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I Introduction d i
Topics Per Unit Basis Symmetrical S t i lC Components t Component Modelling Faults l & Sequence Networks k
a[per unit]
P Unit Per U i
Example: If V = 120 [ [V] ] and we select Vb = 80 [ [V], ], then
V
[pu]
P Unit Per U i
Percent Definition
If the per unit value is multiplied by 100, the quantity q y is expressed p in p percent with respect p to the base quantity. For the F th previous i example, l we say the th voltage lt i is 150% (1.5 x 100) of the base voltage of 80 [V].
P Unit Per U i
Per unit conversion requires us to select a base quantity How do we make the selection?
Answer: Select two quantities as the base from the following: voltage, current, power, impedance, admittance
Which do we choose?
Answer: A Generally G ll choose h voltage lt and d power.
P Unit Per U i
Why Voltage and Power?
Voltage. For each voltage level in our system, we know the rated voltage of equipment, and even if loading changes, changes the voltage does not deviate too much from the rated value. Power. The range of power flowing in a section of the system is quadratically related with the voltage voltage. As such, the range of expected power flow is known for an area. Note, for transmission level analysis, it is c sto a to select a base power customary o e of 100 MVA MVA. Note: The base power is usually selected to be the same for the entire network.
C Conventions i
Unless specifically stated, stated the following quantities are always complex numbers: V, , I, , Z, , Y, , S, ,t All other quantities are real numbers, such as R, X, G, B, L, C, P, Q
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T Terminology i l
V I Z Y S t R X G B Voltage Current Impedance Admittance Complex Power Turn Ratio Resistance Reactance Conductance Susceptance L C P Q |S| Inductance Capacitance Active Power Reactive Power Apparent Power
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P Unit Per U i
Selecting Quantities
Vb = Vf -f Sb = S3f
Voltage y selected as the nominal p phase-to-phase p voltage g at each Usually voltage level Power y selected in the range g of 3 3-phase p p power flowing g in the Usually network (i.e. whatever network is being analyzed) For transmission level analysis, it is customary to select a base power of 100 MVA. The base power is usually selected to be the same for the entire network.
POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE
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3V
[V] f -f b
Vf[V] - n b =
Vf[V] -f b 3
[W ] b
(V
2 [V] f -f b
[VA] 3f b
[Siemens] b
1 = [W] Zb
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Ex:
Smotor
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[units] [pu.new base] [units] A[pu.old base] Ab.old = A Ab b ld b.new [units] Ab.old b old [units] Ab.new
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b.new
2 [VA] Sb.new [VA] S b.old
b.new
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History Hi
Charles LeGeyt Fortescue
1876 Born in York Factory, Manitoba 1898 First engineer to graduate from Queens University at Kingston in Ontario Joined Westinghouse after graduation and spent his entire career there 1913 Co-authored h d paper on measurement of f hi high h voltage using sphere gap, a method still used to this day (97 years later) Obtained 185 patents in his career in design transformers, insulators, and DC and AC power circuits
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History Hi
Charles LeGeyt Fortescue (cont (contd) d)
1921 Elected AIEE Fellow 1930 Paper in Electric Journal that outlined direct stroke theory, which is said to have completely revolutionized the approach to the li h i problem. lightning bl L Led d to adoption d i of f overhead h d static lines. 1936 Died in December at age 60
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History Hi
Charles LeGeyt Fortescue (cont (contd) d)
1918 - Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) included the classic paper f Symmetrical y Co-Ordinates Applied pp to the Method of Solution of Polyphase Networks
88 pages long 24 additional pages of discussion 303 numbered b d equations i bewildering exhibit of subscripts to be found in it is something that will, well, make one pause Vladimir Karapetoff suggested that the term symmetrical components was a more correct and descriptive expression
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S Symmetrical i l C Co-Ordinates O di
What are Symmetrical Components?
Any set of N unbalanced phasors that is, any such polyphase signal can be expressed as the sum of N symmetrical sets of balanced phasors. phasors Only a single frequency component is represented by the phasors. This is overcome by using techniques such as Fourier or LaPlace transforms. transforms Absolutely general and rigorous and can be applied to both steady state and transient problems. It is thoroughly h hl established bl h d as preeminently l the h only l effective method of analyzing general polyphase network problems
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
Set of three phasors, phasors say Xa, Xb and Xc can be represented as a sum of the three sequence sets X a = X a 0 + X a1 + X a 2 X b = X b 0 + X b1 + X b 2 X c = X c 0 + X c1 + X c 2 where X a 0 , X b 0 , X c 0 is the zero sequence q set X a1 , X b1 , X c1 is the positive sequence set X a 2 , X b 2 , X c 2 is the negative sequence set
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
Only three of the sequence values are unique, unique X a , X a1 , X a 2 , we define a The others can be determined. First, complex operator a. a e j120 = 1120 a 2 = e j 240 = 1240 3 j 360 a = e = 1360 = 1 1 + a + a2 = 0
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
Then, we relate phases within a sequence to the reference, which is a-phase in this example X a0 : X b0 = X a0 , X c0 = X a0 X a1 : X b1 = a 2 X a1 X c 1 = aX a1 X a 2 : X b 2 = aX a 2 X c2 = a2 X a2
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
Rearrange the equations X a = X a 0 + X a1 + X a 2 2 X b = X a 0 + a X a1 + aX a 2 X c = X a 0 + aX a1 + a 2 X a 2 which in matrix form looks like this: 1 1 1 X a 0 Xa 2 a X a1 X b = 1 a X 2 1 a a X a 2 c
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
Using simple notation, we can convert from symmetrical component reference to the phase reference as follows: X phase = TX sym where h 1 1 1 2 T 1 a a 2 1 a a Of course, course the following equation can convert from the phase reference to the symmetrical component reference: X sym = T -1 X phase h
POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
The inverse of the transformation matrix is 1 1 1 1 -1 2 T = 1 a a 3 2 1 a a which in detail, results in the following equations: 1 1 1 X a X a0 1 2 X a1 = 1 a a X b X 3 2 1 a a X c a 2
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Then
1 100 2 a 10 = 100 a 10 0
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Then
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Then
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
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Negative Sequence
This source rotates a machine in a direction opposite of that of the positive sequence
Zero Sequence
C Causes no rotational t ti lf force, but b t instead i t df forms an oscillating (not rotating) field in the machine
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M More C Comments
Symmetrical components is a important tool for analyzing unbalanced states
Three-phase unsymmetrical network and state is converted to three symmetrical networks and states Symmetrical networks can be solved using single phase techniques With Wi h symmetrical i l components we solve l three h interconnected symmetrical networks using single phase analysis, which is easy. Once solved, we use transformation equations to obtain phase quantities
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M More C Comments
Equipment Parameters
Symmetrical components has advantage that parameters in system p y components p are easier to define Because each sequence is a symmetrical threephase h case, the h parameters can b be d defined fi d using i typical three-phase tests.
