il live longer than poorer north>east o *acial differences %)* for blacks higher than hites in -frica" differences are decreasing

.epidemiological model > %nfectious+contagious &epidemics( to diseases gradual orsening in health &degenerative disease( o Epidemiological transition > EEDCs: infectious ie" respiratory diseases" measles" and gastro>enteritis &diarrhoea and vomiting( > )EDCs: more deaths+illnesses dues to heart attacks" strokes" cancers" not infectious or communicable. o Exception 4 rise of -%D, in )EDCs #revention relative to treatment > Type of care available varies > Preventative o Preventing illnesses from developing > Curative o Curing symptoms after they have developed > Primary health care o Combines both o ,creening for diabetes" pap smears for cervical cancer" sputum cytology for tuberculosis" mass inoculations for diseases such as polio and hepatitis 9 are cheap" save millions of lives in EEDCs o P66 billion per year for next 5@ years to provide all primary health care for orld > ,outh -frica o =H or more of G$% is spent on national health system Public and private sectors o :@H in private sectors Cares for 5@H of population o =@H relies on public" hich receives A@H total expenditures on health > Prevention is a good ay to reduce the burden of disease and improve the !uality of life o %mpoverished people likely to experience delays in receiving appropriate treatment or lack access to ater and sanitation ithin their d elling.

> ,ee page A25>A2< for china case study $ood Global availability of food: %dentify global patterns of calorie intake as one measure of food availability. Distinguish bet een malnutrition" temporary hunger" chronic hunger and famine. Discuss the concept of food security. -reas of food sufficiency and deficiency: Explain ho changes in agricultural systems" scientific and technological innovations" the expansion of the area under agriculture and the gro th of agribusiness have increased the availability of food in some areas" starting ith the Green *evolution and continuing since. Examine the environmental" demographic" political" social and economic factors that have caused areas of food deficiency and food insecurity. Case study: Examine the variety of causes responsible for a recent famine. Production and markets: Examine the impacts at a variety of scales of trade barriers" agricultural subsidies" bilateral and multilateral agreements" and transnational corporations &T$Cs( on the production and availability of food. -ddressing imbalances: Evaluate the relative importance of food aid" free trade and fair trade in alleviating food shortages. ,ustainable agriculture Examine the concept of sustainable agriculture in terms of energy efficiency ratios and sustainable yields. Examine the concept of food miles as an indicator of environmental impact. .global availability of food > F,-" estern europe" ;6@@ calories+day > ,.,. -frica" )ongolia" -fghanistan" under 5@@@ calories+day > higher &;@@@( in Europe " north -merica" -ustralia" northern -frica" china > lo er &5@@@ 4 56@@( sahel" south asia" parts of southern -frica > mos of south -merica" eastern Europe" south>east asia &56@@ 4 ;@@@( .types of food shortage > malnutrition o diet that is lacking &or has too much( in !uantity or !uality of foods > deficiency disease o lack of specific vitamins or minerals > k ashiorkor o lack of protein in the diet > marasmus o lack of calories+energy in diet > obesity o too much energy+protein foods > starvation o limited+non>existent intake of food

> >

temporary hunger o short term decline in availability of food to a population in an area famine o a long term decline in the availability of food in a region

.food security > Kfood security exists hen all people" at all times" have access to sufficient" safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy lifeL &Dood and agriculture organi.ation( > Kfood security for a household means access by all members at all times to enough food for an active healthy life. Dood security includes at a minimum &i( the ready availability of nutritionally ade!uate acceptable foods in socially acceptable ays &that is" ithout resorting to emergency food supplies" scavenging " stealing" or other coping strategies(L &united states department of agriculture( > D-D and DED o Dood availability deficit *eports on climate and its effect on food supplies and on problems of transport" storage and relief organi.ations Dood deficiencies ere caused by local shortages due to physical factors o Dood entitlement deficit )ore recently" observed &by ,en" 23=2( that not all food shortages caused hunger" and that hunger as present in areas of food production &or even increasing food production( %e" %ndia" Ethiopia" ,udan Therefore" D-D could not explain such occurrences 9ecame clear that link bet een poverty" distribution of resources and hunger %mportant to note political and economic systems in hich good is produced" distributed" consumed %e" access to food and conditions that alter such access %mportant to consider both physical and social conditions to assess malnutrition+hunger !reas o% %ood su%%iciency .increasing food output > Genetically engineered high yielding varieties &?WQs( o %ndia feeds t ice as many people as -frica on 8ust 2;H of land > Dertili.ers" pesticides" herbicides o Dertili.ers used in -frica is less than 2@H of that used in China > %rrigation o $orth ,inai development canal from river nile delta to ,inai peninsula irrigates :5 @@@km5 of desert

