Economic Geology Lec. No.

1 & 2 Introduction to Economic Geology

Topics Introduction and aims! ! What is economic geology? ! Brief history of Economic geology ! A simple classification scheme for mineral deposits ! Magmatic Ore Deposits ! What make a viable mineral deposit? ! Terminology ! Some relevant compilations: [Periodic table of the elements, Table of the main ore and gangue minerals]

Introduction and Objectives:

Given the unprecedented growth of human population over the past century, as well as the related increase in demand for and production of natural resource, it is evident that understanding the nature, origin, and distribution of the world's mineral deposits remains a strategic topic. The discipline of economic geology which covers all aspects pertaining to description and understanding of mineral resource is therefore, one which traditionally has been and should remain a core component of the University earth science curriculum. This lecture intended to provide a comprehensive glossary term used in economic geology and brief history of economic geology as well as classification scheme for ore deposits.

What is economic geology? Economic geology involves the study of mineral resources and their geological environments. You will learn about the geological processes that lead to the formation of ore deposits, and how we explore for new deposits using geochemistry and geophysics. Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and/or industrial purposes. These materials include 1- precious and base metals,2- nonmetallic minerals, constructiongrade stone,3- petroleum, coal, and 4- water. The term commonly refers to metallic mineral deposits and mineral resources.

Brief history of Economic geology

These Ages refer to different periods in human cultural development

A classification scheme for ore deposits There are many different way of categorizing ore deposits, and the best classification schemes are probably those that remain as independent of genetic linkage as possible these are: Igneous, Metamorphic, and Sedimentary ore deposits (Fig 1, a, b) Einaudi, (2000), stated that all mineral deposits can be classified into three types based on process, namely magmatic deposits, hydrothermal deposits, and surfacial deposits formed by surface and groundwater.

Fig 1 classification of the principle rock types (a) and an analogous, but much simplified, classification of ore deposit types (b) photograph show interplay between ore forming processes

Magmatic Ore Deposits Magmatic ore deposits are those which are formed during crystallization of a magma, deep underground. The host rock for the mineralization can range from ultramafic to felsic. The deposit can consist of massive ores in some cases, and disseminations of rare minerals in others. In the case of more massive ores, there are three primary means of concentrating minerals of value during the formation of these deposits (Fig. 3.38): gravitational settling differentiation immiscible separations

immiscible separations

Oil and water dont mix

 As magmas cool, they can split into two liquids of different composition and density.
One of these liquids is the silica-rich melt. It has the most volume The other, typically much smaller in volume, can be rich in metal oxides, sulfides or carbonates.

High T

Low T

Desirable element

preferentially concentrated into low-volume melt

 Types of Immiscible Melts Oxide melts can be rich in Fe (Fe2O3, hematite) and Ti (FeTiO3, ilmanite). Sulfide melts can be rich in Ni, Cu, and the platinumgroup elements, in addition to iron sulfur (FeS, pyrrhotite). Carbonate melts can be rich in niobium, tantalum, rare earths, copper, thorium, and phosphorous.

What make a viable mineral deposit?

Table 1 average crustal abundance for selected metal and typical concentration factors that need to be achieved in order to produce a viable ore deposits (From Evan, A.M, 1993) Note: 1 ppm is the same as 1 gt -1
Elements Average Crutal abundance Typical exploitable grade or \
(Av.minimum exploitable grade)

Approximate concentration factor *4 * 10 * 180 * 130 * 700 * 2500 * 1250 * 1000

Al Fe Cu Ni Zn Sn Au Pt

8.20% 5.60% 55 ppm 75 ppm 70 ppm 2 ppm 4 ppb 5 ppb

30 % 50 % 1% 1% 5% 0.5 % 5 gt -1 5 gt -1

Terminology: Ore: any naturally occurring material from which a mineral or aggregate of value can be extracted at profit.
To be ore must be , 1-Payable, 2- Involve economic consideration, 3- involving geologic consideration. Economic Consideration: Mineral exploration Economic evaluation Mine development Mine extraction Ore dressing Smelting Refining Marketing Power supplies 10-Eqipments cost 11-water supplies 12-Transport metal cost

Gangue minerals: Usually worthless, non metallic minerals of a deposit that may be: Introduced minerals, b- The inclosing rocks c- are discarded in the treatment of the ore Economic minerals: Are natural resources which, once extracted and used, are not renewable. Grade: The concentration of an element in a mineral deposit is termed grade usually expressed as % or in ppm Cut-off grade: The lowest percentage at which deposits can be economically worked is termed cut-off grade. Tenor: The grade or amount of commodity actually present

Factors controlling cut-off grade limit:

