AN OVERVIEW OF TECHNICAL CHALLENGES IN THE DESIGN OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

Nisha Das and Marian K. Kazimierczuk Wright State University

Abstract: This paper presents approximate equations that may be used to obtain the lower cutoff frequency fL and higher cutoff frequency f,, and thereby the bandwidth of a current transformer. The equations are validated by a PSpice simulation. The Bode plots for both low-frequency range and high-frequency range for a selected design are presented. Also an overview of the various problems that should be considered while designing a current transformer is given, including leakage inductance, stray capacitance, ringing, parasitic resonance, saturation, and mechanical clamping.
Key Words: Current Transformer, Band width.
I. INTRODUCTION

presence of distorted loads, current transformers have to measure distorted waveforms. These non-sinusoidal waveforms, along with the significant amount of harmonics, introduce large uncertainties resulting in gross measurement errors or malfunctioning of the devices connected to it. Therefore, one of the most important performance parameters of the current transformer is its bandwidth. Section II describes the construction of a current probe. The principle of operation of the current transformer is given in Section III. The important probe parameters and
The design challenges are given in Sections IV and V. In Section VI, the approximate equations for fL and fH are derived and bode plots for low-frequency range and highfrequency range are shown. The results obtained using the approximate equations are validated using the PSpice and Matlab simulation results in Section VII. In Section VIII, some of the important applications of the current sensing transformers are listed.

Devices for measuring current waveforms or values are called current probes, current transformers, currentmeasuring transformers, and current-monitoring transformers. They are simple, inexpensive, and also provide conductive electrical isolation from the rest of the circuit, especially for high voltage applications. This paper deals with ac current transformers, which are based on magnetic coupling principles. A typical current transformer arrangement is shown in Figure 1.

II. CONSTRUCTION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

Current probes can be classified into dc current probes and ac current probes. The dc current probes are based on Hall effect and the ac current probes are based on the magnetic coupling principle. A typical ac current probe (current transformer) consists of a toroidal ferromagnetic core, on which a copper wire of n turns is wound. This winding is terminated with a low-inductance sense resistor or burden resistor R. Thin-film chip resistors exhibit low inductive and capacitive reactances. The conductor carrying the measured time-varying current acts as the primary of the current transformer. The toroid can be clamped around the current carrying conductor. The winding wound on the toroid acts as the secondary of the current transformer. The probe normally is connected through a 50-Q coaxial cable to a highimpedance oscilloscope to observe the measured current waveform.
For better performance, current transformer cores are desired to have high permeability, high resistivity, low hysteresis and eddy current losses, and wide bandwidth. The most commonly used is MPP (Molybdenum permalloy powder) core whose permeability ranges from 14p to 550p. But the bandwidth reduces as the permeability increases. For example, a current probe may

Figure 1 .Current Probe.

A Current transformer [CT] is desired to have adequate bandwidth so that it can regenerate the measured current apart from the uncertainties caused by the non-sinusoidal waveforms along with the harmonics. A significant amount of literature concentrating on various issues and their solutions is available. Current transformers are usually designed for perfect sinusoidal conditions. But in real networks, owing to the

0-7803-91 45-4/05/$20.002005IEEE

369

have the following construction parameters: the relative permeability of the toroidal ferromagnetic core pr = 200, the toroid mean radius r = 2 cm, the core cross-sectional area A = 4cm2, R = 50 Q, and number of turns, n = 500.
111. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF AC CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

V. CHALLENGES IN THE DESIGN

The technical challenges in designing high-quality current transformers are related to following issues: 1. High magnetizing inductance. 2. Low leakage inductance. 3. Low stray capacitance. 4. Core saturation. 5. Ringing. 6. Parasitic resonance. 7. Dependence of core permittivity $\mu$ on frequency. 8. Extra inductance created by the loop carrying the measured current. 9. Mechanical clamping.

The principle of operation of ac current transformers is based on combination of Ampere's and Faraday's laws [21. According to Ampere's law, the measured current i through the primary conductor produces a circular timevarying magnetic field Hp. The purpose of the ferromagnetic toroidal core is to contain the majority of the magnetic field within it. The magnetic field passes through the secondary winding and, according to Faraday's law, induces a voltage v, across the terminals of the secondary winding. The voltage v, causes the current is through the sense resistor R. The measured current is i=

A. Model

VI. BANDWIDTH

n(v,/R)

(1)

The current probe can be calibrated by passing a known value of current through the primary conductor and measuring the voltage across the sense resistor. The sensitivity of the current probe is expressed by
Sp
=

R
fl n

(V/A).