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9iotechnology o Capacity to create another green revolution o *esearch carried out by large scale companies &agribusiness( in )EDCs Concerned about )EDC markets T o mechanisms that affect agriculture o )arkets and ?uman productivity %ncrease output hen guaranteed prices and markets %n order to increase production" necessary to pay farmers $ecessary in EEDCs here industriali.ation has increased hile agriculture has remained stagnant To keep educated skilled orkers in rural areas" increased pay and orking conditions needed 7ther ise" out migration results in reduction in lands ability to feed population.

>

.The green revolution > -pplication of science and tech to increase food production o %e" genetic engineering crops+animals o )echani.ation o Pesticides o ?erbicides o Chemical fertili.ers o %rrigation ater > ?WQs o Dlagship of G.*. o During 23:<>:=" %ndia adopted )exican *ice %*= ,hort stalk " larger head" t ice as much grain yield $eed more amounts of ater and nitrogen 66H of %ndian crops are ?WQs =6H of crops from Philippines are ?WQs 2;H in Thailand > Population gro th exceeding food production > Conse!uences of green revolution o $ot all farmers can afford ?WQs o Cost increase B indebtedness o *ural unemployment increased due to mechani.ation o %rrigation salini.ation &5@H of pakistans and 56H of central -sia#s irrigated land is affect( o ,oil fertility declining as ?WQs use more nutrients o EEDCs dependent on )EDCs for input

!reas o% %ood de%iciency /hy are there food shortages > %ncreasing oil costs in 5@@< increasing costs of food production o Dertili.er increased by <@H o Duel by ;@H o Pesticides increased o Eabour costs increased o Transportation costs increased > Demand rising as population gro th occurs o China and %ndia using increasing affluence t buy more meat" eggs and dairy products ;@H of orlds grain go to feeding animals" rather than feeding people 7ne ha of land 2:3kg of protein via grain+or 5Akg of protein via beef > Droughts o Grain gro th at historic lo > Cyclone $argis and other cyclones caused decrease in grains in orld market > 9iofuels competing ith food for arable land ith both F,- and EF mandating their use o ;@H of F,- corn crop biofuels in 5@@= > Chronic lack in investment for agriculture o 5@H of foreign aid spent on agriculture &23=:( o ;H in 5@@: o -frican governments spend less than 6H on rural areas ith 5+; poorest population > Dumping of crops in estern orld and market orientated orld bank structural ad8ustment policies in 23=@s+233@s that closed do n government marketing boards designed to keep prices stable > Darm subsidies in est more competitive in est than those produced in EEDCs o Darm support schemes cost EEDC families P2@@ billion a year in lost income > ,peculative trading in agricultural commodities has gro n dramatically o 9anks launched agricultural commodity index funds " looking to make profit during 5@@<+= credit crunch o *esulting in fluctuations in market prices not related to supply and demand o P2@>26billion invested into agricultural commodities in 5@@A o $o more than P26@ billion /all street investment funds o n A@H of F, heat futures" more than 5@H of F, corn futures > Climate change o ,ome areas become drier+ ater shortages

