The Value of Vulnerability: Sexual Coercion and the Nature of Love in Japanese Court Literature Author(s): Margaret H.

Childs Reviewed work(s): Source: The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 58, No. 4 (Nov., 1999), pp. 1059-1079 Published by: Association for Asian Studies Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2658495 . Accessed: 12/06/2012 07:24
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The Value ofVulnerability:

Sexual Coercionand the Nature of Love in JapaneseCourt Literature
MARGARET H. CHILDS

Introduction andHypothesis
thevirtues ofinforming While modern readers themselves willingly acknowledge about thewaysthecultural contexts offiction ofvarioustimesand places differ from theirown and the ramifications thismayhave forinterpretation, we tendto assume thatthe emotions ofothercultures the same as depictedin the fiction are essentially in ourown hearts. ofliterature thosewe find Scholars exert considerable effort to help as contemporary readers understand suchthings politicalsystems, kinship structures, the and normsof etiquette, but we have not wondered whether marriage practices, ofcharacters ofother timesandplacesreflect thesamefeelings and frowns smiles, tears, as our own. Love, hate, jealousy,anger,joy, and sadnessare popularlytakento be classroom classical universal humanemotions. However, experience teaching Japanese and close readingsof textshave led me to the conclusionthat thereare literature thenature ofloveas depictedin premodern subtlebut significant differences between and love as we expectto findit in American literature Japanese society today. I believethekeyto unlocking a rangeofproblematic issuesinvolving thenature thatemotional oflove in premodern is therealization in literature Japanese dynamics drivenby a highvalue placed on vulnerability. That is to say, love affairs wereoften at theUniversity MaggieChilds is Associate Professor ofJapanese ofKansas. Earlyformulations of the ideas foundherewerepresented at CornellUniversity, theUniversity ofKansas,and at theMidwestAssociation for Japanese Literary Studies, heldat theUniversity ofMichigan, October24-26, 1997. I appreciate thesuggestions and support ofa greatmanycolleaguesand students, mostespecially AileenGatten. This version supercedes priortentative conclusions as maybe foundin "The Nature of Love and the Parameters of Sexual Coercionin the Literature of the Heian Court, Midwest orGenji,at least,was Not a Rapist,"In Proceedings ofthe Association forJapanese Literary Studies: TheNewHistoricism andJapanese Literary Studies, editedbyEiji Sekine, vol. 4, summer1998.
TheJournal ofAsianStudies 58, no. 4 (November1999):1059-1079. (? 1999 by the Association forAsian Studies,Inc.
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romantic love is frequently associatedwith the impulseto nurture someonewho is weak or frailor in distress in some way. Both men and womenoften inspirelove by first arousingsomeone'scompassionor pity.To put it in modernterms, we might call it the eroticpotentialofpowerlessness.' Current workin anthropology and social psychology bearsout my supposition thatemotionsdiffer acrosscultures. Social scientists in thesefieldshave latelybeen debatingthe extentto which emotionsare universal or culturally specific (Ekman 1984; Lutz 1988; Scherer1988; Solomon 1984; Russell 1991). Some, following Darwin (t18721 1965) in emphasizing the physiology of emotionalreactions, claim thatcertain basic emotional expression is evolved,innatebehavior. These researchers thatsevenfacialexpressions ofemotion-joy, fear, havearguably demonstrated anger, sadness, disgust,shame,and guilt-are universally recognizable (Ekmanet al. 1987; Wallbott and Scherer1988). While studiesthatprobemoredeeplyinto emotional find substantial similarities across havealso unearthed salient experience cultures, they in how people appraise the eventsthat incite emotionand how they differences evaluate and experienceemotions (Mauro, Sato, and Tucker 1992). Some have postulated that culturallyshared values, such as collectivismor individualism, influence both "displayrules"and "feeling rules"(Triandis1994; Matsumotoet al. 1988). all of thisresearch, looks onlyat emotions thatare triggered Virtually however, duration. oflovehas notbeenaddressed events and areofshort The nature bydiscrete in thisliterature, exceptforone studywhichaimed to discover howpeople conceived and categorized their emotions, rather than,as is commonly done,presenting subjects with a list of oftenstudiedemotions and askingthemabout theirexperiences with those emotions.This moreopen-ended research project(Shaver,Wu, and Schwartz in the United States,Italy,and 1992) comparedhow emotionsare conceptualized framework as superordinate levelsof emotions China, using an analytic categorizing are deemedsimplistically either basic(broad (wherein emotions positiveor negative), of of emotionsuch as joy,anger,and fear), and subordinate categories (subcategories the basic emotions).Four of the basic categories were the same forAmericanand the Chinese subjects-joy, anger, sadness,and fear.Americanshad one category the Chinesehad one missingfromthe Americanscheme, Chinese lacked,surprise; the emotional shame.Most interesting was a dramatic difference between landscapes ofthesetwo cultures withregard oflove, to love. Withinan American basiccategory for example, were found adoration,fondness, attraction, tenderness, compassion, a desire,passion,and longing(p. 187). The Chinese,on the otherhand,categorized of loving feelingsunderthe rubricof "sad love." Sad love has a negative majority value and includesthe specific superordinate feelings "infatuation, unrequited love, remote concern,nostalgia,compassion,tenderness/pity, attachment, sorrow/love, of love and admiration wereconceptualized sorrow/pity" (p. 194). Positivefeelings withinthe basic emotionof joy/happiness. emotions by the Chineseas subordinate emotional thatthisstudy The highdegreeofoverlapin cross-cultural experience theuniversality uncovered makesit easyto see whywe mightbe lulled intoassuming of emotions,but it also shows the follyof that assumption.In China pity is a
in interpersonal relations 1Japanese anthropologists have noted the role of dependency throughout Japanese society (Doi 1973; Lebra 1976, 50-66) and evenmentioned "empathetic pity" in love storiesfavored by high school girls (Lebra 56, 61), but have not extensively exploredthe implications of this dynamicin romantic relationships. Literary critics, on the otherhand,have ignoredthe implications of anthropological research forliterary analysis.

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it is a subcategory oflove,whilefor Americans notoflovebut ofsadness. subcategory Americans identify love as a positiveemotion,Chineseas a primarily negativeone. To thisextent, American love and Chineselove are blatantly, diametrically opposed. in time from We cannotextrapolate backwards this contemporary nor research, draw conclusionsabout historical realityon the basis of literary fictions, but it is provocative to notice that classical Chinese literature prominently includes frail, fragile women.In TheDreamoftheRedChamber, forinstance, Dai-yu (Black Jade) is and Bridal Du, the heroineof The Peony petulantand aloof but physically fragile, Pavilion, fallsill and dies of unfulfilled desire.It is, however, in Japaneseliterature thatvulnerability and lovability are explicitly linked. In westernculturewe typically expect that love will be inspiredby positive thatone will fallin love witha personone admiresforheror his beauty, attributes, This does occurin traditional as brains, wealth,wit,or whatever. Japanese literature, in thecase of Kaguya-hime in TheTale ofthe Bamboo Cutter (mid-tenth century).2 Far more common in the traditional Japanese context,though, are cases in which characters fall most deeplyin love with othercharacters who arousetheirpity. The Tale ofthe LadyOchikubo an early (late tenthcentury) provides example.The man who rescuesthe Lady Ochikubo from herwickedstepmother does so in part becauseshe is beautiful and kind hearted, but primarily because he finds her plight so pitiable (Whitehouseand Yanagisawa 1965, 5, 8). It is of coursetruethat to be lovable a character and refined, had to be attractive but oftenwhat was most alluringwas That vulnerability was valued is admittedly vulnerability. quite obvious,but it bears for becauseit is counterintuitive-especially American to whom exploration students, "pathetic" is a pejorativeword-and because it is an implicit and yet crucial motivation. For one thing,this simpleconceptmakessome other, morerecalcitrant It makessenseof the fact,as Aileen Gatten issuesin the literature comprehensible. has also pointedout, thatpeople are perceived as mostbeautiful whentheyare tired, ill, or grieving (1993). More importantly, the value of vulnerability is appreciating keyto understanding the dynamics ofmale sexualaggression. at an earlystagein is thatmen typically limitedaggression My theory employed in order theseduction to makewomen'svulnerability and to provide process tangible, men the opportunity to adopt a nurturing, consolingposition.While we do see occasionalmomentsof affection betweenpartners on equal footing and interacting withmutualrespect in the relationship betweentheauthor (thereare such moments Diary and Kaneie), I would suggestthata fundamental of the tenth-century KagerJ There is a wealth of evidenceto supportthis componentof love was nurturance. notion.One wordthatcomesup withstartling in love scenesin TheTale consistency decade of the eleventhcentury) is rautashi of Genji (first (6 5 /t L), which means "inspiring nurturing feelings, pitiable,frailand darling"(Nihon Daijiten Kankokai 1981, 10:1248). Itoshi and itohoshi (L L) are also frequently L) ((0 a used in love (Q scenesin the senseof "pitiable."The high correlation betweenfragility and beauty constitutes another for thisphenomenon. To mention typeofevidence justone among innumerable for his proudwifeAoi when examples, Genji onlycomesto feelaffection she lies weak from childbirth.3 of love occasionally allude to a desireto Expressions
2Kaguya-hime winsmanymen'shearts through herbeauty and thewealthshehas brought heradoptivefather. She is a remarkably spunky character, nottheleastbit vulnerable. Neither is she human(Keene 1978)! 3Theappeal ofvulnerability helps explainGenji's generalcoolnesstowards Lady Rokujo and his wifeAoi. Both are proud,strong women,in no needwhatsoever ofprotective behavior