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The product
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Zn ZY + Z n Zn
I a Zn Zn Ib ZY + Z n I c
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Zn + Zn Zn
I a Zn Zn Ib ZY + Z n I c
0 Zy 0
0 0 Z y
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Generators
Fault Behavior
Sudden change in voltage and current, such as those in faults, , produces p transients Armature current divided into two components
Symmetrical AC component whose associated component in i the h fi field ld is i a DC current DC component whose associated component in the field is an AC current
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Generators
Symmetrical Component Modelling
Principle concern is with symmetrical component and its associated constants DC component often eliminated from studies
Usually not necessary to apply or set protective relays If necessary (e.g. circuit breaker applications), various factors are available from standards, , manufacturers, , or other sources
For synchronous machines, symmetrical AC component can be resolved into three distinct components
Subtransient component the double prime () values Transient component the single prime () values The steady-state component
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Generators
Subtransient Component
Occurs during onset of fault ) approaches armature Subtransient reactance (Xd) leakage reactance but is higher as a result of damper windings, and so on. Subtransient time constant (Td) is very low (because damper windings have relatively high resistance) typically around 0 resistance), 0.01 010 0.05 05 seconds
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Generators
Transient Component
Armature current demagnetizes the field and decrease flux linkages with the field winding ) includes effect of both Transient reactance (Xd) armature and field leakages and is higher than armature leakage reactance, and thus higher than the subtransient reactance Transient i time i constant (Td) varies i typically i ll f from 0.35 to 3.3 seconds Transient i eventually ll d decays For faults, eventually becomes unsaturated direct axis reactance (Xd)
Steady-State Component
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Generators
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Generators
Negative Sequence
Subtransient reactance can be measured by blocking the rotor with the field winding shorted and applying single phase voltage across any two terminals As position of rotor is changed, measured reactance varies considerably if machine has salient poles without dampers (and very little damper winding exists) or if the machine has a round rotor For negative sequence, similar phenomenon exists except t rotor t i is at t 2f with ith relation l ti t to fi field ld set t up b by applied voltage Good approximation: X 2 = 1 2 Xd + Xq
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Generators
Zero Sequence
Varies quite a lot Depends largely on pitch and breadth factors of armature winding Generally, X0 is much smaller than X1 and X2 values
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Generators
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I d i M Induction Machines hi
Positive Sequence Changes from stalled to running ~0.15 5p pu stalled (Xd) ) 0.91.0 pu running Negative Sequence Remains e a se effectively ect e y co constant sta t ~0.15 pu (Xd) Zero Sequence 0.0 if wye ungrounded or delta connected
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T Transformers f
Modelling
Usually modelled as a series impedance Shunt parameters can be calculated by review of transformer tests. Shunt parameters dont generally impact analysis Transformer winding configuration determines sequence networks Three winding transformers have interesting sequence networks, but close inspections shows them to be intuitive
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Zi Z Transformer Zig-Zag T f
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T Transmission i i Lines Li
Positive and Negative Sequence Impedance
Passive component Assume line transpositions
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T Transmission i i Lines Li
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T Transmission i i Lines Li
Zero Sequence Impedance
More involved Assumptions
Zero sequence current divides equally between conductors Conductors C d are parallel ll l to ground d Earth is a solid with a plane surface, infinite in extent, , and of uniform conductivity y
None of the assumptions are true We get acceptable error with these assumptions Line design affects calculation techniques
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F l Faults
Definition
A fault is any condition in a system considered abnormal yp Basic Types
Short-Circuit Faults Open-Circuit Faults Combined Faults
Shunt Faults
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F l Faults
Series Faults
Open phase Open neutral Two open phases Impedance in a phase
Combination Faults
See connection diagrams
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D l W Summary Delta-Wye S
3 3-Phase Fault LL Fault
Behaves as expected, same current both sides Must coordinate full fault current on primary with 0.866 factor on secondary (i.e. coordination interval) For solidly grounded system, shift damage curve y 0.577 577 to p protect against g by full fault current on secondary
SLG Fault F lt
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