ORIGINAL INVESTIGATIONS

lOURNAL OF APPLIED BIOMECHANtCS, 1993, 9, 15-26 1993 by Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Changes in Sprint Stride Kinematics With Age in Master's Athletes

Nancy Hamilton
A study was undertaken to determine the kinematic nature of the decline in sprint velocity that has been found to occur with aging. Subjects included 162 Master's sprinters ranging in age from 30 to 94 years. Data were collected at a national championship meet and a World Veterans Championships through use of videotape and the Peak Performance Motion Measurement System. From the digitized videotape data, measures of sprint stride velocity, stride length, stride period, support time, swing time, flight time, and hip, knee, and trunk range of motion were calculated. Velocity, stride length, flight time, swing time, and range of motion in the hip and knee all decreased significantly (p<,05) with age, whereas stride period and support time increased. Further, the proportional relationship between the components of the stride was significantly ip<.05) altered. From this it was inferred that as these sprinters aged there was a decreased ability to exert muscle force as well as a decrea.sed ability to move quickly through a full range of lower extremity motion.

Agitig does not have to mean years of physical decline, illness, and confinement. Thousands of senior citizens worldwide have instead chosen to become or to remain highly competitive athletes. Among these athletes, as among all competitors, the quest to improve, to better one's performance, remains a constant. Yet it also remains a fact that as athletes get older, velocities and distances decrease (Heinonen, 1989; Moore, 1975). In other words, regardless of training or practice, performance declines with age. Moore (1975), for example, reported that in the 200-m dash the age group record velocity for 60-year-old male runners reached only 74% of the overall world record velocity. Roberts, Cheung, Hafez, and Bullard (1986) found a similar decrease among middle-distance runners, with velocity differences between 20- to 22-year-old runners and 60- to 65-yearold runners ranging from to 1.6 to 4.4 m/s. Stride length divided by stride period produces the kinematic measure sprint velocity. Any alteration in stride velocity must be a direct result of a change in stride length, stride period, or both. Based on examination of the stride kinematics of older sprinters, a decline in sprint velocity has long been apparent.

The author is with the University of Northem Iowa, 203 West Gymnasium, Cedar Falls. IA 50614-0241.
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The question has remained as to the nature of this decline in velocity. The possible explanations include a decrease in stride length, an increase in stride period, or some combinatioti of both. Once the magnitude of changes in stride length and stride period becomes evident il becomes necessary to examine the relationship between the two in order to understand the mechanism through which stride velocity decline occurs. The preponderance of research on gait and aging has focused primarily on age-based alterations in the walking gait. The majority of these studies have found that with increasing age and inactivity of subjects, the range of motion used in the lower extremity during the walking gait decreases, whereas the relative timing of the gait remains constant (Cunningham. Rechnitzer, Pearce. & Donner, 1982; Himan, Cunningham. Rechnitzer, & Patterson, 1988; Imms & Edholm, 1981; Lundgren-Lindquist, Aniansson, & Rundgren, 1983; Marino, Finch, & Young. 1984; Murray. Gardiner, Mollinger, & Sepic, 1980). The changes in walking gait have been linked variously to height, VO^max, and muscle strength as covariates of age. In the 1986 study of five Master's distance rurmers and three younger runners, Roberts et al. reported a decrease in stride length from a maximum of 4.6 m to 3.08 m (a 1.52-m decrease) in older runners, a decline of as much as 33%. In comparison, stride length for gold medal-winning sprinters in the 1984 Olympics peaked at approximately 4.96 m (reported stride length x 2) (Mann & Herman. 1985). In order to examine stride velocity changes that occur with aging, one must also examine the relative, or proportional, nature of the components of the sprint stride. Shapiro, Zemicke, Gregor, and Diestel (1981) found that the proportional relationships between stride components remained constant when subjects voluntarily altered stride velocity. This held true for voluntary alterations in both the walking and tbe running gaits. TTie purpose of this study was to investigate the nature of the kinematic changes observed in the sprint stride across ages in adult runners. This includes variations in sprint velocity, stride length, and stride period. In addition, the proportional relationships of the support time, swing time, and flight time components of the sprint stride were examined to determine if the stride pattern varies with age. Joint range of motion in the hip and knee and trunk excursion were examined as they related to the alterations that occur in the sprint stride.

