Change

Manageme
nt
Change
Management
Report

Submitted by: Mian Zulfiqar Ali Shah

Shamsullah
Shahzad
Rizwan
Amir Nasir Yousufzai
Ikramullah

Submitted to: Sir Qazi Waheed-uz-

Zaman
Management course
instructor
Date of submission: June 03, 2009

By the students of MBA 1st Semester Group ‘c’

Preface
With the name of ALLAH, the most merciful. As
we know that the companies have today involved in
globalization, the environment affecting the
companies is huge. For certain purposes the
uncertainty has increased, thus causing different
situations for the companies to deal with. The need
for change comes here.
From a local shop to a multi-billion revenue
generator company, the change is equally welcome.
The report that we have made can show some of the
ways, how to manage the change. The change
management is all about managing the change in a
way so as not to offend the parties involved.
The report we made shows what types of
changes are there, some problems that arise during
the course of changing, the best ways of changing &
how to cope with the resistances. This report can
surely help you getting the idea of change and
change management in a better way.

Acknowledgements
It was a gratifying experience for all of us,
the group members. We have been working on
this report over the period of a month, from the
collection of data, to verification of data, to
study it together, to get the extractions etc.
Among our group members we thank
Rizwan for providing the data & Zulfiqar for
shaping it in report form.
Also specially thanks to Sir Qazi Waheed for
giving us the guidelines whenever we needed.
“There is at least one point in the history of
any company when you have to change
dramatically to rise to the next performance
level. Miss the moment and you start to
decline.”
Andy Grove
 CEO Intel

Table of contents

• Introduction To Change Management

• Overview Of The Change Management

• Model Of Planned Organizational Change

 Forces For Change

• Steps For Effective Organizational Change

 Assess the need for change
 Initiate change
  Implement change
 Evaluate the change

• Types Of Planned Change

 Technology Changes
 New-Product Changes
 Structural Changes
 Culture/People Changes

Introduction To Change Management

Modern companies are in a state of cultural change. From working more or less
alone to solving specific tasks, we are now required to work in an interdependent way.
Teamwork is vital. The work way we do is also changing. Most tasks, even everyday
task, need to be solved as if it were a project.
These changes require that we alter what we expect from the people we work
with. We have to change the values we live by. Values like awareness, teamwork,
tolerance, responsibility and information are paramount – just as flexibility and change
readiness.
We need a new way to handle our jobs, we need to work project oriented. This
poses a problem to many companies as they realize that there is a big difference in
working project oriented to solve specific tasks vs. working project oriented all the time
project. Our daily lives are becoming project oriented. (1 )

Overview

What is Change Management?

 Change management is a structured approach to transitioning individuals, teams,
and organizations from a current state to a desired future state. The current definition of
Change Management includes both organizational change management processes and
individual change management models, which together are used to manage the people
side of change. (2 )

Why use Change Management?

Change Management is proactive technical support focused on preventing
incidents and problems by effective planning.

Some of the benefits are:

• Consistent planning for change
• Consistent planning in case of failure of change
• Communication with appropriate parties before change occurs
• Approval received from appropriate parties before change occurs
• Reduction in incidents and problems caused by unplanned change
• Time spent on preparation and prevention rather than fire fighting and downtime. (3)

Model Of Planned Organizational

Change
Change can be managed. By observing external trends, patterns and needs,
managers use planned change to help the organization to adapt to external problems and
opportunities. When organizations are caught flat footed, failing to anticipate or respond
to new needs, management is at fault.

Four events make up the change sequence:

• Internal and external forces for change exist
• Organization managers monitor these forces and become aware of a need for
change; and
• The perceived need triggers the initiation for change, which
• Is then implemented.

How each of these activities is handled depends upon the organization and
managers’ styles.
Forces For Change
Forces for organizational change exist both in the external environment and
within the organization.

Environmental Forces
External forces originate in all environmental sectors, including customers, competitors,
technology, economic forces, and the international arena.

Internal Forces
Internal forces for change arise from internal activities and decisions. If top managers
select a goal of rapid company growth, internal actions will have to be changed to meet
that growth.