o Extreme eather o ?alf of arable land may not be usable by 5@6@ 9y then" population expected to be at 3 billion $ood production and markets .many political factors that affect agriculture > Trade barriers" agricultural subsidies" bilateral and multilateral agreements" large farming companies or agribusinesses" often part of T$Cs .trading blocs and farm subsidies > Common agricultural policy o Guaranteed prices for unlimited production o Encouraged max production o Provided guaranteed market o %mport levies and export subsidies made EF products more competitive on orld market .free trade > -llo s competitive trade o $o restrictions on exports+imports > Protectionism o %n contrast" creates restrictions o 9arriers to imports and exports > -dvantages of free trade o -llo s speciali.ation" countries can concentrate on comparative advantages o Cheaper goods and services than if they ere created in>country o Goods available year round o %ncrease competition efficiency" reduce aste .trade barriers > %mprove trade balance > Protect ne home industries from old" established foreign firms > *educe imports > %ncrease self sufficiency > )aintain employment levels .multilateral arrangements > Countries agree to import goods from a number of other countries o 23<6 Eome &trade( convention gave preferential access to -CP &-frican" Caribbean" Pacific nations( farmers o F,- firms did not like links bet een EF and Caribbean" anted free trade to access EF markets themselves o ,mallholders gro ers our of Dominica" Grenada" ,t Eucia" and ,t Qincent supply up to ::H of bananas consumed by FG

$ot much to Europe as a hole ho ever Governments say cannont compete ith T$Cs in central -merica There is multiplier effect Eess banana trade ith Caribbean means less trade ith other fruits" as trade boats contain more than 8ust bananas o F, T$Cs expanded production in mid 3@s" expecting open European markets" but they still favoured -CP" thus profit decreased -s a result of this protectionism" F,- imposed tariffs+sanctions on 2< items of goods imported from Europe. .bilateral arrangements > Consumer+producer arrangement > 5@@<" british supermarket chain ,ainsbury agreed ith ,t Eucia that it ill sell fairly traded bananas" of hich" near 2@@ million from ,t Eucia. !lleviating %ood shortages .,hort term > %ncrease production > reduction in set>aside o ?igh prices encourage high production o EF abandoned compulsory programme to set aside land o *ussia" Fkraine" Ga.akhstan have increased production o -ustralia has recovered ell o 9ut high heat production in 5@@= brought prices do n" not good for long term > Dood aid o /orld food programme raised P<66 million in 5@@= to maintain emergency feeding programmes ,audi -rabia donated P6@@ million -ble to send food to victims of cyclone $argis" victims of civil conflicts in ,udan" and Georgia 7nly reached =@ million people <@@ million still chronically hungry around orld > ,eeds and fertili.er o *ural poor need help planting seasonal crops o )any have eaten next seasons seeds to survive o Dertili.er prices increased > Export bans o Drive prices higher" increase market variability .medium term > Dree trade o Trade liberali.ation. Eo ering farm subsidies in F,- and undoing protectionism of EF#s common agricultural policy should help poor

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o Could raise food prices in developing orld" as producers focus on estern markets 9iofuels o 9acklash on plant derived fuels o A@H of F, corn being used for producing ethanol

.long term > -gricultural investment o -frica needs help" can increase by fourfold 7nly AH irrigated -verage farmer uses Akg of fertili.er+yr 2+; crops lost after harvest due to time lag in getting crops to market > G) crops o not expected to be radical change o devoted for rich countries at the moment > sustainability o cannot feed orld if emerging countries like China" %ndia" and other countries ish to eat like /est o must rethink estern style and expectations .fair trade > trade that attempts to be socially" economically" and environmentally responsible o companies take responsibility of ider impact of business > ethical trading attempts to address failings of global trading system .$utmeg > > > > > > > > > > %ndonesia 4 orld#s largest nutmeg producer &<6H production( Goes to F,Grenada in Caribbean produces rest %n 23=<" %ndonesia and Grenada agreed to fixed export volumes and prices" at P<@@@ per tone 233@" %ndonesia restructured economy" free trade farming %ndonesia broke agreement" flooded market Prices dropped P5@@@ F, importers able to play off t o countries" keeping prices lo ,urplus stock burned to keep prices up Grenada#s rural areas no depressed" out migration of younger people causing more problems

&ustaina'le agriculture .Photosynthetic efficiency > %ncrease productivity by applying energy subsidies &remove competitors" apply nutrients" add+take ater" etc(

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7nly sustainable if sympathetic to local ecology 7nly in exceptional cases do crop efficiencies exceed 5H > comparable to temperate forest.