Methods
Data collection for this field-based study took place during competition at a Master's track and field national meet and two simultaneously used venues at a World Veterans Championships. Each final, semifinal, and preliminary heat of both the 100-m dash and the 2(K)-m dash from each meet provided videotape data. The data collection procedure utilized a video camera located 40 m before the fmish line at each venue. Cameras were placed 4 m from the inside curb of the track. The field of view varied from 2.7 m of track surface in Lane 1 (not used) to 7.8 m of track in Lane 8, with each lane line marked at 1-m intervals in order to provide scale references.

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Subjects Approximately 800 runners were videotaped; the top runners in each age group were digitized, providing a final subject pool of 162 runners. This subject pool included the fastest one to three clearly visible runners in each final heat and the fastest one to three clearly visible runners in each semifinal and preliminary heat, exclusive of any runners already selected for analysis in any other heat. This process produced a subject pool that included the fastest runners in each age group. The variance in age group sample size reflected the overall differences in participation. The age group and gender breakdowns of the subject pool appear in Table I. Procedures Data collection instrumentation included two Panasonic AG 120 high-speed shutter camcorders with the shutter speeds set at 2(KX) Hz, used simultaneously at separate venues. The Peak Performance Motion Measurement System video interface allowed computer frame splitting to yield an actual frame rate of 60 Hz. Scale reference marks on the track made it possible to calculate scale conversion factor for each lane on each track. Competition conditions and a reluctance to interfere with the athletes precluded joint marking and made il necessary for the researcher to locate joint centers approximately while digitizing to the computer. The landmark points used for digitizing included the toe of each shoe, the heel of each shoe, the lateral malleolus of the near leg and the medial malleolus of the far leg, both knee centers, the near hip joint center (far hip joint center was inferred), the near shoulder center (far shoulder was inferred), both elbows, both wrists, the tips of the third fingers, the crown of the head, and the stemal notch. Filtering of raw digitized data made use of a forward and backward pass Butterworth filter with a cutoff frequency of 6 Hz, cbosen to achieve the best compromise between noise and signal over the wide variance in running harmonics that occurs with a large variance in velocity. Further processing of the filtered
Table 1 Age and Gender of Study Subject Groups Age 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-B9
90+ Male Female
Both

Total

8 16 16 19 13 10 2 83

9 21 17 21 9 2 79

17 37 33 40 22 12 2 162

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data by tbe Peak Performance software yielded tbe time and position data required to calculate the derived variables of stride length, stride period, support time, swing time, and fiight time. Calculating the horizontal displacement of one foot immediately prior to toe-off to tbe next point of contact of that same foot produced the measure of stride length. Calculations of stride period involved multiplying tbe number of frames elapsed between same-side foot contacts (one stride) by the frame time. This method of calculation produced a margin of error of .0167 s, that being the elapsed time of eacb frame. Within a single stride tbe stride pattern involves a period of support (support time) and a pieriod of nonsupport. Support time was identified as the elapsed time from first foot contact to toe-off in tbe same foot. Nonsupport time breaks down into swing time and flight time. Fligbt time occurred from toe-off until opposite foot contact. Flight time includes a portion of the swing time from tbe stride cycle of eacb leg, being that part of the stride wben both feet are clear of the ground. Once the opposite foot has touched the track, flight time ends while swing time continues until first contact of the measured foot, beginning the next stride. Dividing stride length by stride period yielded the average borizontal velocity over the total stride. No attempt was made at tbis point to quantify any instantaneous accelerations that might occur as a result of foot strike or pusboff. In addition, range of motion (ROM) data for the knee, hip, and trunk were gathered (Figure 1). Tbe minimum and maximum measures of relative knee angle and relative bip angle were utilized to produce the total range of motion for those two joints. Tbe total arc of excursion of the trunk provided a measure of trunk ROM.