(2)

For example, if n = 500 and R = 50, then Sp = Rln = 50/500 = 0.I V/A. The current flowing through the sense resistor is much lower than the measured cufrent i.
IV. CURRENT TRANSFORMER PARAMETERS

As already mentioned, most often the current involved will be non-sinusoidal and may contain a wide range of harmonics. In order to reproduce the waveform at the secondary side with a proportional magnitude and same shape as in the primary, the device must have adequate bandwidth. The physical circuit as well as the equivalent circuit of the current transformer are shown in Fig. 2, where L,, is the magnetizing inductance of the secondary winding, R, is the core parallel equivalent resistance, LI is the leakage inductance of the secondary, R, is the secondary winding resistance, R is the burden or sense resistance, and LR is the inductance of the sense resistor.
I-

The major parameters of the current probes are as follows:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

a IR
R

Lower cutoff 3-dB frequencyfL. Upper cutoff 3-dB frequencyfH. Bandwidth BW = fH -fL. Zero phase shift. Rise time tr and fall time tf (describing highfrequency response). 6. Droop (describing the low-frequency response). 7. Sensitivity Sp 8. Accuracy (%), usually 1% of the nominal sensitivity for mid-frequencies. 9. I-t capability (i.e., the ability to withstand core 10. 11. 12. 13.

LR t-2C Sic
T

5.

cK

R,>sP
C

Phy..sica Cici. Fiur 2. Curen Trnsore. (a)...... LI Rs Rtet to th

(c Trnfre Moe wit Curn Source

saturation effects). Maximum peak measured primary current 4p,. Maximum peak secondary current I.sm Insulation breakdown voltage. Operating temperature.

Relete to th Seoday

370

In order to determine the bandwidth, low-frequency and high-frequency equivalent circuits are analyzed separately. The models shown in Figs. 2 (b) and (c) are valid for a wide frequency range, i.e., low-frequency range, mid-frequency range, and high-frequency range. The magnetizing inductance of the secondary winding is given by (3) Lm = (1 pon2A)/27r

so that the current through the sense resistor R is approximately equal to i/n. However, at low-frequencies, the reactance of the magnetizing inductance is comparable to the resistance RL,, = RCII(R + Rs) seen by the magnetizing inductance Lm. As a result more current will flow through Lm as the frequency decreases. Hence, the current transformer behaves like a first-order highpass filter in the low-frequency range. From Fig. 3 (a), the voltage across the sense resistance R is

where A is the core cross-sectional area and I is the core mean length. For the given example with Pr=200, r =2 cm, A =4 cm2, and n = 500,

Lm

=4 Po n2 A)/2tr
= [(4)(I 07)(500)2 (4 x 10-4)]/2it(2)( 1

-2)
(4)

200 mH.

B. Low-frequency Response

RcsLm i RcR + sLm VR R =R-C +R (R+R R sL,n n R + sL," s iR Rr n RC + R + Rs + Rc || (R + Rs5) Lin s iR RC 1 n R +R+R.
c
S

+-

The lower cutoff frequency is determined by the relative values of the transformer secondary winding impedance and its sense resistance. The low-frequency equivalent circuit [6] is shown in Fig. 3 (a).
Rs
(,N~~Litz <3R. gR;~~~~~~~~~ {^gL.w2 I., K [ JI^ '* I
,ai
*
. 4)

iR n

RC RC+R+Rs

S+ OL

(5)

Hence, the transfer function of the current transformer for low-frequencies is given by a transresistance

)I

R() VR
i
0

-R
n

RC + R +RSs +a.L

RC:

(6)
(7)
(8)

where

Rs

and

RD=l Rcll(R+Rs)
=1

Lm =_____= Lm

..C,
--

T
I b7

|RII(R+Rs)
R

Therefore, the lower 3-dB cutoff frequency of the current transformer is given by

Ls~~~~n

Figure 3. Equivalent Circuit for Determining the Lower Cutoff Frequency. (a) Low-frequency Equivalent Circuit.(b) Low-frequency Dead Circuit
This equivalent circuit is derived from the general model shown in Fig. 2 (c) by neglecting the leakage inductance LI, the sense resistor inductance LR, and the stray capacitance CS since L1 and LR present very low reactances and CS presents very high reactance at low frequencies. The reactance of the magnetizing inductance Lm and the core parallel resistance R, must be very large
371

fL

2xT
,

=r

R,

1II(R+Rs)
2/-7,t

(9)

If RC >> R + RS then the transresistance of the current transformer can be approximated by VR = R s .(O ~~~~~~~~(10) R i n S+W i The time constant T can be derived directly from Fig. 3 (b), which is obtained from Fig. 3 (a) by reducing the current source iln to zero.

