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IB Chemistry/Stoichiometry
< IB Chemistry The latest reviewed version was checked on 26 March 2012. There is 1 pending change awaiting review. Jump to: navigation, search
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1 Topic 1 - Stoichiometry o 1.1 1.1 Mole concept & Avogadro's constant 1.1.1 1.1.1: Apply the mole concept to substances. 1.1.2 1.1.2: Determine the number of particles and the amount of substance (in moles). o 1.2 1.2 Formulae 1.2.1 1.2.1: Define the term molar mass (M) and calculate the mass of one mole of a species. 1.2.2 1.2.2: Atomic mass, Molecular Mass, Formula Mass 1.2.3 1.2.3: Define the terms relative molecular mass ( Mr) and relative atomic mass (Ar) 1.2.4 1.2.4: The difference between moles and mass 1.2.5 1.2.5: The difference between the molecular formula and the empirical formula o 1.3 1.3 Chemical Equations 1.3.1 Anatomy of an Equation 1.3.2 Reacting Species 1.3.3 Coefficients 1.3.4 Other Information 1.3.5 Examples 1.3.6 Simple Formulas o 1.4 1.4 Mass relationships in chemical reactions o 1.5 1.5 Solutions 2 TOPIC 1: QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY (12.5 HOURS) o 2.1 Formula and Valency of Ions 2.1.1 SOME COMMON CATIONS 2.1.2 Some Common Anions 3 1.1 MOLE CONCEPT AND AVOGADROS CONSTANT (2H) 1.2 FORMULAS (3H) o 3.1 Relative molecular mass (Mr) and relative atomic mass (Ar). o 3.2 Calculating the mass of one mole of a species from its formula. o 3.3 Applying the mole concept to substances. o 3.4 Solving problems involving amount, mass and molar mass.
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o 3.5 Empirical formula and molecular formula. 4 1.3 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS (1H) o 4.1 Balancing chemical equations o 4.2 The mole ratios of any species in a chemical equation. o 4.3 The state symbols (s), (l), (g) and (aq). 5 1.4 MASS AND GASEOUS VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS (3H) o 5.1 Calculating theoretical yields from chemical equations. o 5.2 The limiting reactant and the reactant in excess: Theoretical, experimental and percentage yield. o 5.3 Avogadros law of volumes of gases. o 5.4 Graphs relating to the ideal gas equation. o 5.5 Molar volume of a gas o 5.6 The relationship between temperature, pressure and volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas. 6 1.5 SOLUTIONS (2H) o 6.1 Solute, solvent, solution and concentration
The molar mass (M) is the mass of one mole's worth of a substance. To find the mass, multiply the amount of moles by the molar mass. [edit] 1.2.2: Atomic mass, Molecular Mass, Formula Mass The molar mass can be found for the periodic table, and will give the mass for 1 mol of the species (or rather the average accounting for different isotopes and their relative abundance). [edit] 1.2.3: Define the terms relative molecular mass ( Mr) and relative atomic mass (Ar) Mr is the ratio between the molar masses of two species. Ar is the ratio of the number of atoms between two species. These two ratios will be equal. there should be more metal compare to copper [edit] 1.2.4: The difference between moles and mass The number of moles refers to the amount of the substance, every mol being 6.02 x 10 23 individual elements. Mass is the property which results in 'weight' in the presence of gravity. Given a molar mass, M a mass m and a number of mols n then n = m / M. [edit] 1.2.5: The difference between the molecular formula and the empirical formula An 'empirical formula' is the formula describing the different atoms present in a molecules, and their ratios, but not the actual number present. For example, AxByCz could be an empirical formula if x, y, and z are in lowest common terms. The molar mass can then be used to calculate the actual numbers of each atom present per molecule. The empirical formula can be determined by percentage composition, or anything else which gives the ratios of atoms present. A 'molecular formula', on the other hand, has the actual number of atoms present in each molecule. It will be an integer multiple of the empirical formula. For example, A2xB2yC2z. Example: If you are given the empirical formula with an equation CH3, and a mass of 30.08 g mol1 . What is the molecular formula of this compound? We will compare the molecular mass of the molecular formula, 30.08 g mol -1, to that of the empirical formula, found to be 15.04 g mol-1. By dividing, we find the ratio to be 2, meaning that the molecular formula must be 2 times as large as the empirical formula. The molecular formula is therefore C2H6.
The type of reactants consumed and products formed The relative amounts of reactants and products
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The electrical charges on ions The physical state of each species (e.g. solid, liquid, gas) The reaction conditions (e.g. temperature, catalysts)
The final two points are optional and sometimes omitted. [edit] Anatomy of an Equation
Hydrogen gas and chlorine gas will react vigorously to produce hydrogen chloride gas. The equation above illustrates this reaction. The reactants, hydrogen and chlorine, are written on the left and the products (hydrogen chloride) on the right. The large number 2 in front of HCl indicates that two molecules of HCl are produced for each 1 molecule of hydrogen and chlorine gas consumed. The 2 in subscript below H indicates that there are two hydrogen atoms in each molecule of hydrogen gas. Finally, the (g) symbols subscript to each species indicates that they are gases. [edit] Reacting Species Species in a chemical reaction is a general term used to mean atoms, molecules or ions. A species can contain more than one chemical element (HCl, for example, contains hydrogen and chlorine). Each species in a chemical equation is written:
E is the chemical symbol for the element, x is the number of atoms of that element in the species and y is the charge (if it is an ion). For example, ethanol would be written because each molecule contains 2 carbon, 6 because it has a double because each molecule
hydrogen and 1 oxygen atom. A magnesium ion would be written positive charge. Finally, an ammonium ion would be written contains 1 nitrogen and 4 hydrogen atoms and has a charge of 1+. [edit] Coefficients
The numbers in front of each species have a very important meaning - they indicate the relative amounts of the atoms that react. The number infront of each species is called a coefficient. In the above equation, for example, one H2 molecule reacts with one Cl2 molecule to produce two molecules of HCl. This can also be interpreted as moles (i.e. 1 mol H2 and 1 mol Cl2 produces 2 mol HCl). [edit] Other Information
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Occasionally, other information about a chemical reaction will be supplied in an equation (such as temperature or other reaction conditions). This information is often written above the reaction arrow. We will ignore this for now, as it only complicates matters (and it's hard to draw in TeX :). 1.3.1 : The mole ratio of two species in a chemical equation is the ratio of their coefficients...ie aX + bY cZ : The ratio of X/Y is a/b, Y/Z = b/c etc. Chemical equations are useful because they give the relative amounts of the substances that react in a chemical equation. For example, from the chemical equation for the formation of ammonia, we can see that one mole of nitrogen gas will combine with three moles of hydrogen gas to form two moles of ammonia gas.