Data Analysis
A multivariate analysis procedure (MANOVA) produced the F statistic used to determine the presence or absence of a significant difference among age groups

Figure 1 Angle measures: (a) knee angle, (b) hip angle, (c) trunk angle.

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in measures of stride length, stride period, stride velocity, and joint ROM. The MANOVA was used to test these several dependent variables against the single independent variable, age. Variance.s were pooled in this MANOVA to account for the differing N sizes between age groups. Wilks's lambda, Hotelling's trace, and Pillai's trace provided tests of the null hypothesis, acceptable at the p<.0\ level of rejection. The Tukey's post hoc analysis used subsequent to the MANOVA provided a measure of the significance of differences between each possible pair of age groups. Beyond this, multiple regression tests produced statistics intended to clarify the nature of the relationships between stride velocity and both stride length and stride period, and between stride period and the partitioned measures of swing time, support time, and fiight time. The multiple regression technique was also used to examine the relationship between joint ROM and velocity. A probability of p<.05 was required for significance.

Results
Significant differences existed among age groups in measures of stride length, F(6, 151) = 13.24, p<.0\. The change in stride period with age is significant, F{6, 151) = 3.34, /7<.O1, only if the 90-year-old age group is included in the MANOVA. Stride velocity, a function of stride length and stride period, also varies significantly with age, F{6, 151) = 13.02, p<.0\. Data analysis further indicated a relationship between the partitioned elements of the stride and stride period. Means and standard deviations for all performance measures are displayed in Table 2.

Velocity
Velocity decreased significantly, F(6, 151)= 13.02,/7<.O1, from 8.93 m/s in 30to 40-year-old runners to 4.91 m/s in runners over 90. Tukey's post hoc test

Table 2 Stride Parameter Means by Age Group

Age group 60-69 70-79

Parameter

30-39
M SD M SD M 8.93 1.22 4.35 0.50 481 .04 .126 .02 .358 .03 .120 .02

40-49
8.57 0.99 4.06 0.35 -472 .04 .125 .02 .347 .03 .112 .02

50-59

80-89

90+

Velocity (m/s) Stride length (m) Stride period (s) Support time (s) Swing time (s) Air time (s)

SD M SD
M SD

M SD

8.51 1.04 3.98 0.37 .467 .04 .128 .02 .340 .03 .106 .015

7.85 1.12 3.79 0.42 .485 .04 .140 .02 .345 .025 .102 .01

7.03 1.33 3.46 0.58 .500 .03 .158 .03 .341 .03 .089 .02

6.27 1.17 3.10 0.37 .504 .06 .180 .06 .342 .02 .075 .03

4.91 2-84 .578 204 374 .085

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indicates tbat tbis decline in sprint velocity is cumulative, first reaching statistical significance {p<.05) at age 60. Although there were no significant differences in sprint velocity with age from ages 30 through 50. velocity at age 60 (M = 7.85 m/s, SD = 1.12) is significantly less (p<.05) than at age 30 (M = 8.93 m/s, SD = 1.22). Sprint velocity among runners over 70 years of age significantly slows a second time (p<.05). Tbe first sharp drop in sprint velocity occurs slightly later in females than in males. Tbe 70- and 80-year-old female runners were significantly slower than those in any other age group, whereas no significant differences were found among the younger runners in tbe Tukey's post hoc test (Figure 2). Tbese findings contradict tbose reported by Moore (1975), who found that female sprint speed declined more rapidly than that of males, starting at age 45.