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provideprotection, as in "A Long Tale foran AutumnNight" (fourteenth century) wherethe monk Keikai compareshis beloved to cherry blossomsin need of being was not a preexisting sheltered fromthe wind.4When this attractive vulnerability to aggression, condition, men could cause distress by temporarily resorting creating an immediate need for consolation,and thus simultaneously further enflame themselves and assumethenurturing in whichthey posture mightbestwin thehearts ofwomen. Many contemporary readersof The Tale of Genji, especiallyreadersof Edward to rape to satisfy Seidensticker's translation, view Genji as a man who resorted his eroticdesires.Feministreaderseven ofJapaneseversions, like independent scholar KomashakuKimi, also tendto consider Genji a rapist(Komashaku1991, 7). This is a function partly of carelessreadings of the text,but also the resultof looselyusing theterm "rape"to refer to sexualintercourse accompanied notbyjustphysical pressure but by almostany kind of pressure-psychological, economic.I use the emotional, wordin a strictly legal senseto refer to nonconsensual intercourse. there are Certainly in The Tale ofGenjiand otherpremodern manyscenescontaining sexual aggression but I believethatat leastGenji deserves to be defended from Japanese literary texts, this drasticaccusationof rape. It is a chargethathas been made frequently, rashly, withideologicalmotives, and unfairly. For one thing,it turns Genji intoa criminal, or, at least,a crueland brutalvillain,a perception totallyat odds with the view of in the work.I would agree thathe is oftenselfish the narrator and othercharacters and inconsiderate, and manipulative but I would submitthat,ultimately, aggressive as he sometimes a womanto have sexualrelations withhim. is, he nevercoerces that begin with male The factis that,in Japanesecourtliterature, encounters aggression do notnecessarily endin rape.Sometimes desired they evolveintomutually and frustrated man gives up hope sexualintimacy or concludewhen a disappointed of accomplishing a seduction.The dynamicsof such encounters are particularly in Japaneseculture. of the natureof love and the value of vulnerability suggestive Thereare severalsuch scenesin The Tale ofGenjiin whichGenji engagesin varying to behavior thatwould now be labeled from degreesof aggression, simpleintrusion assault and kidnapping. He engages in the latter twice, with Utsusemi and and rapeappearsimminent, but in myopinionthetextdoes notclearly Oborozukiyo, of rape. A close readingsuggeststhatGenji is aggressive supportan interpretation and seeksto comfort, to assuage thenturns onlymomentarily, gentleand conciliatory thefearhe has just caused. of accusingGenji of rapeare morethanjust a hindrance to an The implications ofthe of thisparticular hero.Accompanied appreciation eponymous by lamentations abuse and exploitationof women, such charges often constitutea knee-jerk an ideological agenda in which men are condemnation of patriarchy, and reflect as brutesand women infantilized as defenseless. Komashaku Kimi is stereotyped
thansaddenedwhenhe does notpay by the younger Genji. Both are angrywithGenji rather themsufficient attention. This conceptalso helps explainwhyYuigaohad such an impacton Genji's psyche.His relationship with her is the first time he is involvedwith someonewho time someoneis treatshim as a competent adult rather thanas a callow youth.It is the first dependentupon him. He revelsin his role as protector, takingher to a desolateplace where in this new roleand this,in she anxiously clings to him. Yiugao'sdeath represents his failure part,is whyit is so especially traumatic forhim. 4"Alarmed that the wind mightlure this blossom[the youthlaway,he wishedthathis sleeveswerelargeenoughto shelter it." Childs 1980, 135.

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explicit about her ideological stance: "Since a woman in a weak position easily in such a context rape and seduction are almost the same thing" surrenders, (Komashaku 1991, 104). The same attitude is embedded in current,popular definitions of rape,such as thisone foundin an articleentitled"Educators Work to Halt Sexual Assault,"publishedin The University Daily Kansan,6 February 1996: "It's not successful seductionto pressure a woman to have sex with you. It's rape." This is politicalrhetoric, not a legal definition. Pressuring a womanto have sex may not constitute a seduction, but neither is it rape. Rape is the crimeof havingsexual intercourse with someonewho has not consented.Puttingpressure on someoneto and immoral, have intercourse may be selfish but if one gains the consentof one's it is not rape. Women's ability to resist amorous pressureis certainly partner, in manyways,but we need not exaggerate constrained the situation and we should not underestimate the status,abilities,and resources of women.In Heian Japan,as now, women'sstatusvaried,as did theirambitionsand otherresources. Naturally, there weremanytimeswhentheysuccumbed to pressure, or used sex as a resource to be bartered formaterialsecurity. Thereare,indeed,clearcases of nonconsensual sex in theliterature oftheHeian and Kamakuraperiods, bymenotherthanGenji. There ofa female are several examples character rendered so distraught bya man'sintrusion this into her roomsthat she failsto resistat all. Men then self-servingly interpret as willingcooperation and continue docility to pay lip service to thenormforbidding sexualcoercion. thatrequireexplicitconsentto sexualintercourse, By our standards thesemale characters could be found arealso guiltyofrape.On theotherhand,there womenin theliterature whowereable to use their witsand wilesto fend off unwanted sexualexperiences a woman's and,after all, a fewmenwhoat leastsometimes respected In TheTale ofGenji,Kaoru,for wishesregarding sexualintimacy. is virtually example, defined by thisverycharacteristic. That women were vulnerable is transparent. Although women had broad economicrights, and certainly wielded considerable politicalpowerinformally, they in thebureaucracy. wererestricted from Heian holdingall but a fewofficial positions thatwomenexistedsolelyto servemen as narratives sometimes give the impression was love objects,child bearers, and seamstresses. Women's freedom of movement severely constrained, weighteddown as theywere by cumbersome clothingand by to travelalmost exclusivelyby ox cart. Social conventions also the requirement womento hide themselves from thesightofall but a fewmales.Theymust required women have been physically weak due to lack of exercise. vulnerable Yet, however to a man's were, theywere not altogether passive or helpless. In fact,resistance amorous was conventional.5 advances Courtship typically beganwithpoeticexchanges a pattern thatfollowed of male initiation of contactand announcement of interest, whicha womanmightsimplyignoreor to whichshe responded his by flatly refuting declarations of love. Men thenmade everstronger avowalsuntila womanacquiesced

to RetiredEmperor 5A former High Priestess of Ise is criticized forherlack ofresistance affair (Brazell 1973, GoFukakusa'samorousovertures becausethismakesforan uninteresting 59, 65). Even in the case of an arrangedmarriage, the bride's familywas not expectedto concede too quickly. Prince Hotaru was disappointedwhen his proposal to marryPrince Hyobu's daughterMakibashirais too readilyaccepted:"TPrince Hotaru} had expectedmore his proposal"(Seidenof a challenge. . . IJHjowever ... it was much too late to withdraw withshamethatshe mayhave appearedeagerto sticker1976, 590). Tamakazuraremembers marry PrinceHotaru manyyearsprior(591).