Steps For Effective Organizational

Change
The four steps for organizational change process are as follows:

 Assess the need for change

 Initiate change
 Implement change
 Evaluate the change
 Evaluate the
change
Compare
prechange
performance
with postchange
performance

Assess the need Initiate

change Implement
Recognize that
Decide what change
there is a problem
Identify the organizations Introduce
source of the ideal future the change
problem state would be

Assessing the need for the change

The external and internal forces translate into a perceived need for change
within the organization. Managers sense a need for change when there is a
performance gap—a disparity between existing and desired performance levels.
The performance gap may occur because current procedures are not up to standard
or because a new idea or technology could improve current performance.
Managers in every company must be alert to problems and opportunities,
because the perceived need for change is what sets the stage for subsequent action
that creates a new product or technology. Big problems are easy to spot. Sensitive
monitoring systems are needed to detect gradual changes that can fool managers
into thinking their company is doing changes slowly, because managers may fail to
trigger an organizational response.

Initiating change
 After the need for change is perceived, the next part of the change process is
initiating change, a truly critical aspect of change management. This is where the ideas
are developed.

Search
Search is the process of learning about current developments inside or outside the
organization that can be used to meet the perceived need for change. Search typically
uncovers existing knowledge that can be applied or adopted within the organization.
Managers talk to friends and colleagues, read professional reports, or hire consultants to
learn about ideas used elsewhere.

Creativity
Creativity is the development of novel solutions to the perceived problems.
Creative individuals develop idea that can be adopted by the organization.
Each of us has the capacity to be creative. Creative people are often known for
originality, open-mindedness, curiosity, a focused approach to problem solving,
persistence, a relaxed and playful attitude, and receptive to new ideas.
Creativity can be designed into organizations. Companies or departments within
companies can be organized to be creative and initiate changes.

Idea Champions And New-Venture Teams

If creative conditions are successful, new ideas will be generated that must be
carried forward for acceptance and implementation. This is where idea champions come
in. The formal definition of the idea champion is a person who sees the need for and
champions productive change within the organization.
Personal energy and effort are required to successfully promote a new idea. Often a new
idea is rejected by the management. Champions are passionately committed to a new
product or idea despite rejection by others.

Implementing Change
 Creative culture, idea champions and new-venture teams are ways to facilitate the
initiation of new ideas. The other step to be managed in the change process is
implementation. A new, idea will not benefit the organization until it is in place and being
fully utilized.
One frustration for managers is that employees often seem to resist change for no
apparent reason. To effectively manage the implementation process, managers should be
aware of the reason for employee resistance and be prepared to use. Techniques for
obtaining employee cooperation are:

Resistance To Change
Idea champion often discover that other employees are unenthusiastic about their
new idea. Members of a new-venture group may be surprised when managers in the
regular organization do not support or approve their innovations. Several reasons for
employee resistance are:

Self-Interest. Employees typically resist a change they believe will take away
something of value. A proposed change in job design, structure, or technology may lead
to a perceived loss of power, prestige, pay, or many company benefits. The fear of
personal loss is perhaps the biggest obstacle to organizational change.

Lack Of Understanding And Trust. Employees often do not understand the intended
purpose of a change or distrust the intentions behind it. If the previous working
relationships with an idea champion have been negative, resistance may occur.

Uncertainty. Uncertainty is the lack of information about future events. It represents a

fear of the unknown. Uncertainty is especially threatening for employees who have a low
tolerance for a change and fear the novel and unusual.

Different Assessment And Goals. Another reason for resistance to change is that
people who will be affected by innovation may asses the situation differently from an
idea champion or new-venture group. Managers in different departments pursue different
goals and an innovation may detract from performance and goal achievement for some
departments.
The reasons for resistance are legitimate in the eyes of employees affected by the
changes. The best procedure for managers is not to ignore resistance but to diagnose the
reasons and design strategies to gain acceptance by users.
The strategies for overcoming resistance to change typically involve two
approaches: the analysis of resistance through the force field technique and the use of
selective implementation tactics to overcome resistance.
Force Field Analysis
It’s the process of determining which forces drive and which resist a proposed
change. To implement a change, management should analyze the change forces. By
selectively removing forces that restrain change, the driving forces will be strong enough
to enable implementation. As restraining forces are reduced or removed, behavior will
shift to incorporate the desired changes.

Implementation Tactics

The other approach to managing implementation is to adopt specific tactics to overcome

employee resistance. The following five tactics have proven successful:

Communication and Education. Communication and education are used when solid
information about the change is needed by users and others who may resist
implementation. Education is especially important when the change involves new
technical knowledge or users are unfamiliar with the idea.