Stride Length
Stride lengtb showed a significant relationship to velocity, F{6, 151) = 29, p<.01. The slope of the regression is positive, indicating that velocity decreased with decreased stride length. Because velocity derives, in part, from stride length, such a relationship would be expected. Tbe top 30-year-old runners achieved a mean stride lengtb of 4.35 m, whicb then declined to 2.84 m among 90-year-olds. Tbis decline, although not linear, showed some consistency. Runners tended to lose between .20 and .30 m of stride length per decade of life. The greatest drop in stride length occurred at age 60 (M = 3.79 m, SD ~ .42), with a second significant (p<.05) drop at age 80 (M = 3.10 m, SD = .37). Females again sbow this decrease 2 decades later tban males (Figure 3).

Stride Period
A significant relationship also existed between stride period and velocity, F(6, 15!) = 99.3, p<.0\). Tbe negative slope of this regression indicates that an

Velocity
10-

a c o u v
tn tn 0)

987654 Male Female

20

40

60

60

100

Age
Figure 2 Stride velocity changes with age for both males and females.

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Stride
S-1

Length

n
0)

4-

Male Female 3-

20

40

60

BO

100

Age
Figure 3 Changes in stride length with age Tor both males and females.

increase in stride period correlates with a decrease in stride velocity. No significant relationship existed between stride length and stride period, F(6, 151) = 1.56, /J = .21). The 30-year-old runners produced a mean stride period of 0.48 s, which then increased to 0.58 s in runners over 80. A Tukey's post hoc produced no two age groups significantly different at the p<.05 level when the total subject population was considered. Stride period, then, remains steady until the 90-yearold age group (Figure 4).

Stride Components
Because stride period remains neariy constant until late in the athletic career and stride length decreases steadily over the same period, there must be some changes in the overall pattern of the stride. In fact, there is a significant increase in support time with increasing age among all runners, f(6, 146) = 12.17, p<.0\. The first significant (p<,05) change occurs at age 70 (Figure 3). As in previously mentioned measures, male runners experience declines in performance earlier than do females. A positive relationship existed between support time and stride period, F(\, 162)= 170.96,/j<.01. As stride period increa.sed with age, support time increased. The relative change in support time indicates that the stride pattern changes significantly. F(6, 162) = 15.25,/7<.O1, from approximately 26% support to 36% support with age (Figure 4). Among females this change in stride pattern is even more dramatic, with support time increasing to 45% of the stride by age 80. Swin^ titne, although producing no significant change across age groups, did show a positive relation to stride period, F(l, 162) = 136.83, p<.0]. Only a .05-s difference existed between minimum and maximum swing times. Relatively, however, the percentage of the stride used for free-leg swing-through decreased from 74% to 65%. Female runners presented less actual difference in swing time (total difference = .027 s), but the relative decrea.se of swing time in the stride cycle grew, with swing decreasing to only 55%- of the stride (Figure 5).

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Stride
0,5
0)

Components
Period Support Time

0.4 0.3 0^ 0.1 0.0

20 40 Swing Time

60

80

100

Age
Figure 4 Variation in stride period, air time, support time, and swing time with age. 80-1

60 H

c
0) " Air 40 H Support Swing

a
20H

20

40

60

60

100

Age
Figure 5 Components of the stride as a percentage of the stride pattern. Percentages in each age group lotal more than 100% due to the overlap between air time and swing time.

Flight time, that period in the stride cycle when both feet are off the ground, decreased significantly with age. F(6, 151) = 11.51, p<.Ol, but did not produce a significant relationship to stride period, F(l, 162) = .021, ;7<.0I. From age 30 to 90 the time spent in the flight dropped from .12 s to .085 s, with a slightly larger drop among 80-year-olds {to .075 s). The 60-year-o!ds differed significantly (p<.05) from the 30-year-olds, and 70- and 80-year-old runners differed significantly (p<.05) from all younger groups. Over the span from 30 to 90 years of age, flight time decrea.sed significantly, f(6. 162) = \5A2, p<.0\, from 25% of the stride cycle to 15% of the cycle.