R(s)=-

For example, with Lm = 200 mH, R = 50 Q, Rs = I Q, and RC = I0 kQ, we obtain

R, (R +Rs) RLDn= -=R R R =50.74Q

21Itn
= RL,n

(11)
Hz.

Let us consider the step response of the current transformer for low frequencies. The step change in the measured current is given by

and

i(t)

Iu

(t),
s

(16)

fL

50.74 3 =40.38 2zx 200 xl 0

(12)

which in the s-domain becomes

Setting s = jw, the transresistance of the current transformer becomes

or

I i(s) =-

(17)

Rm = (R/n)[R/(Rc+R+ Rs)][(l + j(fL/f)]05 (13)

Hence, the voltage across the sense resistor in the sdomain is expressed by

IRm

(R/n)[R/(R,+R+ RS)][( 1 + (fL/f)2]0-5 (14)

R,Rm = arctan(fL/f)

and

(15)

VR(S)=Rtn(S) i(S) n R.+R+RS c s

1' 5+-

(18)

Figs. 4 and 5 shows the Bode plots for the designed current transformer for low frequencies with Lm = 200 mH, RC = 10 kQ, R, = I Q, and R =S50 .
0.0
0.09 0 08
/

which gives the step response in the time domain as

where
VR0)

(19)

007
0.06

--t.D 0 04!
0.03
0 02 0,01 10 10 1

005

R RC I (20) R n Rc + R + R Fig. 6 illustrates the step response of current transformer for low frequencies.
0.1
0.09
11

008

Figure 4. Magnitude Bode Plot for Low Frequencies

f (H zl

10I

10

103

0.07

0.06
**cz 0 05

11

5M

0.041-I
0.09
0 08

0.031
0.021

o 07 0.06
0 05

/
'

0.01
v
0
I

10

II(.ms)

15

20

25

30

0,03

Figure 6. Step Response for Low Frequencies

The step response can be approximated by
.10 10 10

002
0.01
1o

f (Hz)

103

Figure 5. Phase Bode Plot for Low Frequencies

372

VR (t)

VR(01

t
-

for t << X,

(21)

from which

VR (At) = VR ()-AVR

Q VR (O 1--j

Therefore, the voltage across the sense resistor R is given by

= VROV() VR () VR ()T

At

VR
(22)

(Rj||- i,
RC
(25)
;:J+

i
CLjs+

Therefore,

() - r Sag= AVR

vR(O)

=At

J+

(23)
Hence, the transresistance of the current transformer for high frequencies is expressed by

C. High-frequency Response

Unlike the lower cutoff frequency, the higher cutoff frequency is determined by the effects of leakage inductance and stray capacitance. Figure 7 shows the high-frequency equivalent circuit for the current transformer.
rI,-LI

Rtn (S )

VR

RC nCL1 s2+ R \"LI

i 1

A1
1

s+ 1)
CL, TR
)

WW,

-I

1-

nCL, s' + 2ca0s + a02

where

Rc

RC)

(26)

ij

< R.
wC0

---el

'

2X
and

2,r CL, KR
Rc

(27)

Figure 7. High-Frequency Equivalent Circuit

This model is obtained from the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 2 (c) by neglecting Lm, RS, and LR. The reactance of magnetizing inductance Lm is much higher that the resistance core resistance R, at high frequencies. The secondary winding resistance R, is much lower than the reactance of the leakage inductance L,. It is assumed that a high quality sense resistor is used so that its inductance LR is negligibly small. Thus the equivalent circuit of a current transformer resembles a second order low-pass filter.

Li
2

RC

(RC__

(28)

Figs. 8 and 9 shows the Bode plots for the designed current transformer for high frequencies with LI = 10 pH, RC= l0klQ,R=5OQ,andC= lOpF.
U.

0.09 0. 08
---------------

Referring to Fig. 7, the current through the leakage inductance is

i
Li

0--

-~~~~~

0.07

=-

Rc
+ sL, +

_ 0.06
-

0.05

Iv

C|| RI

C
-

0.041
0 03~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~k.