Participation. Participation involves users and potential resisters in designing the

change. This approach is time consuming, but it pays off because users understand and
become committed to the change.

Negotiation. Negotiation is more formal means of achieving cooperation. Negotiation

uses formal bargaining to win acceptance and approval of a desired change.

Coercion. Coercion means that managers use formal power to force employees to
change. Resisters are told to accept the change or lose rewards or even their jobs.
Coercion is necessary in crisis situation when a rapid response is urgent.

Top Management Support. The visible support of top management also helps
overcome resistance to change. Top management support symbolizes to all employees
that the change is important for the organization.

Evaluating The Change

The last step in the change process is to evaluate how successful the change effort has
been in improving organizational performance. Using measures such as changes in market share,
profits, or the ability of manages to meet their goals, managers compare how well an organization
is performing after the change with how well it was performing before. Managers also can use
benchmarking, comparing their performance on specific dimensions with the performance of
high-performing organizations to decide how successful the change effort has been.
Types Of Planned Change

Now that we have explored how the initiation and implementation of change can
be carried out, let us look at the different types of change that take place in organizations.
The types of organization changes are strategy, technology, products, structure,
and culture/ people. Organizations may innovate in one or more areas, depending on
internal and external forces or change. In the rapidly changing toy industry, a
manufacturer has to introduce new products frequently. In a mature, competitive industry,
production technology changes are adopted to improve efficiency.

Structure

Technolog
y Strategy Products

Culture/
People

In the diagram, the arrows connecting the types of change show that a change in
one part may affect other parts of the organization: a new product may require changes in
technology, and a new technology may require new people skills or a new structure.
Technology Changes
A technology change is related to the organization’s production process—how
the organization does its work. Technology changes are designed to make the production
of a product or service more efficient.
How can managers encourage technology change?
The general rule is that technology change is bottom up. The bottom-up approach
means that ideas initiated at lower organization levels and channeled upward for
approval. Lower level technical experts act as idea champions—they invent and
champion technological changes. Employees at lower levels understand the technology
and have the expertise needed to propose changes.
Managers can facilitate the bottom-up approach by designing creative departments. A
loose, flexible, decentralized structure provides employees with the freedom and
opportunity to initiate continuous improvements. A rigid, centralized, standardized
structure stifles technology innovation. Anything managers do to involve the grass roots
of the organization—the people who are experts in their parts of the production process—
will increase technology change.

New-Product Changes
A product change is a change in the organization’s product or service output.
New-product innovations have major implications for an organization, because they often
are an outcome of a new strategy and may define a new market.
The introduction of a new product is difficult, because it not only involves a new
technology but also must meet customers’ needs. Companies that develop new products
usually have the following characteristics:

 People in marketing have a good understanding of customer needs

 Technical specialists are aware of recent technological developments and make
effective use of new technology
 Members from key departments—research, manufacturing, marketing—cooperate
in the development of new product.

These findings mean that the ideas for new products typically originate at the
lower levels of the organization just as they do for technology changes.
One approach to new product innovation is called the horizontal linkage model.
In this model people from research, manufacturing and marketing departments meet
frequently in teams and task forces to share ideas and solve problems. Research people
inform marketing of new technical developments to learn whether they will be good to
customers. Marketing people pass customer complaints to research to use in the design of
new products. Manufacturing informs other departments whether a product idea can be
manufactured within costs limits.
 This teamwork required for the horizontal linkage model is a major component of
using rapid innovation to beat the competition with speed.
Structural Changes
A structural change is a change in the way in which the organization is designed
and managed. Structural changes involve the hierarchy of authority, goals, structural
characteristics, administrative procedures, and management systems. Almost any change
in how the organization is managed falls under the category of structural change.
Successful structural change is accomplished through a top-down approach,
which is distinct from technology change (bottom up) and new products (horizontal).
Structural change is top down because the expertise for administrative improvements
originates at the middle and upper levels of the organization. The champions for
structural change are middle and top managers. Lower-level technical specialists have
little interest or expertise in administrative procedures. If organization structure causes
negative consequences for lower-level employees, complaints and dissatisfaction alert
managers to a problem. Employee dissatisfaction is an internal force for change. The
need for change is perceived by higher managers, who then take the initiative to propose
and implement it.
The top-down process does not mean that coercion is the best implementation
tactic. Implementation tactics include education, participation, and negotiation with
employees.
Top-down change means that initiation of the idea occurs at upper levels and is
implemented downward. It does not mean that lower-level employees are not educated
about the change or allowed to participate in it.