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Joint ROM
There is a significant relationship between aging and ROM in the knee joint, F(l, 162) = 53.14, p = .001. With aging, ROM in the knee decreased from 122 of motion to only 95. Thi.s decrease in knee joint mobility, however, did not have a significant relationship to velocity (p = .0933). Conversely. ROM in the hip joint did not vary significantly with age (p = .097) but was significantly related to velocity, F(l, 162) = 50.46, p = .001. Trunk ROM varied significantly with age, F(l, 162) = 2.9, p = .027. but not with velocity (p = .29) (Table 3).

Discussion
Velocity in any running pattern is determined by stride length and stride frequency. Any variation in either of these two measures affects the velocity of the run. In this study there was a significant shortening of the stride iength with increasing age. There was no similar change in stride period, which is a measure of stride frequency. It can be stated, therefore, that the primary alteration in stride velocity that takes place with aging is a decrease in the length of the stride rather than in the amount of time used for each stride. To state this in a different way, the timing of the run. or its rhythm, stays relatively constant across ages: The feet strike the ground with the same frequency. The loss in velocity occurs because less ground is covered in each stride.
Table 3 Relative Joint Angle Maximums and Minimums and Joint Range of Motion (ROM) for Knee and Hip Plus Trunk Excursion ROM (in degrees)
Age 60

30

40

50

70

80

90

Knee Maximum angle Minimum angle ROM Hip Maximum angle Minimum angle ROM Trunk ROM

M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD

37 9.6 160 6.3 122 13.8 119 6.4 196 8.0 77 11.2 20 5.5

40 9.1 161 5.5 121 10.9 117 7.9 200 7.0 83 9.9 17 4.3

44 12.2 164 6.4 119 14.1 117 8.5 194 9.2 78 12.4 17 4.8

47 7.2 164 4.9 117 8.8 117 6.9 195 7.2 78 8.8 18 4.1

62 14.9 162 5.2 100 16.2 124 8.3 193 8.3 68 12.8 15 7.0

64 14.7 160 4.4 96 15.8 127 9.4 191 7.6 64 13.3 16 3.5

57 163 106 129 197 68 18

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Stride length in the sprint run is determined by the forces generated during the support phase of the running stride. The impulse developed during the propulsion portion of the support phase will determine both the time and trajectory of \hc flight phase of the stride. A longer flight phase correlates with a greater stride length, as the body becomes a projectile, with time in the air directly related to horizontal displacement. If the impulse generated through ground reaction force during propulsion is limited, the flight phase will be shortened. less time will be spent in the air. and less distance will be covered. A significant increase in support time coupled with the significant decrease in stride length leads to the speculation that of the two components of impulse, it is force, rather than time, that is reduced. Decreased force production and therefore decreased impulse in propulsion may be linked to several factors. The significant decrea.se in maximum hip and knee extension during propulsion suggests a decrease in the angular distance over which muscle force is applied, thereby decreasing the resulting propulsive impulse. If this is coupled with the decrease in muscle strength that has been shown to occur with aging (Buskirk & Segal, 1989; Murray et al.. 1980; Stamford, 1988). there may be significant decline in the magnitude of the force applied, thus adding further to the decline in the propulsive impulse generated. Although the period of the flight phase decreased significantly, there was a significant increase in the period of the supptirt phase. There are two major areas of concern to be addressed in this pha.se besides the propulsive action just discussed. During initial contact in the support phase considerable impact forces are transmitted to the foot and hence throughout the kinetic link system. In the aging musculoskeletal system it is likely that these impact forces may produce excessive stress on bone and joint structures that may be losing both bone mineral and elastic properties (Stamford. 1988). An increase in the time through which these impact forces are absorbed may minimize the magnitude of these forces. The mechanism through which this increase in time occurs was not closely examined in this study. A second mechanism that may increase the period of the suppjort phase of the stride is the decrease in the muscle's ability to generate high-velocity muscle contraction. The evidence for such a decline is not convincing, as evidenced by Stamford's (1988) review of aging muscle. There is a question, however, conceming the speed with which older muscle tissue can change from the lengthening, eccentric state that is produced in the hip and knee extensors during the flexion of impact and the concentric contraction required of these same muscles during the forceful extension of propulsion. If there is. in fact, a loss in fast-twitch muscle fiber, as Buskirk and Segal have described, the velocity of this change in contraction type might be significantly slowed. The slower contraction capability coupled with a decrease in strength will decrease the impulse. In addition to the decrease in flight time and the increa.sed period of the support phase there is some alteration in the swing phase among older runners. The decrease in the relative proportion of the stride used for swinging the nonsupport leg through is most likely a direct result of the decreased range of motion. With a loss of up to 20 of motion in the hip joint, the arc covered by the swing leg will be greatly shortened, also adding to the decline in stride length. Along with this decrease in hip mobility there is a decrease in range of motion at the knee. Although varying significantly only with age, not with velocity, the de-