A-Geological factor, B-Geochemical factors, C-Other factors The point B and C depend on the following factors: 1-By product 2-Undesirable substance 3-Mineralogical form 4-Grain size and shape 5-Size and shape of ore body 6-Mineral characters The other factors controlling the classification of Cut-off grade are: 1-Commodity price 2-Cost of capital 3-Location 4-Environmental consideration 5-Taxation 6-Political factors

Syngenetic: refers to ore deposits that form at the same time as their host rocks. Epigenetic: refers to ore deposits that form after their host rocks. Hypogene: refers to mineralization caused by ascending hydrothermal solution. Supergene: refers to mineralization caused by descending solutions. Generally refers to the enrichment process accompanying the weathering and oxidation of sulfide and oxide ores at or near the surface. Metallogeny: the study of genesis of mineral deposits, with emphasis on their relationship in space and time to geological features of the Earths crust. Metallotect: any geological, tectonic, lithological, or geochemical feature that has played a role in the concentration of one or more elements in the Earths crust.

Metallogeneic Epoch: a unit of geologic time favorable for deposition of ores or characterized by a particular assemblage of deposit types. Metallogenic Province: a region characterized by a particular assemblage of mineral deposit type. Epithermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at shallow depth (less than 1500 m) and fairly low temperature (50-200 !C) Mesothermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at intermediate depth (1500 4500 m) and temperature 200 - 400!C) Hypothermal: hydrothermal ore deposits formed at substantial depth (grater than 4500 m) and elevated temperature (400-600 !C)

Periodic table of the elements:

Fig 2 Periodic table showing the 92 geologically relevant elements classified on the basis of their rock and mineral associations ( From Robb, 2005)

Common Ore and Gangue mineral

1- Native element

Metals Gold - Au Silver - Ag Platinum - Pt Palladium - Pd Copper - Cu

Non-Metals Sulfur S Diamond C Graphite - C

2- Halides Halite NaCl Sylvite Kcl Chloragyrite AgCl Fluorite - CaF2 Atacmite Cu2 Cl(OH)3

3- Sulfide and Sulfo-salts Sulfide Chlcocite Cu2S Bornite Cu5FeS4 Galena PbS Sphalerite ZnS Chlcopyrite CuFeS2 Phrhotite Fe 1-x S Pentlandite (Fe,Ni) 9 S8 Millerite NiS Covellite - CuS Cinnabar HgS Pyrite FeS2

Sulfo-salt Tetrahedrite (Cu,Ag)12 Sb4 S13 Tennanite (Cu,Ag) 12 As4 S13 Energite Cu3 AsS4

4- Oxides: Oxides Cuprite- Cu2O Hematite Fe2O3 Illminite FeTiO3 Hercynite FeAl2O4 Gahnite ZnAl2O4 Magnetite Fe3O4 Chromite FeCr2O4 Rutile TiO2 Anatase TiO2 Pyrlucite MnO2 Casseterite SnO2 Uraninite UO2 Thorianite ThO2 Hydroxide (or Oxyhydroxide) Geothite FeO(OH) Gibbsite Al(OH)3 Boehemite MnO(OH)

5-Oxy-Salts
Carbonates
Calcite CaCo3 Dolomite CaMg(CO3 Ankerite CaFe(CO3)2

Tungestates
Scheelite CaWO4 Wolformite (Fe,Mn)WO4

Salfates
Barytes BaSO4 Anhydrite CaSO4 Alunite KAl3(OH)6 (SO4)2 Gypsum CASO4.2H2O Epsomite MgSO4.7H2O

Phosphates
Xenotime YPO4 Monazite (Ce,La,Th)PO4 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)

Vanadates
Carnotite K2(UO2)(VO4)2.3H2O

Siderite FeCO3 Rhodochrosite MnCO3 Simthonite ZnCo3 Cerussite PbCO3 Azurite Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2 Malachite Cu2(OH)2 CO3

6- Silicate
Tekto (Framework) Neso (Ortho) Cyclo (Ring) Beryl Soro (Di) Phyllo(Sheet) Ino (Chain) Unknown structure

Ouartz

Zircon

Lawsonite

Kaolinite, Montmorilionite, Illite,Talc

Tremolite

Chrysocolla

Albite,Orthoclase

Garnet, Sillimanite

Tourmaline

Epidote

Biotite, Chlorite

Spodumene, Wollastonite

References: ! Evans, A.M., 1993, Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals An Introduction, Third Edition, Blackwell Publishing, PP.84-95 ! Jensen, M. L and Batman, A. M., 1979, Economic mineral deposits 3rd edition, New York, 593p. ! Robb, L., Introduction to ore-forming process, (2005) Blackwell Publishing, 373p.

End of the Lecture

Good Luck Instructor Dr. Tola A. Mirza Assistant Professor tola.merza@univsul.net