Culture/People Changes
A culture/people change refers to a change in employees’ values, norms,
attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. Changes in culture and people pertain to how employees
think; these are changes are in mindset rather than technology, structure, or products.
People change pertains to just a few employees, such as when a handful of middle
managers is sent to a training course to improve their leadership skills. Training is the
most frequently used tool for changing the organization’s mindset. A company may offer
training programs to large blocks of employees on subjects such as teamwork, listening
skills, quality circles, and participative management.
Another major approach to changing people and culture is organizational
development.
Organizational Development
Organizational development (OD) is the application of behavioral science
knowledge to improve an organization’s health and effectiveness through its ability to
cope with environmental changes, improve internal relationships, and increase problem-
solving capabilities. Organizational development improves working relationships among
employees.
The following are three types of current problems that OD can help managers
address.

Mergers/Acquisitions. Culture differences should be evaluated during the acquisition

process, and OD experts can be used to smooth the integration of two firms.

Organizational Decline/Revitalization. OD techniques can contribute greatly to cultural

revitalization by managing conflicts, fostering commitment, and facilitating
communication.

Conflict Management. Conflict can occur at any time and place within a healthy
organization. Organizational development efforts can help solve these kinds of conflicts.

OD Activities. A number of OD activities have emerged in recent years. Some of

the most popular and effective are as follows.

Team-Building Activities. Team building enhances the cohesiveness and success of

organizational groups and teams.

Survey-Feedback Activities. Survey feedback begins with a questionnaire distributed to

employees. Employees are engaged in problem solving based on the data received from
questionnaire.

Intergroup Activities. These activities include retreats and workshops to improve the
effectiveness of groups or departments that must work together.

Process-Consultation Activities. Organizational development consultants help managers

understand the human processes within their organization and how to manage them.

Symbolic Leadership Activities. This approach helps managers to use the techniques for
cultural change, including public statements, ceremonies, and slogans.
OD steps. The theory underlying organizational development proposes three
distinct steps for achieving behavioral and attitudinal change: (1) unfreezing, (2)
changing, and (3) refreezing.

In the first step, unfreezing, the diagnostic stage of organizational development

in which participants are made aware of problems in order to increase their willingness to
change their behavior. Diagnosis is done by change agent. This diagnosis helps determine
the extent of organizational problems and help unfreeze managers.
The second step, changing, a step in the intervention stage of organizational
development in which individuals experiment with new workplace behavior. There the
change agent implements a specific plan for training managers and employees.
Refreezing, a step in the reinforcement stage of organizational development in
which individuals acquire a desired new skill or attitude and are rewarded for it by the
organization. (4 )
1
An example of …

Pakistan
Telecommunication
Company
Limited
Pakistan Telecommunication Company
Limited
As recently as in July 2006, privatization process took
place in Pakistan’s largest telecommunication company
PTCL. The company still is the largest but the growth that
this company has shown is by far larger than in some years
before.
PTCL has partially been privatized, 26% of the PTCL
shares are now with a Dubai based company Etisalat.
Etisalat though not has as significant shares yet it is
controlling the management of the PTCL. Under its
management, PTCL is going efficient and well enough to
remain at the top.

Privatization of the PTCL

PTCL has been on the verge of privatization since 1991
and there has been many efforts undertaken for its
privatization, but it was made official in July 2006. There is
still the government as the major shareholder but the
management vests with Etisalat.
The privatization has been beneficial to the company as
a whole, but the individuals involved are still shaky about
their jobs. The company some period before and after the
privatization has been the aim of constant resistance. From
the employees to the people indirectly associated with the
company; all were somewhat against it being privatized. The
government was strongly criticized for it. The protests were
at all time high when the proposed time of privatization was
near; although it was delayed due the protests but never laid
down.

How the PTCL could have managed to avoid

resistance?
The change always comes with a resistance package and history
has witnessed many companies that bowed before these resistances.
The PTCL is one of the first companies of Pakistan that was privatized
so the resistance was obvious. There was a strong resistance by the
employees as well as by the social groups and some of the political
parties.
Now comes the question in concern that how the resistance
could be avoided? It took so long for the government to privatize PTCL
yet there was no as such plan to avoid the inevitable. The privatization
that caused change could be planned properly. No single methodology
fits every company, but there is a set of practices, tools, and
techniques that can be adapted to a variety of situations.