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and acceptedthe man's suit or the man gave up.6In thisgame based largely on wit and wordplay, womenactuallyseem to have had the upperhand.7 Whateverthe powerdynamicbetweena pair of potentialloversat the stage of in the context ofa physicalencounter men clearly had the upper exchanging letters, hand.Theyhad theadvantages ofmobility and strength and, often, surprise on their side. A great many scenes of intimacyin this literature reveal that women were physically vulnerable. The most commonchoice when seekingto avoid unwanted sexualintimacy was flight. Retreatto innerroomsand the company ofotherwomen apparently offered safety. Barreddoors,howeverflimsy theirconstruction, seem to have been sufficient deterrence. When flightfails, direct physical resistanceis but it is never occasionallycontemplated by a woman or her femaleattendants, derailsa man implemented.8 Yet there are a fewcases in whicha womansuccessfully A closelook at theseinstances his amorous who is determined to consummate desires. unwanted suggeststhatwhat limitedstrategies were available to women to deflect sexualattention wereconditioned by the value of vulnerability. Specifically, women had to appearinvulnerable. Because reluctance was a convention, sinceredisinterest had to be expressed withextreme finality and persistence. Refusalhad to be definitive A unique strategy oftotal and unrelenting. was to behavewiththeextreme passivity was to be utterly unresponsiveness, and the most effective strategy imperturbable. Stonysilence,forexample,could dampena man's ardor.The value of vulnerability coldheartedness. meantthatmen werediscouraged onlyby displaysof extraordinary it appearsthata womanwho reactedto sexualaggression Conversely, by displaying distress only increasedthe likelihoodof being raped. Tears were therefore usually menwho responded to suchvulnerability counterproductive. Additionally, by taking as having behaved advantageof it were notlikely to have thoughtof themselves it is significant coercively. Furthermore, that,howeveroftenthis social normwas was a notionthatit was somehowwrongfora man to force breached, thereclearly himself on a woman,so long as the womanwas of similaror higherstatus.9 it is also worthwhile to notethatthere was a degreeofgenderequityin Finally, of vulnerable the natureof love. Both sides of the stereotype womenand invincible menneedadjusting. Men's greatest passionwas usuallyarousedbyvulnerable women,
constituting Kaneie's court6Goodexamplesofthiscan be foundin thepoeticexchanges ship of Michitsuna'smother, whichlasted the lengthof one summer (Arntzen1997, 57-61) theYamato area,in whichMichiby Michitsunaofa womanfrom and in the failedcourtship tsunapersisted forabout one and a halfyears(305-29). suitors suggestthispossibility. desperate 7Legends about Ono no Komachi spurning consider physical interven8There are two scenesin TheTale ofGenjiin whichattendants decide upon theirmistresses, but in both cases the attendants tion when men have intruded The to cause a commotion. by the men's statusand reluctant againstit. They are intimidated Utsusemi discoversthat Genji is makingoffwith her mistress first instanceis when Chuiijo thatYtugiri womenfind (Seidensticker 1976, 42), and thesecondis whentheSecondPrincess's of in Yoza noNezame, a companion has made his unwelcome way to herside (680). Similarly, Nakanokimi'sdiscovers Ch-unagon on the vergeof sexual assault but choosesnot to make a thata womanassaultsa man,which scene (Suzuki 1974, 55). The one time in this literature is when Higekuro'swifedumps a censerof hot ashes on him to expressher jealous angerat unbalanced(Seidenhis havingtakenTamakazuraas a second wife,she is deemed mentally sticker1976, 497-98). as fairgame, as is clearlyrevealedin categorized 9Lower ranking womenwere,however, Yowa no nezame. governor mistakingNakanokimifora woman of the provincial Chiuinagon, as decidingto intrude, fellow, specifically thoughhe is usuallya restrained class, is described as she is of comparatively low social status,he looks down on her. Suzuki because, insofar 1974, 54.

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in men as well. When men met withstiff attractive but womenfoundvulnerability resistance, they sometimesovercamethat resistance by presenting themselves as The way theydid this was to fall dramatically vulnerable. in love, and obsessively whichmeantbecoming deeplydependent on a woman'srequiting theirlove. Falling in love made them needy,helpless,even hysterical. Literature oftenshowsmen as literally lovesick, confined to theirbeds by the ravagesof theiremotions. One early exampleis foundin the The Tales ofIse (ninthcentury), episode 40. A youngman, ofhis belovedby his parents' losesconsciousness for morethan deprived intervention, a day (McCullough 1968, 97-98). In theMuromachi period(1392-1568) tale "The Three Monks," Kasuya no Shirozaemon loses his appetiteand takes to his bed for severaldaysuntila doctordiagnoseshim as lovesickand his lordplaysmatchmaker to facilitate his recuperation (Childs 1991, 74-75).

Seduction Strategies
The first scene in The Tale ofGenji thatraisesthe suspicionof Genji as a rapist and thatsimultaneously the appeal ofvulnerability demonstrates is his one and only face-to-face encounter with Utsusemi. I will argue that what we see here is the use oflimitedaggression ofseduction, notrape. strategic employed earlyin a process her fearand vulnerability Once he has Genji abductsUtsusemiand finds touching. her to a secludedroomand set herdown,however, it does not appearthat brought as trying, he again resorts to force. Instead,Genji is consistently portrayed withall his considerable charm, to persuadeUtsusemito surrender to his desires.Distraught in rejecting as she is, Utsuseminever wavers embark Genji's proposalthatthey upon an affair. see sexualintercourse between thelines;theeditors Manyscholars occurring ofboththeNihon koten taikei koten bungaku (hereafter NKBT) andNihon bungaku zenshu7 (hereafter NKBZ) editionstake this position (Yamagishi 1958, 1:97 n. 21; Abe definitive to support such a reading.On the 1970,1:178 n. 3). But thereis nothing a metaphor Utsusemias indomitable and Genji's latercomment contrary, presenting thathe feltshehad "defeated" him imply, to mymind,thatGenji did notaccomplish his goal of seducingher. While Seidensticker is onlyfollowing a conventional ofthisscene, interpretation a reading ofrapefar his translation encourages morethandoes theambiguous original. In Seidensticker's one of the first he has version, thingsGenji saysto Utsusemiafter to her bedside sounds like a threat,albeit one he made his way surreptitiously triesto soften:"You are perfectly if you thinkme unable to immediately correct control But I wish you to know thatI have been thinking of you fora very myself. long time" (Seidensticker 1976, 42). I would renderthis passage as one in which to intimidate Utsusemibut to win hertrust with Genji is nottrying by empathizing witha flattering her.Genji follows remark: "You mightnaturally assumethisabrupt visit is the resultof a sudden impulse,but I have long wantedto tell you of my foryou."10 It is the openingvolleyin a well-integrated effort to seduceher feelings her of his long-standing interest. of this line is by convincing My interpretation seconded by the narrator's evaluation of Genji's attitude at this point, which
'0Uchitsukeni, fukakaranu kokorono hodo to mitamafuran, kotowarinaredo,toshigoro omohiwataru kokorono uchi mo kikoeshirasemu to te nan (Abe 1970, 1:175). b). 6 XaIL, ) (a e L ;5i'E b t. 1 , 9 t---D (t (: - r2K t. i 13 6 AI - 1 e b 9 t. KL E - $ /L() rpt