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creased flexion in the swing leg likely contributes to the truncation of the swing phase by substantially increasing the moment of inertia of Ihe leg.

Conclusions
From the data it is evident that with increasing age there are significant alterations in the stride velocity, stride length, stride period, support time, swing time, flight time stride pattem, and hip and knee ROM of sprinters. Each of these alterations begins at specific ages. The decrease in velocity that has been noted in other studies and verified here can be attributed primarily to a decrease in stride length. This decrease is the result of the following variations in the other measures of stride kinematics: decreased flight time, decreased swing time, increased support time, and decreased range of motion in the hip and knee joints. All of these changes produce an overall decrease in sprint velocity with a minimal change in stride timing. Although no evidence in this study substantiates a rea.son for these changes, it is suggested that further research be conducted into the nature of muscle tissue and neurological change as it occurs in older elite athletes.

References
Buskirk. E.R., & Segal, S.S. (1989). The aging motor system: Skeletal muscle weakness. The Academy Papers, 11, 19-36. Cunningham, D.A., Rechnitzer, P.A., Pearce, M.A.. & Donner, A.P. (1982). Determinants of self-selected walking pace across ages 19 to 66. Journal of Gerontology, 37, 560-564. Himan, J.E.. Cunningham. D.A., Rechnitzer, P.A., & Patterson, D.H. (1988). Age-related changes in speed of walking. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exerci.'ie, 20,
161-166.

Heinonen, J. (Ed.) (1980). Results of the VIII world championships. Eugene, OR: Organizers of VIII World Veterans Championships. Imms. F.J., & Edholm, O.G. (1981). Studies of gait and mobility in the elderly./l^e and Aging, 10, 147-156. Lundgren-Lindquist. B., Aniansson, A., & Rundgren, A. (1983). Eunctional studies in 79year-olds. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine. 15. 125-131. Mann,R.,& Herman, J. (1985). Kinematic analysis of Olympic sprint performance: Men's 200 meters. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 1(2). 151-162. Marino. G. W., Einch, C , & Young, W. (1984). Variations in walking movements of older adults. In Proceedings of the third biannual conference of the Canadian Society of Biomechanics: Human locomotion III (pp. 61-62). Winnipeg, MB: Conference Organizing Committee. Moore, D.H. (1975). A study of age group track and field records to relate age and running speed. Nature, 253, 264-265. Murray. M.P., Gardiner, G.M., Mollinger. L.A., & Sepic, S.B. (1980). Strength of isometric and isokinetic contractions: Knee muscles of men aged 20 to 80. Physical Therapy, 60,412-419. Roberts, E.M., Cheung, T.K.. Hafez, A.A.M., & Bullard, S.K. (1986). Biomechanical characteristics of the swing limh in masters runners. In Proceedings of the North

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American Congress on Biomechanics: Locomotion IV (pp. 181 -182). Montreal, PQ: Congress Organizing Committee. Shapiro. D.C.. Zemicke. R.F.. Gregor, R.J., & Diesiel. J.D. (1981). Evidence for generalized motor programs using gait analysis. Journal of Motor Behavior, !3( I), 33-47. Stamford. B.A. (1988). Exercise and the elderly. E.xerci.ie and Sports Sciences Review, 16.341-379.