RC({s+
(24)

0.02[
0.01

CL( s+

)S+

J+

106

10

10 f (Hz)

10o-

1t10

Figure 8. Magnitude Bode Plot for High Frequencies

373

and
-20
-40

-60
-80 -100 -120

Hence, the upper 3-dB frequency of the transformer is given by

fH

-140
-1B0

v0

10

f ( z)

10

10e

10

Figure 9. Phase Bode Plot for High Frequencies

For the imaginary poles (; < 1), the upper 3-dB frequencyfHz kf0, where k depends on the value of 4. For the real poles (; >> 1), the denominator of the transresistance Rm can be represented as

For example, for R = 50 , R, = 1O kQ, LI = 1O pH, and C= lOpF,

I -p 27zL,,

s2+

t LI

+__ S+

RC)

CL, R

c+1

= (soiP,Xs+ Hence,

p2)= s2+(iPI +cop2)+WP1p2.

(29)
Rc

and

(38)

Ip2 = 2nTRC =- 2i
fH

Cpl
and

+ p2

+-

(30)

l(59.15 x1o86)2
= 142.25 MHz. (39) Fig. 10 illustrates the step response of current transformer for low frequencies. The rise time tr = 2.62 ps can be observed from the plot.
O.1 0.09

RCI+w,
d)pl )p2
RCL,

RC
(31)
(32)

CL, RCLI
RCL,

if

I CL,
which simplifies

RC

0.08

0071
0.06?
_r ~F0.05

Rc
R

//

~
J
3

p2 2r

p2

27d?C

I R

(35)
current

I
1 2 +
p

fp1

I.

(36)

2RC )

159.15MHz. 2 X =01003 ~ 2ff x10 X10-6

I

(37)

1 0 X10 12 =318.3 MHz x 50 XI

I(9ISX12 61 (318

>>

1.

(33)

0.04?

0031
0021
0.01
0

This inequality is well satisfied in practice. Thus, the frequencies of the real poles can be approximated by
=

IT2}

4 t (iPs)

2;zL

(34)

Figure 10. Step Response for High Frequencies

374

D. Leakage Inductance Even though the toroidal core is designed to contain majority of the magnetic flux, there might be some leakage flux. This leakage flux behaves as an inductor and stores energy [3]. The increase in leakage inductance results in decrease in bandwidth, as the upper cutoff frequency fH is inversely proportional to Ll. Also, the stored energy causes voltage spikes at the leading edge of the voltage waveform or it produces a slope at the leading edge of the current waveform. In most cases, the leakage inductance can be minimized by proper selection of the magnetic core material, increasing the number of turns, and reducing the insulation of the windings. E. Stray Capacitance

H. Saturation

The main purpose of toroidal core is to contain most of the magnetic flux. For a very high current in the primary, the magnetic field intensity Ho produced will be so large that the magnetic field density B reaches its saturation level and will remain the same for further increase in the measured current. Even though Hp is reduced to zero after saturation, B does not become zero resulting in some remnant flux in the core. Thus core saturation results in a higher current value than the original measured current value.

I. Mechanical Clamping
The mechanical clampings, used to clamp the probe around the current carrying conductor, determines the position of the conductor which in turn affects the flux linkage between the primary winding and the secondary winding. Also, the mechanical probe body provides a discontinuity to the magnetic field produced by the current in the primary winding. As the accuracy of the measurement depends on the flux linkage, mechanical clampings play an important role in the accuracy of

Stray capacitance consists of turn-to-turn capacitance, layer-to-layer capacitance, winding-to-winding capacitance, capacitance between winding and the core, and capacitance between outer winding and surrounding circuitry [3]. The effects of stray capacitance include reduced bandwidth, large current wave spikes when operated at high frequency, premature resonance of the transformer, and electrostatic coupling with the surrounding circuits. The stray capacitance can be reduced by reducing the number of turns in the winding or by increasing the winding insulation. Therefore, decrease in stray capacitance results in increase in leakage inductance and vice versa. That is the major trade-off encountered while designing a current transformer.
F. Ringing
At high frequencies, because of the increasing leakage inductance and the stray capacitance, the current transformer may exhibit ringing or roll-off effects. Ringing may be caused by overshoot as well. The effects of ringing may be removed by reducing the bandwidth of the receiver below that of the high-frequency response

current sensing transformers.

VII. VALIDATION
The example design has the following specifications: i = I A, n = 500, Lm = 200 mH, R<. = 10 kQ, LI = 10 pH, RS = 1Q, C = 10 pF, LR = 0.01pH, and R = 50 Q. The frequency responses of the circuit obtained using PSpice simulation as well as Matlab simulation are illustrated in the Fig. 1 1.
I

009 0 Q6

on,7

cutoff frequency.