<4to>o> .w k R6-+8L

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Seidensticker renders both accurately and gracefully: "His mannerwas so gently thatdevilsand demonscould nothavegainsaidhim" (Seidensticker persuasive 1976, 42). Next, Seidensticker has Genji promising to behavehimself: "I will do nothing unseemly" (Seidensticker 1976, 42). Promising not to act "unseemly" raisesexactly that possibility,and so Genji again inaccurately appears as threatening. This translation is further seen to be illogicalinsofar as thisis thepointat whichhe picks her up and takes her into anotherroom. Perhaps,to Genji, this maneuver is not Utsusemiand herattendant think it is. It seems "unseemly," although Ch-uj'o certainly morelikelyto me thatwith this phraseGenji is reassuring Utsusemithathe does That is, what he promisesis not to treather as a not intendto trifle with her.11 plaything. Thus, Genji is not alludingto possibleimpropriety but asserting thathe is serious aboutdeveloping a significant withher.Furthermore, relationship Utsusemi thatmightbefallher, is heredescribedas worrying, not about physicalindignities herdistress but about whatpeople mightthink.Nevertheless, is extreme and Genji forher.Having set herdown in an out-of-the feelssorry now wayroom,he attempts to seduce her with words:As Seidensticker aptlyputs it: "the sweetwordspoured forth,the whole gamut of pretty devices for making a woman surrender" (Seidensticker 1976, 43). The arguments Genji uses boil down to these two: his forheraredeep and, in anycase,theirtryst is a matter feelings offate.But Utsusemi is not moved. Her attitudeof resistance is describedin these terms:"Her natural was to be flexible, but now she was firm, like youngbamboo; it did not disposition seemthatshe could be broken."'12 It is precisely at this point thatthe NKBT and NKBZ editorsinterject a note theirconviction asserting thatGenji and Utsusemihave sexualrelations (Yamagishi 1958, 1:97 n. 21; Abe 1970, 1:178 n. 3). They indicatethata gap in the narrative between this and the followingsentence,which describesUtsusemi weeping in at Genji's persistence, is whenthesexualactivity frustration takesplace. Theydo not It may be possibleto arguethatthe on the implications of the metaphor. comment of the unbreakable to Utsusemi'semotionalstancerather bamboo refers metaphor thanherphysical impenetrability, but thisseemsunlikely to me. Perhapsthey would of the timeunaccounted Utsusemiwas "not to be suggestthatat the beginning for, but thatby thepointthatthetextpicksup again (with"She was weeping." broken," Seidensticker 1976, 43), she has either acquiescedto Genji's sexualdemandsor been am inclinedto give the metaphor raped.I, however, substantial weightand do not to consummated see subsequentnarrative sexual passages as definitively referring relations. Editors'notesand Seidensticker's translation sexualcontact again implyor assert in theirhandlingof the nextfewparagraphs. "He had his handsfull Seidensticker's but would not fortheworldhave missedtheexperience" (Seidensticker 1976, 43) is the contestof wills a appropriately ambiguous.I can easily imagineGenji finding in sexualrelations. worthwhile even ifit did not culminate I grantthe "experience," but not the indisputability, of the NKBZ editors'assertion that the plausibility,
ni ha, yo ni mietatematsuraji (Abe 1970, 1:176). l1Sukigamashikisama nayotake no kokokorowo shihitekuwahetareba, tsuyoki 12Hitogara no tawoyagitaruni, gives "Natkorochishite,sasuga ni oru beku mo arazu (Abe 1970, 1:177-78). Seidensticker It was as withtheyoungbamboo; she bentbut urallysoftand pliant,she was suddenlyfirm. was not to be broken"(43). 0 tzt 0),L't L -, cl tt b e r tz < t t.K S ' AtzJ-t X,8 L' ; L, OTU A -5+t 3_41 -b -\t

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"if he had not seen her," original"mizaramashikaba" (E - 6 J L,hz Jt) (literally, means specifically, "if he had not had sexual relations Seidensticker's "experience") with her" (Abe 1970, 1:178). In translating part of a subsequentshortspeech of Utsusemi's,Seidensticker appears to agree with the NKBZ editors:"But this is hopeless,worsethanI can tell you. Well, it has happened.Say no to thosewho ask if you have seen me." This use of the pronoun "it" stronglysignals "sexual intercourse," and is thuscloserto themodern translation givenin NKBZ thanto the original.The translation might instead read: "But I cannot endure the thought/ prospect of a fleeting relationship such as this.Well, in anyevent,don't tell anyone you haveseen me. his desirefor My positionthatwe need not assumethatGenji has consummated even in Seidensticker's severalpages laterwhen Utsusemiis reinforced, translation, to Utsusemi,impliesas much with thesewords:"He had thought Genji, referring the coldnessof thegovernor's wife,the ladyof 'the locustshell,'quite unique. Yet if she had provedamenableto his persuasions the affair would no doubt have been thatone encounter. As matters droppedas a sad mistakeafter were,the resentment 1976, and the distinct possibility of finaldefeatneverlefthis mind" (Seidensticker 62). Ratherthanrape,I would suggestthatwhat we see hereis the strategic use of ofseduction. limitedaggression, employed earlyin a process Genji abductsUtsusemi and finds herfearand vulnerability He has employed force briefly pitiable(itohoshi). stance to ensureprivacy withher but maintains a cajoling rather thanintimidating throughout. Once he has movedherfrom one roomto another it does notappearthat to talk he again resorts to force.Instead,Genji is consistently portrayed as trying to win heroverwithhis Utsusemiintosubmitting to him. He is shownas expecting and persistence. Utsusemiis, in fact,impressed waywithwords,withhis insistence that is, if she with Genji, and admitsthat if it were not forher current situation, in an affair with even ill-fated werenot married, she would be temptedto indulge is as closeas shecomesto acquiescing. While observation Genji. But thishypothetical to courtUtsusemiforsome time,he is clearlymoremotivated by Genji continues the challengeshe represents thanreal affection. lapse Perhapsthatis whyhis efforts before too long. encounter with Oborozukiyo has a similarstructure but a different Genji's first outcome.Genji comesacrossOborozukiyo sittingnearan open doorin thedark.He takeshold of hersleeve,thenpicks herup and movesherfrom an innerroomto its She is frightened and calls out but no one comes.His first adjacent,enclosedgallery. wordsto her seem ominousas theyappearon the page: "It will do you no good. I is reassured am alwaysallowedmyway"(Seidensticker 1976, 153). Yet Oborozukiyo because she recognizesGenji's voice. Althoughher fearsare relieved,she is still at the abruptness That she of thisencounter. "wabishi," upsetor dismayed, probably is not overly distraught by the situationis suggestedby the factthather thoughts or ill-mannered." turnto his opinionofher:"She did notwantto appearcold-hearted an in but it does We mayfindthis unfamiliar motiveforindulging sexualrelations, as Oborozukiyo implythatshe was makinga choice.Seidensticker, however, presents with Genji, at best,by default, becauseshe was too naiveor havingsexual relations immature to resisteffectively. His translation Oborozukiyo unambiguously portrays did notknowhow to sendhim as an involuntary partner: "she,youngand irresolute, oftheoriginal, finds on hisway."My reading Oborozukiyo supported bycommentary, him. I would unable to refuse not necessarily to refuse but unwilling Genji's advances,

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proposethistranslation: "Being youngand soft-hearted, she could not summonthe him firmly.""3 resolve to rebuff The juxtaposition ofyoungand soft-hearted suggests That is, she is being reckless. A liaisonwith not helplessness, but short-sightedness. forbothof them.As I see it, theimplication disastrous Genji is, after all, politically himifshehad caredto.As I mentioned is thatshemighthaverefused above,elsewhere in courtliterature it is made quite clear that it was conventional fora woman to at leasttokenresistance present to a man's amorous overtures. Mild reluctance, then, represents a woman'schallengeto a man to presshis case, to earnherindulgence. It that signals genuine aversionto intimacy. is only strongresistance In contrast to thansincere demonstrates tokenrather resistance. Utsusemi,Oborozukiyo thatshedoes notregret Finally, Oborozukiyo's demeanor in themorning suggests physicalintimacy with Genji. Her deepestconcern is thattheirrelationship not be of another visitfrom exposed.She is also pessimistic about the prospect Genji. She showsvulnerability throughout; he has resorted to physical force onlyto assuretheir privacy. The twoscenesin whichGenji spendsa night withFujitsubosuggest bothGenji's fundamental respect forherbodilyintegrity and also thatwomenfound vulnerability attractive in men as well as vice versa.AlthoughGenji gains access to Fujitsubo's room(by pressuring her attendant) againsther expressed wishes,it is clear thathe never touches her in an aggressiveway. It must be acknowledgedthat Genji's in courtingFujitsubo,despite her explicitand firmrejections of him, persistence would constitute sexualharassment in thisday and age. Nevertheless, a close reading of the textsuggeststhatthe onlytime theyengage in sexual intercourse is the one time when Fujitsubo'sresolveto fendoffGenji's advancesis weakenedby herpity forhim."4 She has beengraciously but resolutely his advances for sometime, refusing thathis unrequited whenGenji says,poetically, love forhermakeshim apparently, wantto die. In tears, he recites: "So fewand scattered thenights, so fewthedreams. / Would that the dreamtonightmighttake me with it" (Seidensticker 1976, 98). in Fujitsuboan echoingsuicidal thought. Her concern is This pathetic plea inspires herreputation, is a traceofresignation in hertone:"Were I to disappear for but there in thelast ofdreams/Would Then there is a gap in yetmy namelive on in infamy?" it the action;the nextthingtersely described is theirpartingthatmorning. Clearly, thatFujitsubois moved is whenGenji expresses whenhe reveals despair, vulnerability, to yieldto him. Thereis no doubt thattheyhad sexual relations, sinceFujitsubois soon revealed to be pregnant withGenji's child. Five years later,whenGenji nextgainsaccessto Fujitsubo'sroomfortwo nights and a day,she does notwaverin herrejection ofhim.The first nightshe is described and thenshe suffers as remote and unresponsive, chestpains and fainting spells that to hide in a closetfora wholeday. to herside. Genji is forced bringherattendants The secondnighthe pleads his case yetagain but she graciously his passion. deflects The text When he failsto evokeherpitythe nightends without physicalintimacy. is explicit here about Genji's attitudeof respectfor Fujitsubo's bodily integrity:

13Onna mo wakau tawoyagite, tsuyoki kokoromo shiranunarubeshi (Abe 1970, 1:427). t 5' 1 L o NKBZ editors suggest that Oborozukiyo Ct ~ 9 t ;- -b9 ' 3 -/L' t m does not resistin part because she findsGenji attractive, and also because it is not in her this: otoko o tsuyokukobamitoosu character. The translation into modernJapanesereflects kokoromo mochiawasete wa inai no de arou (Abe 1970, 1:427 n. 24). 14... ... (Abe 1970, 1:306). 3 -;? c sasuga ni imijikereba tt 4.