What follows is a “Top 10” list of guiding principles for change

management, some of steps that the company can take:

1. Address the “human side” systematically

2. Start at the top
3. Involve every layer
4. Make the formal case
 5. Create ownership
6. Communicate the message
7. Assess the cultural landscape
8. Address culture explicitly
9. Prepare for the unexpected
10. Speak to the individual

1. Address the “human side” systematically. Any significant

transformation creates “people issues.” New leaders will be asked to
step up, jobs will be changed, new skills and capabilities must be
developed, and employees will be uncertain and resistant. Dealing with
these issues on a reactive, case-by-case basis puts speed, morale, and
results at risk. A formal approach for managing change — beginning
with the leadership team and then engaging key stakeholders and
leaders — should be developed early, and adapted often as change
moves through the organization. This demands as much data collection
and analysis, planning, and implementation discipline as does a
redesign of strategy, systems, or processes. The change-management
approach should be fully integrated into program design and decision
making, both informing and enabling strategic direction. It should be
based on a realistic assessment of the organization’s history,
readiness, and capacity to change.

2. Start at the top. Because change is inherently unsettling for

people at all levels of an organization, when it is on the horizon, all
eyes will turn to the CEO and the leadership team for strength,
support, and direction (govt. in case of PTCL). The leaders themselves
must embrace the new approaches first, both to challenge and to
motivate the rest of the institution. They must speak with one voice
and model the desired behaviors. The executive team also needs to
understand that, although its public face may be one of unity, it, too, is
composed of individuals who are going through stressful times and
need to be supported.

Executive teams that work well together are best positioned for
success. They are aligned and committed to the direction of change,
understand the culture and behaviors the changes intend to introduce,
and can model those changes themselves.

3. Involve every layer. As transformation programs progress from

defining strategy and setting targets to design and implementation,
they affect different levels of the organization. Change efforts must
include plans for identifying leaders throughout the company and
pushing responsibility for design and implementation down, so that
change “cascades” through the organization. At each layer of the
organization, the leaders who are identified and trained must be
aligned to the company’s vision, equipped to execute their specific
mission, and motivated to make change happen.

4. Make the formal case. Individuals are inherently rational and will
question to what extent change is needed, whether the company is
headed in the right direction, and whether they want to commit
personally to making change happen. They will look to the leadership
for answers. The articulation of a formal case for change and the
creation of a written vision statement are invaluable opportunities to
create or compel leadership-team alignment.

Three steps should be followed in developing the case: First, confront

reality and articulate a convincing need for change. Second,
demonstrate faith that the company has a viable future and the
leadership to get there. Finally, provide a road map to guide behavior
and decision making. Leaders must then customize this message for
various internal audiences, describing the pending change in terms
that matter to the individuals.

5. Create ownership. Leaders of large change programs must

overperform during the transformation and be the zealots who create a
critical mass among the work force in favor of change. This requires
more than mere buy-in or passive agreement that the direction of
change is acceptable. It demands ownership by leaders willing to
accept responsibility for making change happen in all of the areas they
influence or control. Ownership is often best created by involving
people in identifying problems and crafting solutions. It is reinforced by
incentives and rewards. These can be tangible (for example, financial
compensation) or psychological (for example, camaraderie and a sense
of shared destiny).

6. Communicate the message. Too often, change leaders make the

mistake of believing that others understand the issues, feel the need to
change, and see the new direction as clearly as they do. The best
change programs reinforce core messages through regular, timely
advice that is both inspirational and practicable. Communications flow
in from the bottom and out from the top, and are targeted to provide
employees the right information at the right time and to solicit their
input and feedback. Often this will require overcommunication through
multiple, redundant channels.
7. Assess the cultural landscape. Successful change programs pick
up speed and intensity as they cascade down, making it critically
important that leaders understand and account for culture and
behaviors at each level of the organization. Companies often make the
mistake of assessing culture either too late or not at all. Thorough
cultural diagnostics can assess organizational readiness to change,
bring major problems to the surface, identify conflicts, and define
factors that can recognize and influence sources of leadership and
resistance. These diagnostics identify the core values, beliefs,
behaviors, and perceptions that must be taken into account for
successful change to occur. They serve as the common baseline for
designing essential change elements, such as the new corporate
vision, and building the infrastructure and programs needed to drive
change.