0.05

G. Parasitic Resonance
The overshoot oscillation causing ringing in the waveforms occurs at a resonant frequency completely dependent on the parasitic components, i.e., the leakage inductance L and the stray capacitance C [3].
1

/
I..
In 10
t

10

10

I,

tO

id'

ItO

Figure 11. Frequency Response of CT using Pspice and Matlab Simulation

375

The approximate values of fL and fH are calculated as given in (12) and (39). The values of fL and fH are also obtained from PSpice and Matlab simulation results. These values as well as the percentage errors obtained as

VIII. APPLICATIONS

Examples of applications of current transformers are as follows:

1. Observing pulse current waveforms and amplitudes.

I1
and
2
are

--

Spicevalue -Approxvalue
Spicevalue and Sic

Spicevalue Matlabvalue
aeieiTbevalu.

2. Current sensors used for current-mode control of PWM dc-dc converters.

Spicevau

given in Table I.

3. Observing transient and steady-state current waveforms of various active and passive components in electronic circuits.
4. Current transients and harmonics in power systems.

T.ABLE I COMPAfRSOnT OF fL MUD f1 V-ALJES OBTAUrEO USnIG APPRoxuIAJ.ATE EQu.knioIs, MATLAB1, AIt' PSPICE

5. Current waveforms of fluorescent lamps. 6. Current waveforms in automobile electronics.

7. Observing the instantaneous power.

5 fH(1',f~ i42.25

fLi.H:)

Apprcox Ma.tlab PSpice El.%) fM%

40.38
40. 7 132.13

40. 7 0.786 0 155. 6 18.S 15. 08

8. Self-oscillatory power inverters to provide negative

The effect of high parasitic inductance LR associated with the sense resistor in the bandwidth is shown in the Fig. 12.
0 1B 0 14

feedback.

IX. CONCLUSIONS

0.12
0.

I'

0.o0
cro

I~~~~~~~~~~~
II

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ / 1I 1. As the magnetizing inductance L.. is increased, the

lower cutoff frequencyfL is decreased.

Approximate expressions for lower cutoff frequency and higher cutoff frequency are derived. The values obtained with approximated equations are validated using the frequency response of the current transformer for wide band range obtained by Matlab and PSpice simulations. The effects of various design parameters in the current transformer frequency response can be concluded as

0041
002

2. As the leakage inductance LI is increased, the upper cutoff frequencyfH is decreased.

_

100

102

l04
I

10'

1010

lHz)

3. As the stray capacitance C is increased, the upper

Figure 12. The Effect of Parasitic Inductance of Sense Resistor in the Bandwidth
From the percentage errors obtained, it can be observed that the approximate equations for fL and fH are quite reliable for all practical purposes. As the value of L_R increases, the peaking of the waveform increases. So, it is desirable to have low inductive sense resistance for better performance.

cutoff frequency fHis decreased.

So, for a broad-band current transformer, magnetizing inductance L4, should be very high and leakage inductance LI and stray capacitance C should be very low. As leakage inductance and stray capacitance are inversely related to each other, that is the major trade-off encountered in the design of a broad band current transformer.

376

REFERENCES
1. A. Wright, Current Transformers, Their Transient and Steady State Performance. London: Chapman and Hall Ltd., 1968. 2. R. Paul, Electromagnetics for Engineers with Applications. New York: John Wiley \& Sons, pp. 186-188. 3. Colonel Wm. T. McLyman, Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, 3rd Ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2004.
4. N. Locci and C. Muscas, "Hysteresis and eddy current compensation in current transformers," IEEE Trans. Power Delivery), vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 154-159, Apr. 2001. 5. G. Cerri, R. De Leo, V. M. Primiani, S. Pennesi, and P. Russo, "Wide band characterization of current probes," IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 616-625, Nov. 2003.

6.

B. V. Cordingley and D. J. Chamund, "Some observations on the performance of modern wideband current transformers in pulse current measurement applications."

Nisha Das received her B.Tech. degree in electrical engineering from Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India and MS degree in electrical engineering from Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, where she is currently pursuing the PhD. Degree. Her areas of research interest are power electronics and magnetics.

Marian K. Kazimierzcuk is a Professor of electrical engineering at Wright State University, Dayton, OH. His areas of research are electronic circuit analysis, highfrequency tuned power amplifiers, and power electronics. He is a Fellow of IEEE and has published more than 230 papers. He is the co-author of the book "Resonant Power Converters," Wiley, 1995. His email address is mkazim@cs.wright.edu.

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