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"Forcefully contravening herwisheswas unthinkable.''15He does notflinch, however, from verbalaggression. He declares thathe will die ofhis unrequited love,complains thathisunshakable attachment to herwill prevent hisattaining salvation, and reminds her that her own prospects forsalvationwill also be hinderedby it. This speech represents both a threatand an accusation.She, however, is unruffled. She firmly refusesto accept responsibility for his passion, telling him it is his own fault: thatthecause is in yourself/Of "Remember a sin whichyou sayI mustbearthrough lives to come" (Seidensticker 1976, 198). Genji finally leaves.Interestingly, he soon reconsiders his strategy and reverts to trying to arousepity in her insteadof guilt. This he imagineshe mightaccomplish by pouting:"He wouldn'tevenwriteto her, so thatshe would realizehow wretched he was." Needless to say,thisis fruitless. To be fairI mustpresent incriminating evidence, thatis, a counterexample, one thatsuggeststhatGenji did contemplate sexualcoercion as not beyondthe realmof This attitudeis revealedwhen the Akashiex-Governor possibility. has arranged for hisdaughter. thefather is notconcerned Genji to marry withhisdaughter's Typically, he is afraid thatshewill be hurtifGenji does notfind wishes, herattractive: although "It would be verysad forthe girl, offered to Genji, to learnthathe did heedlessly not want her" (Seidensticker 1976, 261). When Genji findsthat the lady does not welcomehis visit,he "was annoyed ofleaving.It would runagainstthe and thought mood ofthings to force himself upon her,and on theother handhe wouldlook rather silly if it were to seem thatshe had bested him at this contestof wills." (263). It seemsthatout herein theprovinces, witha womanofmarginal social status(by his as a game and considersresorting standards),16Genji thinksof this courtship to coercionto take whathas been offered to him,but is held back by a notionof what wouldbe appropriate to "themoodofthings." Commentators notethat, having gained the father's all he needsnow is the lady'scooperation permission, (Abe 1970, 2:260 n. 11), perhapsimplying thatit would offend thefather to takeby force whathe has been offered and shouldbe able to gain by cajolery. To his creditGenji onlythinks of coercionin the context of havingdecided againstit. Instead,he perseveres, using a gentleand polite manner. In fact,thereis a touchof self-pity in his requestthat she keep him company:"Would thereweresomeonewithwhomI mightsharemy so dispel some part of thesesad dreams"(263). At thispoint,Genji thoughts/And a barreddoor. intrudes;the Lady is distraught and flees.Genji next confronts hints more broadlythan the originalthat Genji is aggressive Seidensticker here: it is not to be imaginedthathe force his way through, "Though he did not exactly left mattersas they were." A more literal translation would read: "There is no '17 thatGenji forced hiswayin. But howcouldhe leavethings indication as they were?' is thathe resorted to persuasion, notbruteforce. The narrator Clearlytheimplication seems a bit lazy here.Why not explain just how Genji managed to get that door of thisdescription, it seemsespecially opened?Given theminimalnature significant thatthe textcautionsits readers not to imagineGenji as forcing his way in. that the Akashi Lady is a reluctantpartneris immediately Nevertheless, Seidensticker's version herea patronizing slant: acknowledged. gives Genji's feelings
"Semete shitagahikikoezaramu mo katajikenaku (Abe 1970, 2:103). 197. -L+ I U - t S 6 8' t Lt. JK 1976. tz < Seidensticker 16Genji has alreadyindicatedthat he has shown the Akashi Lady undue deference by visitingher.He had wantedherto be brought to his quarters (Seidensticker 1976, 260). 17... shihitemooshitachitamahanusama nari. Saredo sanomimoikadeka aramu (Abe k b' ' t i e ? K ` ? t isL bh t) 1970,2:247).1 k L

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"Pleasurewas mingledwithpityat the thought thathe was imposinghimself upon her" (Seidensticker 1976, 263). The NKBZ editorsprefer to suppose thatGenji is thinking thattheirkarmicbond must be a particularly strongone to have brought themtogether despitetheunlikelihood of thematch(Abe 1970, 2:247 n. 25). Thus, thispassage mightbe rendered thisway: "When he thought of the strength of the karmic bondthathad brought themtogether againstherwill,he wasdeeply moved."'18 thatherfears Earlier remarks ofLadyAkashi'sindicate involve thelong-term prospects ofa relationship withGenji: Due to thestatusdifference between them,she does not anticipatethat it will resultin anything but grief.Indeed, her fearthat Genji is trifling with herlead herto thoughts of suicide(Seidensticker 1976, 264). Yet, she thatwe carries on and graciously indulgesGenji. All thispointsto the probability are dealingwitha situation in whichGenji coaxedLady Akashiinto acquiescingto themarriage thatherfather has arranged. Much is leftambiguousin thissection. The factthatherfather offered herin marriage to Genji seemsto suggestthatshe had no choicein the matter, but she is presented as believingshe can veto the match:"She had resolvedto admit him no nearer"(262-63). PerhapsGenji used high-pressure tactics,and perhapsthis is just a step away from coercion, but the textspecifically thatwe readthissceneas a seduction, recommends not a rape. Thus far,this reviewof Genji's courtship strategies hardlyallows us to avoid and selfish characterizing Genji as insensitive because of his unwelcomeintrusions into women'sroomsand extreme in expressing persistence his unwanted affections, thatclearlycaused womenextreme behaviors distress. The evidence,however, does not support the judgmentthathe was a rapist.In his efforts to seduceUtsusemiand insofar as he picks themup and moves them to Oborozukiyo, Genji is aggressive nearby, secludedspaces.With theAkashiLadyand Fujitsubohisaggression is limited to unwelcomeintrusioninto their rooms. Following these momentsof limited he relieson his considerable charmto win compliance.In the physicalaggression, that is, with Fujitsubo,when his approachwas to most challengingof situations, presenthimselfas vulnerable(specifically, suicidal), he was indulged. When his thatis, withUtsusemiand in theinstance ofpersuasion werenoteffective, strategies The evidence of his secondencounter withFujitsubo,he acceptedrejection. suggests thathe respected a woman'sbodilyintegrity when she definitively and persistently him. refused some credibility forGenji as a man of at Now, hoping thatI have established least minimalprinciple, let me turnto an episodethatmustbe analyzedifGenji is to be clearedofall charges: the loss ofMurasaki's virginity. I, too, on earlierreadingsof The Tale ofGenji,feltthat Genji rapedMurasaki, The keylies in payingclose but myevaluation has shifted withmorerecent readings. herfirst on themorning after sexualexperience with attention to Murasaki'sfeelings thataccompanied oftheconversation and behavior Genji. The textgivesno indication the consummationof Genji's marriage to Murasaki. However, Seidensticker's translation of Genji's thoughtsas he contemplates having sexual relationswith an interpretation of rape: For "shinobigatakunarite, Murasakibeforehand encourages K kokorogurushikeredo," (p,2 L7' h/tz< gives: "he IC 4i L 4( it e) Seidensticker It would be a shock,of course"(1976, 180). "Shinobi" could not restrain himself. meanseither "to endure, to be patient," or "to suppress, to keepsecret" (Ono, Satake, and Maeda 1974, 643). Seidensticker's definition use oftheformer impliesa physical
'8Kau anagachinarikeru chigiriwo obosu ni mo, asakarazuaharenari(Abe 1970, 2:247). b h5 t t5 9 {t 4 4 9 ; , t be t - i 7& 6 f h5U ft t 9 0