.Energy efficiency ratios > )easures amount of energy input into system compared ith outputs o Traditional agroforestry system" inputs lo but outputs high from hunting+gathering o %nputs in intensive pastoral farming or greenhouse cultivation may be very great" but returns may be lo . .sustainable yield > -mount of food that can be taken from land ithout reducing its ability to produce the same amount of goods in the future" ithout any additional inputs o Eg" if palm oil gro th decreases soil nutrients or moisture" not sustainable o Eg" if farming leads to salini.ation or nitrates in streams" not sustainable .food miles > *efers to the distance that food travels from here it is produced to here it is consumed. > %ndicates environmental impact of the food > Dood transport B ;;>A@H of FG road freight o Thus" dependent on crude oil o Dood supplies are vulnerable" inefficient and unsustainable . astefulness of a Christmas dinner > %ngredients may have traveled 5A @@@ miles in total > 9uying from Eondon supermarket... o Poultry from Thailand &2< @@@km( o *unner beans from Jambia &= @@@km( o Carrots from ,pain &2 :@@km( o )angetout from Jimbab e &= @@@km( o Potatoes from %taly &5 A@@km( sprouts from 9ritain &5@@km( o Plus other transport from storage to store etc" total ;= @@@km" traveling around orld once. Disease Global patterns of disease: Explain the global distribution of diseases of affluence. Explain the global distribution of diseases of poverty. The spread of disease: Explain ho the geographic concepts of diffusion by relocation and by expansion apply to the spread of diseases. Examine the application of the concept

of barriers in attempts to limit the spread of diseases. Describe the factors that have enabled reduction in incidence of a disease. Geographic factors and impacts: Examine the geographic factors responsible for the incidence and spread of t(o diseases. Evaluate the geographic impact of these t o diseases at the local" national and international scales. Evaluate the management strategies that have been applied in any one country or region for one of these diseases. )lo'al patterns o% Disease .disease" poverty and ealth > 2+6 of orld in extreme poverty &/?7( > 2+; of kids are undernourished > N global population does not have access to essential drugs > 7f 62 million deaths each year in 233@s" ;5H from infectious and parasitic diseases &diarrhoea" dysentery" pneumonia" respiratory infections" tuberculosis" malaria" measles( o People of rich countries are immune to most of above > )EDCs have degenerative disease" ie" strokes" cancers" heart disease > %nfectious degenerative B epidemiological transition > Degenerative disease becoming more common in EEDCs o Tobacco deaths rise from Amillion+yr in 2333 to 2@million in 5@;@" <@H in EEDCs o N affect mid age people" depriving 5@>56 years of life > )ental illnesses" though rare" are one of largest causes of disability in orld > Depression B Ath largest cause of disability > -lcoholism in males causing problem in rich countries > %n8uries are high" rising cause of death+disability &pread o% disease .disease diffusion > ,pread into ne locations > Distance decay o Closer to source" more intense the affect > ?agerstrand proposed A main patterns o Expansion diffusion Expands from source out ards to ne areas o Contagious diffusion ,pread via direct contact bet een individuals o ?ierarchal diffusion ,pread through ordered se!uence of classes or places Drom cities to large urban areas to small urban areas o *elocation diffusion

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Diseases move to ne areas leaving behind origin or source %nfected person moves to ne location 7ther diffusions include... o $et ork diffusion Disease spread via transportation+social net orks ?%Q in southern -frica via transport routes o )ixed diffusion Combination of contagious and hierarchal

./est $ile Qirus > 9lood of feverish oman in Fganda#s est nile district in 23;< > )os!uito born > ,pread to F, from asia+-frica in 2333 > %n ; years" = killed" 2;6 non fatal cases > ,pread to much of country" considered endemic > Causes vomiting" diarrhoea" fever" confusion" muscle eakness" paralysis" death > ,train that reached $W in 2333 thought to have come from )id east or -frica by bug+human o Then transmitted via local mos!uitoes o %nfected ild birds reservoir for disease o N of birds north east of $W borough of !ueens infected > )edia fren.y" hile only :5+2@million hospitali.ed o < died > Eess that 2H of mos!uitoes in area infected > 3@H of people that came in contact ill not have faced symptoms > 7ther 2@H ere old" chronically ill" ?%Q positive o Dlu like symptoms ith 2+5@@ ith fatal complication of encephalitis &causes brain s elling( )eographic %actors and impacts: Malaria .background > Gills up to ;million annually mostly in ,, -frica > 6@@ million more suffer > %n many tropical countries > Costs P2.2billion+year > )ovement of people causing larger area of affect o $ot immune to disease o )os!uitoes spreading into areas previously free of insect o -gricultural schemes are expanding o %ncreasing irrigation schemes o %nternational travel and trade are increasing" no vaccine > %n south Tan.ania" up to =@H of children infected by : months > AH of children under age 6 die due to malaria