8. Address culture explicitly. Once the culture is understood, it

should be addressed as thoroughly as any other area in a change
program. Leaders should be explicit about the culture and underlying
behaviors that will best support the new way of doing business, and
find opportunities to model and reward those behaviors. This requires
developing a baseline, defining an explicit end-state or desired culture,
and devising detailed plans to make the transition.

Company culture is an amalgam of shared history, explicit values and

beliefs, and common attitudes and behaviors. Change programs can
involve creating a culture (in new companies or those built through
multiple acquisitions), combining cultures (in mergers or acquisitions of
large companies), or reinforcing cultures (in, say, long-established
consumer goods or manufacturing companies). Understanding that all
companies have a cultural center — the locus of thought, activity,
influence, or personal identification — is often an effective way to
jump-start culture change.

9. Prepare for the unexpected. No change program goes

completely according to plan. People react in unexpected ways; areas
of anticipated resistance fall away; and the external environment
shifts. Effectively managing change requires continual reassessment of
its impact and the organization’s willingness and ability to adopt the
next wave of transformation. Fed by real data from the field and
supported by information and solid decision-making processes, change
leaders can then make the adjustments necessary to maintain
momentum and drive results.

10. Speak to the individual. Change is both an institutional journey

and a very personal one. People spend many hours each week at work;
many think of their colleagues as a second family. Individuals (or teams
of individuals) need to know how their work will change, what is
expected of them during and after the change program, how they will
be measured, and what success or failure will mean for them and those
around them. Team leaders should be as honest and explicit as
possible. People will react to what they see and hear around them, and
need to be involved in the change process. Highly visible rewards, such
as promotion, recognition, and bonuses, should be provided as
dramatic reinforcement for embracing change. Sanction or removal of
people standing in the way of change will reinforce the institution’s
commitment. (5)

Most leaders contemplating change know that people matter. It is all

too tempting, however, to dwell on the plans and processes, which
don’t talk back and don’t respond emotionally, rather than face up to
the more difficult and more critical human issues. But mastering the
“soft” side of change management needn’t be a mystery.

Above are some of the points that PTCL might not had taken into
consideration otherwise the level of resistance would be surely low.
The communication factor was found in less magnitude, between the
employees and the administration. The incentives given to the
employees were not enough to make them feel heard. The job cuts
were far beyond the limits and still the employees are in fear of losing
the jobs. But the brighter side shows that more customers and
subscribers are heading towards the company, thus making it
profitable.

Executive Summary

Change is inevitable in organizations. The trend today

is toward the learning organization, which embraces
continuous learning and change. Managers should think of
change as having four elements—the forces for change, the
perceived need for change, the initiation of change, and the
implementation of change. Forces for change can originate
either within or outside the firm, and managers are
responsible for monitoring events that may require a
planned organizational response. Techniques for initiating
changes include designing the organization for creativity,
encouraging change agents, and establishing new-venture
teams. The final step is implementation. Force field analysis
is one technique for diagnosing restraining forces, which
often can be removed. Managers also should draw on the
implementation tactics of communication, participation,
negotiation, coercion, or top management support.

Also discussed are specific types of changes.

Technology changes are accomplished through a bottom-up
approach that utilizes experts close to the technology.
Successful new-product introduction requires horizontal
linkage among marketing, research and development,
manufacturing, and perhaps other departments. Structural
changes tend to be initiated in a top-down fashion, because
upper managers are the administrative experts and
champion these ideas for approval and implementation.
Culture/people change pertains to the skills, behaviors, and
attitudes of employees. Organizational development is an
important approach to changes in people’s mind-set and
corporate culture. The OD process entails three steps—
unfreezing (diagnosis of the problem), the actual change
(intervention), and refreezing (reinforcement of new
attitudes and behaviors). (6)

References
1
Baekdal, Thomas, (2006). Change Management
Handbook.
2. Technology and immediacy of information (on-line)
available http://www.wikipedia.com
3. Becta (2003) Available
http://www.becta.org.uk/tsas.
4. Daft, Richard L, (1997). Management. Florida:
Dryden Press.
5. Jones, John & Aguirre, DeAnne. (2004). 10
Principles of Change Management: Tools and
techniques to help companies transform quickly.
6. Daft, Richard L, (1997). Management. Florida:
Dryden Press.