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urgency,but the contextis that Genji has been enjoying a platonic, paternal relationship while waitingforfouryearsforMurasakito reachmaturity. She is now in Heian Japan.Commentators fourteen, theappropriate age formarriage prefer the secondmeaning ofshinobi and offer thisinterpretation: "While shehad beentooyoung fora romantic in an innocent relationship, he had foundhercharming way,but now he was unable to suppress his love forher as an adult woman" (Abe 1970, 1:63 n. 22-24). The second phraseat issue here,"It would be a shock,"is also misleading.It makesGenji sound as thoughhe is cold-heartedly a painfulexperience anticipating for Murasaki. Others interpret kokorogurushikeredo as referring not to Murasaki's thiswithan understatement: but to Genji's. Norma Field translates feelings, "Genji was not altogether means he was easy about it" (Field 1987, 171). Kokorogurushi distressed or anxious,thatis, Genji was quite concerned about how Murasakiwould respondto hersexual initiation. Why then,if he is worried about it, will he do it? forquite He seems to have been balancinghis desireagainsther potentialdistress some time. Is it onlythathe has now grownimpatient and is selfishly decidingto at herexpense? It himself translation leads us in thatdirection. satisfy Seidensticker's is also possible,however, to see the timingas dictatedby Murasaki's age. Timing is, is a fundamental, after all, theonlyrealissuehere.Sexuality virtually inevitable, aspect ofadulthood. Murasaki's has beenemphasized, childishness but,as mentioned above, in Heian Murasakiis in factnow fourteen yearsold, not at all youngformarriage courtcircles.Everyone else thinks the marriage Genji consummated long ago, when Murasakiwas indeed too young,and theyobjected then. By this time everyone assumestheyare a typical, sexuallyactivecouple. Indeed, it is indicatedthat they havebeen,literally, sleepingtogether. It has beenpointedout thatMurasakiis quite the manner innocent of sexualknowledge. of its presentation to her,she No matter meantto implyby is likelyto be startled and surprised. If thisis whatSeidensticker to Murasaki being shocked,it is not altogether the reference offthe mark, but it withthe suggestion thatGenji had uncontrollable juxtaposing physical urgeshas effect of implying thatGenji did not intendto introduce the unfortunate sexuality to herkindlyand gently. In anyevent, we haveminimalevidenceto showhow Genji managedMurasaki's all we are givenis a description after. initiation intosexualrelations; ofthemorning thisis suggestive notofrape,butofseduction. Murasaki Significantly, Genji rises first, he has left.Seidensticker staysin bed. He leaveshera poem,she onlypicksit up after describesher here as moving "listlessly"(Seidensticker 1976, 180), not as hurt, does nottranslate word.It emerges distressed, sad,orupset."Listlessly" anyparticular in her from the description in the originalof Murasakias lethargic and nonchalant receipt ofa notefrom Genji. A fairly literaltranslation ofthepassagethattellswhat afterGenji leaves an inkstoneby her pillow would read: happened immediately "When no one was looking,she finally raisedherhead and saw a letter. Casuallyshe she has read Genji's poem, do we opened it and read it."19 Only at thispoint,after learnanything of her emotionalstate this momentous The poem is this: morning. thesecoverlets "Many have been the nightswe have spent together/Purposelessly, is thatGenji had beenwaiting between us." The wholepointofthisverse for, planning on, and looking forwardto having sexual relationswith her. Murasaki reacts
19Hitomani, karaujitekashira motagetamaheruni, hikimusubitaru fumi onmakurano moto ni ari. Nanigokoromo naku hikiakete mitamaheba (Abe 1970, 2:63). -c ' t 4 CT t i (e ' O S . 9 ? {Li t. ft f L t. X ft 0) t a : -, RI (t A t. i A\

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vehemently to this. Suddenlyshe is angry.She reportsbeing astoundedat the sentiment expressed in thepoem and regrets havingtrusted Genji. What is she upset about?Sex itself? Sexualcoercion? Not necessarily. Not likely.Her feelings arethose of someonewho has been deceived.So we must ask, why does she feelduped and betrayed onlywhenshe finds out he has long intendedto have a sexual relationship withher?The bestexplanation is probably to be gained by imagining how a man of 22, stillyoungbut quite experienced, wouldundertake thesexualinitiation ofa naYve and innocent youngwomanwithwhomhe has had a four-year platonicrelationship, and withwhomhe hopesto continue to havea long-term romantic relationship. Isn't it morelogical thathe would seduce her,rather than rape her?Might he not have What introduced sexuality to Murasakias a new game, as a spontaneous adventure? fitsthe contextis that Genji coaxed and cajoled Murasaki,that he enticedher to in sexual intimacy participate on groundsthatthe poem thenrevealedto have been a lie. Murasakiis upset,then,becauseshe has learnedthatshe has been deceivedand in choosingto feelsher trusthas been betrayed. Genji may have been inconsiderate use deceitin theprocessof initiating and Murasakiintotheworldofadult sexuality married life,but thereis no evidencethathe rapedher. Laterthesameday Genji is seen thinking ofhimself as, in Seidensticker's terms, a "child thief' (Seidensticker of statutory 1976, 182). This raisesthe specter rape,a the here.Whateverthe minimumage forlegal consent, conceptworthconsidering intentof such laws is to protectthose who are incompetent to consentto sexual relations. While the readermay not have been counting, Murasakihas reachedthe appropriate age forsexualintimacy, althoughshe is described as still naive.It is not impliedthatwe shouldconsider hertoo immature to consent to sexualrelations. The point,then,is thatthereis no reasonto assumethatGenji would nothavebeenable to gain Murasaki'sconsent. Where Seidensticker leads us to imaginestatutory rape, the originalis less inflammatory. A moreliteraltranslation would read: "Tryingto placate her,he was amusedto imagine,forthe first time,what it mightfeellike to have stolena bride."20 The problemis thatMurasaki, with whomhe loves,is angry him. He is comparing his need fortactand diplomacy withsomeonehe has recently taskof trying to win the heartof someonewho alienatedwiththe farmoredifficult hostile.Genji is patronizing toward Murasakion thismorning would be thoroughly after theirfirst and conscientious sexualencounter, but he is also extremely solicitous in arranging The supposition thatGenji raped the ritualfoodssignifying marriage. If we take Murasakiis sheerspeculation and would seem inconsistent and unlikely. thevalue ofvulnerability theinnocent and trusting Murasakiis already intoaccount, and appealing,and Genji is alreadyin a nurturing vulnerable role with her.There into was no motivation forGenji to augmentherdesirability himself and maneuver a benevolent withthetwowomenwho positionas he did byusinglimitedaggression werestrangers to him,Utsusemiand Oborozukiyo.

ResistanceStrategies
The value of vulnerability the typeof strategies affected women mightuse to a was conventional, resistunwantedsexual encounters. Because feminine resistance
kitaramu hito no kokorochi ima hajime nusumimote 20Kimiha, koshirahewabitamahite, surumo ito wokashikute ... (Abe 1970, 2:66). < c 't C6L, 4 b' L a &L )r C t t; e

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genuinely reluctant womanhad to be especially emphaticto get thismessageacross to herunwelcome suitor. Alternatively, she mightuse coldhearted indifference as the means to conveyher disinterest. Thus it was the case thatpassivity thatarosefrom confident indifference mightbe effective,2' althoughpassivity whichstemmed from at all. weakness or fear was no deterrent We have alreadyseen what I count as two successfully thwarted seductions: Utsusemi fendsoffGenji with strenuousarguments about their differing social and hermaritalstatusand Fujitsuborebuffs him resolutely standing yetgraciously, "avoidingexplicitrejoinder" and with "quiet dignity."The obstinate Genji forced these women to make extraordinary efforts to communicatethe fact that their reluctance was real,but he ultimately acquiescedto theirrefusals. A more common reactionto unwelcomeamorous intrusions was passivity. Passivityis a dangerousstrategy, especiallyin a culturethat findsvulnerability appealing.Indeed,it worked or temporarily. onlyrarely Oftenit was nota consciously at all, but a failure chosenstrategy of resistance thatis, a helplessness to strategize, bornofpanic. This kind ofpassivity It seemedto enflame was worsethanresistance. men and actuallyincrease the likelihoodof rape. The onlyfully successful exampleofa displayofextreme passivity used to rebuff an ardent suitoris foundin TheChangelings (Torikaebaya monogatari, twelfth century). This exampleseemsproblematic at first becauseit is imperative to theplot thatSaisho be thwarted in his attempt to seduce Naishi no Kami. The situationis thatNaishi a male posingas a womanand thissecret no Kami is actually is neverto be revealed to Saisho.On theother hand,however, we maysurely thattheauthor presume would in a waythatreaders chooseto depictNaishi no Kami's resistance wouldhaveaccepted as plausible.So, how does she manageto fendoff thisfellow? When Naishi no Kami thatSaisho has sneakedinto her bedroom, finds she is startled but not distraught: "being a prudentand restrained sort,she seemed to stayabsolutelystill" (Willig He spendstwo nights 1983, 79). Saisho is the one who "wept and was distressed." and the day in betweenwith her,and seeks to win her compliance with his desires herand weeping,but she never between by alternating reproaching yields.Not until to dawn on the secondmorning does she finally speak to him. Insteadofresponding thatshe expectsherfather he has said, she simplyremarks and brother to anything him therewill be troubleif theyfindhim in herquarters. arrive soon and reminds Then in themostprosaicofpoems,she flatly announces thatshe has no intention of everhavinganything to do withhim. At thispointSaisho finally givesup withthe that"[tjherewas nothing thought morethel could saywithoutbeingunkind"(80). What is intriguing here is that the text depicts Naishi no Kami as successfully herself to this man. She seems to have remained defending by simplynot reacting and virtually thewholetime.Although impassive motionless shedoes speakto Saisho at the last minute,she is completely calm and absolutely aloofwhenshe does so. It that while none of the characters seems significant Saisho amorouslypursues his feelings, Naishi no Kami is the onlyone who escapeshis embrace. reciprocates (This is also an exampleof a man displaying as a courtship vulnerability strategy, althoughit does notworkin thiscase. Nevertheless, Saisho'sweepingand wailingto his longingforNaishi no Kami is a tacticthatthe readerseemsexpectedto express
is a good exampleof confident 21Asagao indifference from afar. deterring Genji's interest Insofar as theirrelationship is conductedat a distance, it providesno usefuldata for however, thisstudy.