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Pregnant omen" travellers" refugees especially vulnerable Deaths" concentrated among -frican children" could be halved to 6@@ @@@ ith spending another P:@@ million+year on preventative and treatment measures Conditions for malaria include... o ,tagnant ater for mos!uito breeding o Temperatures of greater that 2:C o Temperatures belo ;5C

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,ymptoms o Dever o , eating o -naemia o ,pleen enlargement o Death

.malaria and treatment > DDT used to combat mos!uitoes in 9eli.e" 9ra.il" Ecuador" Ethiopia" %ndia" Genya" Thailand > Causes cancer" dangerous due to bioaccumulation o Disuse can cause increase in malaria > 9eli.e" malaria nearly non>existent o DDT stopped in 2335 o Caused loss of control o 2@ @@@+5@@ @@@ population reported malaria cases o 7ther factors like human movement due to political unrest" but similar events occurred in 9ra.il and Ecuador. > Fse of DDT different than in agriculture o %n order to cover homes across Guyana &526 @@@km5(" no more DDT than used to spray Akm5 of cotton during one gro ing season ould be used. o -lso" confined indoors > 9an on DDT" ho ever" may lead to development of less risky anti mos!uito borne disease methods > Possible replacement: organophosphates o -cutely toxic o Does not last as long )ore fre!uent applications thus more expensive o Eess effective than DDT as insecticide > )os!uitoes can develop resistances to other non DDT choices > 7ther methods o 9ed nets o )anaging ater ays

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o Predatory fish o 9acteria $ot practical

)eographic %actors and impacts: !*D& .background > -ffects income" gro th" poverty > -nnual per capita gro th in N of ,, -frican countries falling by @.6>2+5H due to -%D, > 9y 5@@=" GDP of some countries drop by =H" 5@H by 5@5@ > Companies face higher costs in training" insurance" benefits" absenteeism" illness > X households in 9ots ana" here adult ?%Q prevalence is over ;6H" expect to lose income earner in 2@ years o *apid increase in very poor > %n ,, -frica" O living on less that P5+day o Eess access to health+social care > ?ouseholds ith ?%Q+-%D, patient spend 5@ times more on healthcare annually > < million farm orkers died due to -%D, since 23=6 &D-7(" 2: million more by 5@5@ o Decrease in agricultural output o 5@H of rural families in 9urkina Daso ill have reduced agricultural ork" or abandon it due to -%D, 26H of time" children removed from schools to support ill family members and gain lost income > Girls are taken out of schools to give care to ill o , a.iland" enrolment dropped ;:H due to -%D," especially girls .Development and stability threatened > Teachers" docs" extension orkers and other human resources being lost to -%D, o %n one year" =:@ @@@ children lost teachers to -%D, in ,, -frica .coping ith crisis > ,teep drops in EE beginning to occur o Esp in ,, -frica" &9ots ana" )ala i" )o.ambi!ue" , a.iland have EE belo A@( o %ncreased number of children ith ?%Q+-%D, increase C)* 9ahamas" :@H of child death before age of 6 due to -%D, Jimbab e" <@H .ho to fight the virus

,enegal > > > Fganda >

Condom use in brothels since 23<@s encouraged 9lood supply screened early and effectively Education" 36H of adults kne ho to avoid virus President Wo eri )useveni recogni.ed threat shortly after becoming president in 23=: o %mplemented anti -%D, arnings o Every government department took it seriously" implemented o n plans to fight virus o Gave free rein to non>government organi.ations to do hatever it took to educate about risky sex o Fgandans delayed sexual activity" fe er partners" used condoms