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acceptas an appropriate one.) It is becauseNaishi no Kami is stouthearted thatshe is able to maintain herstanceofplacid passivity forso manyhours. A strategy of passivity has its limits,however.In The Confessions ofLady Nijo (Towazugatari, c. 1310), thedistraught passivity displayed by theyouthful LadyNijo on herfirst nightin thecompany ofEmperor GoFukakusais a result ofhershockand dismay at this sudden, arranged'marriage.'She is to be a concubineand this relationship has been sanctioned by herfather. Althoughno one has told herwhatto expect,she has beenadvisedto be cooperative: Her father has cautioned her:"A ladyin-waiting should neverbe stubborn, but should do exactlyas she's told" (Brazell 1973, 4). Clearlyshe has no say in the matter and thereis no need forthe Emperor to go through the motionsof courtship with her,but he does. When he findsher asleep on whatis supposedto be thenightofhis first conjugalvisit,he letshersleep at great on, himself falling asleep by herside. When theybothawaken,he confesses, length, his long-standing affection forher.Her onlyresponse is to cry;she seemsto have expectedhim to take advantageof her completeand utterpowerlessness. She writes to force how he continued specifically: "He did notattempt me" and describes to try to induceherto be responsive to his attentions. This situation lastedthewhole him even a singlewordof response" night:"The nightpassed withoutmy offering (5-6). The second night she again remainedmute and reportsthat she "lay motionless" (8). This time,however, her resistance to the Emperor is motivated by her loyalty to anotherlover.Her strategy of passivity workedthe first night.The thatone night, Emperor acquiescedto herreluctance for trying to winhercooperation first withdeclarations of love,and thenby alternately "scoldingand comforting" (6) her.He would not,however, tolerate the secondnightofrefusal, and finally toreher clothesin theprocess ofcommitting whatis indisputably a rape.LadyNijo's account showsthe limitsof the effectiveness of a strategy of passivity, but perhapsit clearly all themoreremarkable thatthiswas thetacticshe choseand thatit was is therefore effective foranytimeat all. An exampleof the factthatpassivity accompanied by the displayof emotional a man's interest is foundin TheTale ofGenji. distress seemsonlyto haveexacerbated Kashiwagi and the Third Princess (Genji's principal wife at the time) take to newextremes. menwooingwomenalternated between Whereasother vulnerability and assertiveness, of the flattery, cajolery, Kashiwagi'sonly stancein his courtship as Third Princessis that of the desperately lovesickadmirer.He presents himself but regret, thoroughly pitiable;his love has beencausinghim nothing pain,fear, and herby bargingin, suffering (Seidensticker 1976, 613). Althoughhe has frightened it does not occurto him to consoleher.Kashiwagihad imaginedthe ThirdPrincess If she had been such a person,his patheticappeal might as haughty and dignified. nowhere havegained him his simpledesire,but she is, quite to the contrary, nearas ofmind mature shouldwarrant. She lacksthepresence as herage oftwenty-one years thatshe is unable to realizethatshe has theupperhand. She is so vulnerable herself craves. Even though to muster the modicum of compassionhe so desperately no more than revealing his love forthe Third Princessand Kashiwagi anticipates a longs forno morethan a kind word fromher,she is quite incapableof uttering she is described as terrified, single syllable.In the courseof theirnight'sencounter and weeping(cf.613-15). Having trembling, speechless, appalled,in a stateofshock, expectedher to be aloofand intimidating, Kashiwagi findsher distress endearing. to control and docile.Thus,his intentions Kashiwaginow sees heras sweet,adorable, his feelings of his desire, dissolve,a gap in the narrative impliesthe consummation and she becomespregnant.

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In other scenesofsexualintimacy we garner at leasta hintofthewoman'sfeelings from the narrator. Here thereis no indication of acquiescenceby the Third directly Princessanywhere exceptin Kashiwagi'smind. His interpretation of her failure to resist as willingness to indulgehim is completely arbitrary. Howeverself-serving this thathe takesthetrouble thatshehasconsented is, thefact to convince himself suggests that he does, on some level, possessa moral standardthat forbids sexual coercion. Even more interesting is the fact that sexual intercourse does not satisfyhim He growsmoreand moredesperate foran expression emotionally. ofsympathy from her.As she remains into despair.He threatens mute,he descendsfurther to die of a brokenheartif she does not at least tell him that she feelscompassionforhim. ofhis leaving,theThirdPrincess Consoledat theprospect finally managesto express herself and Kashiwagideparts, morein love withherthanever. For another of passivity bornof distress, let us look exampleof the uselessness again at the romantic careerof Saisho,who was cowed by Naishi no Kami's frigid rebuff. This is the onlytime he acceptssuch a defeat.Twice he has sexual relations withwomenwhoobviously do notwantthem.Neither womanis described as resisting is perfectly clear.The first Saisho,but theirreluctance exampleis whenhe intrudes a female on Yon no Kimi,whois married to Chunagon, passingas a man.This married couple enjoya totallyplatonicrelationship and Yon no Kimi is describedas quite ignorant ofthephenomenon ofsexualintercourse. Saishointrudes uponherso brazenly thatshe first assumeshe is her husband,but when she realizeshe is not,she hides herfacein her robesand thencriesout in fright whenhe pulls herinto a curtained to Naishi no Kami's cool impassivity, sleepingarea. In contrast Yon no Kimi is ofexpressing He does notgive distraught. Saishois immuneto thismanner rejection. Yon no Kimi any chance to regain her composure.He seems to assault her He does not even speak to her,exceptforthe poem he recitedas he immediately. he has rapedher.Only thendoes he tryto comfort herand to bargedin, untilafter a matter his behavior theirrelationship rationalize by declaring offate(Willig 1983, distinct that 43; Suzuki 1976, 35). With Genji we could observe stagesof behavior movedfrom limitedaggression to efforts to calm a woman'sfears, and onlythento sexual intimacy.22 himself Saisho,on the otherhand, seems to have quicklyforced womanand thenexpectedherto make the best of and vulnerable upon a frightened it. His passionforYon no Kimi first flared whenhe glimpsedher beauty,but now thatshe is pitiableas well as desirable, he fallsdeeplyin love withher. Some dayslaterSaisho finally Yon no Kimi's feelings in thinking acknowledges back over theirencounter as he pondershis next move. This is when he seems to and rejectthe idea of rapeexplicitly, consider eventhoughwe have just readofhim that.When Saisho first realizedthatChanagon has not consummated doing exactly his marriage withYon no Kimi, he could imagineno other thansomereligious reason vow on Chanagon'spart(Willig 1983, 44). Revisiting thisquestiona fewdayslater, it occursto him thatChanagon had chosennot to force Yon himself on a reluctant no Kimi. But Saisho has no such scruples.His next thoughtis to kidnap Yon no talkshimself out of it. His logic is purely Kimi, althoughhe immediately practical, thatshe does not at all reciprocate not moral.He reminds himself his love (indeed, she will not even communicate with him) and concludesthat forcing his way into herquarters would be fruitless this as a moral (Suzuki 1976, 38). Willig translates
22Even in the case of Utsusemi,when sexual intercourse is assumed,it is calculatedas comingafter mucheffort by Genji to gain Utsusemi'swillingparticipation, after immediately the narrator compares herto unbreakable bamboo (Abe 1970, 1:178).

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imperative, expressed colloquially:"I can't forcemyself on her" (46).23 Rather,he seemsto be thinking thatit is not feasible a kidnapping veryspecifically could lead to a cordialrelationship. What he is really doing is conceding thatimposinghimself on heris not a good strategy forwinningherheart:"She no doubt remembers me as and hateful" unfeeling (47). Yet Saishodoes notgive up his amorous ofYon no Kimi. He gainsaccess pursuit to herbypressuring herattendant to let himintoherquarters. Yon no Kimi continues to weep and worry through theirencounters, but she beginsto find Saishoattractive because Saisho also displaysvulnerability: "at each of these fleeting meetings, the weepingand distraught Saishoseemedenchanting and attractive. As timepassed,Yon no Kimi was obliged to recognize his sincerity" (Willig 1983, 49). The secondtimeSaisho imposeshimself on an unwillingpartner, he meetsand blatantrejection. ignores One evening withhis dearest Saishohas been talking friend of Naishi no Kami and 'husband'of Yon no Kimi). Chanagon (supposed 'brother' in his own rightand also because of Saisho has alwaysfoundChanagon attractive with two womenSaisho loves (Chunagon's'sister,' Chanagon'srelationships Naishi no Kami, and his wife, Yon no Kimi). Chanagon has been treatingSaisho affectionately, offering solace to his lovelorn friend.Suddenly Saisho embraces his love forhim. Chunagonis annoyed, rebuffs Chanagon,declaring verbally Saisho, him verybluntlythreetimes,and triesto get up to leave. But Saisho chastising ignores Chanagon'swords,embraces his friend even morefirmly, that and discovers At thispointChanagon'sresistance female. He treats crumbles. Chanagonis actually but otherwise ceasesto objectto Saisho'sembrace. He feelsthat, Saishocoldly, having been revealed as female, he mustact like a woman,and theonlybehavior appropriate "I [can't] act manlyand strong, fora womanis passivity: fornow he knowsI am not what I should be" (Willig 1983, 85). Chanagon's efforts to pull away from Saisho at beingembraced and his protests are themostemphatic resistance depictedin this on Saisho. Saisho is a man with no moralconstraints literature, but it has no effect whatsoever. He was intimidated but brushes by Naishi no Kami's calm indifference, aside a man'sdirect opposition and is quick to takeadvantage ofa woman'sweakness. has limitsthatseemto arisefrom heryears ofexperience Chanagon'svulnerability as a man. The relationship betweenSaisho and Chunagonlasts long enough fora child to be born,but thenshe seizesa chanceto fleeand hide from him.Yet despite at the powerSaisho has overher,Chanagon is affected her indignation by Saisho's own vulnerability. touchedby During theirtimetogether Chunagonis occasionally We read, forexample,that Saisho's love when it is manifested through suffering. "Chunagoncould not but be moved by Saisho's pained expression" (Willig 1983, based on thefactthat"his tearshad flowed 89). She also acceptsthatSaishois sincere so profusely" decides she should align her (98). Ultimately, Chanagon grudgingly and liveas a woman,but sheis unableto tolerate biologicaland socialidentities being on the fickle dependent Saisho.With the help ofNaishi no Kami, who has switched in order to find themissingChanagon,she escapesfrom and genders Saisho'sclutches the Emperor! marries eventually a case ofvarying Thereis one last relationship to consider, degreesand methods in thisdramaare on a womanto requiteone's love. The players of puttingpressure Lady Nijo and Ariake,a priestwhoseforbidden passionforLady Nijo leads him to withAriake,Lady Nijo breaks After outbursts. hysterical engagingin a casual affair it off whenthesecrecy becomeburdensome and Ariake'sdeepening required feelings
23Midareiru beki you mo nashi(Suzuki Hiromichi1976, 38). ELQ7& t 7- O 5 t 's L.

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(Brazell 1973, 87). One wayAriakepressures Lady Nijo is to blame herforhis own upon self-destructive urgestriggered byhis unrequited love.Another wayis to prevail heruncleto intercede on hisbehalf. This uncletries to makeLadyNijo feelresponsible the threat forAriake'sanguish,and he articulates implicitin Ariake'spain (89): The contemporary beliefwas thatwhensomeonesuffered from unrequited love,his or her harmon a rivalor the beloved.24 soul mightleave the bodyand inflict Lady Nijo is indeedterrified, but thismotivates herto avoid,not approach Ariake(91). Her fears suffers areconfirmed and herresolve apparently strengthened whenshesoonthereafter a nosebleed,briefly loses consciousness, and is bedridden forseveraldays,since she Ariake's attributes thisillnessto Ariake'sfury at beingspurned. Some fewyears later, ofit and advisesLadyNijo to acquiesce passionunabated, Emperor GoFukakusalearns to Ariake's desire because he fearsthat Ariake's anguish might lead the man's uncontrollable spirit to do her serious harm (91, 123). Lady Nijo still seems forher to be disinclinedto requiteAriake'slove, but when the Emperorarranges alone with Ariake,she yields to him (125). We should note that Lady Nijo was at resisting successful Ariakewhenhe pleaded forherlove at a distance.Her resolve she did not waver,even in the faceof severepressure. Yet, in his physical presence, neverrefused his embrace. by Initiallyaverseto resuming romantic involvement and occasionally troubled theintensity ofAriake'spassionforher,LadyNijo ultimately givesherheartto him. Male vulnerability is a significant partofwhatwinsherover,bothduringtheirfirst, and again, when theirrenewedrelationship casual affair, leads to the birthof two to two thingsthatmove her: one is Ariake's children. Lady Nijo refers specifically eloquence,and theotheris his pain. To give just one exampleof the latter: until thebells We talked thenight, andweeping sounded together through laughing withtears, at dawn. WhenI roseto leave, I sawAriake with the choked struggling that ofhisfeelings. thought we might never meet again.I wasmoved bythedepth reflected On mysleeves, In tears, thedawnmoon. it wouldremain Ifonly after Here, daybreak. addsthemeaning, ifonly Ariake couldstay.] [A punhere I keptthis to love? Had I alsosurrendered poemto myself. myheart (Brazell 1973,134)

Conclusion
I have argued that, judging fromthe situationspresentedin Japanesecourt was a highly of love, and vulnerability literature, pitywas a significant component thatmen in courtsociety tendedto consider sexual valued trait.I havealso suggested coercionof women,at least women of equal or higherstatus,to be bad formand it. The currency of this notion is almost fromit or rationalized usually refrained in the processof a seductionand by the obscuredby the commonuse of aggression by the factthatalthoughthisattitudemightbe called a norm,it was not enforced
unrequited to notethatwhen,in TheTale ofGenji,LadyRokujo suffered 24It is provocative suffering, his love, herspiritattackedherfemalerivals,while in thiscase of a man similarly somelogic,otherthanthatwomenmust spirit avengesitself on thewomanhe blames.Is there thatwould explainthisasymmetry? suffer,

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impositionof any consequencesforviolating it. Indeed, the phenomenon of the attractiveness of pitiable women underminedthe disinclination to rape. Sexual aggression was one wayto concretize a woman'svulnerability, thereby enhancing her a man's desire. But this was not always the case. Every appeal and intensifying aggressive maneuver was not a seamlesssexual assault.Genji is depictedas having used limitedaggression as a strategy to facilitate his takinga consoling, nurturing his chancesof winninga woman'strustand postureand thus,ironically, increasing indulgence. On theother hand,insofar as a woman'sinterests tendedtoward ongoing relationships, theconnections leadingfrom desireto rape,to pity, and thento a loving attachment meantthata womanmight,on occasion,salvagesomething worthwhile a sexual assault. Both Yon no Kimi and Lady Nijo develop fromhaving suffered withthe men who initially assaultedthem. satisfying relationships Another facetof the link betweenpity and love is that it was genderneutral. That is, women were also drawn to pathetic men. Men oftenfound their love reciprocated once theyrevealed themselves as suffering theagonyofunrequited love. is added to our understanding new dimension of the nature Finally, yetanother when we realize that this link of women'slives, at least as depictedin literature, betweenpityand love gave womena meansby whichto discourage sexualassaults. iftheyavoidedappearing able to fendoff unwanted suitors Women weresometimes a womancould conveysuch insensitivity thata vulnerable. By behavingas if inert, was so highly man'sardor mightbe dampened. Sinceemotionality valued,ifa woman comported herself withtheheartlessness of,as a common Japanese metaphor puts it, a rockor a tree,she had a chance,however slim,to control accessto herbody.

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