1.3.2 : Balancing equations...change only the coefficients, not the subscripts to make sure all atoms, and charge is conserved (half equations can be balanced by addition of electrons to either side...2 half equations can be added by making the number of electrons equal in each, then vertically adding.) In some cases, however, we may not know the relative amounts of each substance that reacts. Fortunately, we can always find the correct coefficients of an equation (the relative amounts of each reactant and product) by applying the law of conservation of matter. Because matter can neither be created nor destroyed, the total number of each atom on one side of the equation must be the same as the total on the other. This process of finding the coefficients is known as balancing the equation. For example, assume in the above equation that we do not know how many moles of ammonia gas will be produced:
From the left side of this equation, we see that there are 2 atoms of nitrogen gas in the molecule N2 (2 atoms per molecule x 1 molecule), and 6 atoms of hydrogen gas in the 3 H2 molecules (2 atoms per molecule x 3 molecules). Because of the law of conservation of matter, there must also be 2 atoms nitrogen gas and 6 atoms of hydrogen gas on the right side. Since each molecule of the the resultant ammonia gas (NH3) contains 1 atom of nitrogen and 3 atoms of hydrogen, 2 molecules are needed to obtain 2 atoms of nitrogen and 6 atoms of hydrogen. In a similar manner, you can use the law of conservation of matter to solve equations containing a greater number of unknown coefficients (the relative amounts of each reactant and product), or even subscripts (the number of each element in a molecule) on either side of the equation:
1.3.3 : State symbols -- (s)-Solid , (l)-liquid, (g)-gas, (aq)-aqueous solution...i.e. something dissolved in water. Should be included in all chemical reactions (but won't be penalized).
E is the chemical symbol for the element and (state) is the physical state.
The symbols in parentheses (in subscript below each species) indicate the physical state of each reactant or product.
(s) means solid (l) means liquid (g) means gas (aq) means aqueous solution (i.e. dissolved in water) (CH3CH2OH) means dissolved in ethanol - any solvent can be noted this way.
[edit] Examples
Above is the equation for burning methane gas (CH4) in the presence of oxygen (O2) to form carbon dioxide and water: CO2 and H2O respectively.
This is a precipitation reaction in which dissolved lead cations and iodide anions combine to form a solid yellow precipitate of lead iodide (an ionic solid). [edit] Simple Formulas Moles to Particles: number of moles x (6.02 x 1023/1 mole)= number of Particles ex: 2.50 mol Zn x (6.02*1023 atoms of Zn/1 mol Zn)= 1.51 x 1024 atoms of Zn Particles to Moles: number of Particles * (1 mole/6.02 x 1023)= number of moles
Moles to Mass: number of moles x (molar mass/ 1 mole)= number of grams (or other unit of measurement) ex: 3.57 mol Al x (26.982 g Al/ 1 mol Al)= 96.3 g
Mass to Moles: number of grams * (1 mole/ molar mass)= number of moles ex: 25.5 g Ag * (1 mol Ag/ 107.868 g Ag)= 0.236 mol
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ex: Na2CO3 = 2(mass of Na)+ mass of C + 3(mass of O) =2(22.990)+12.011+3(15.999) =45.98+12.001+47.997 =105.99 g Na2CO3
Solvent - the fluid you're dissolving in e.g. water. Solute - something which has been dissolved to form a solution e.g. an ionic compound such as sodium hydroxide. Solution - a mixture of solvent and solute where the solute has dissolved into the solvent to form an indistiguishable liquid.
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Concentration - the amount of solute per volume of solution. Measured in moles per dm3 (i.e. moles per liter) or grams per liter.
1.5.2 : Apply the equation concentration = moles/volume...rather obvious from the units of concentration, but remember to convert everything into the same units. 1.5.3 : Use chemical equations to relate the amount of one species to the amounts of others.
Tin II or Tin IV Sn+2 or Sn+4 Lead II or Lead IV Pb+2 or Pb+4 [edit] Some Common Anions Aluminate Bromide Chlorate (V) Chloride Cyanide Ethanoate (acetate) Ethoxide Fluoride Hydride HydrogenCarbonate HydrogenSulphate Hydroxide HypoChlorite Iodide Methanoate Nitrate Nitrite Manganate (VII) (PerManganate) ThioCyanate Al(OH)4- (aqueous) or Zn(OH)4-2 (aqueous) or TetraHydroxoZincate AlO2- (crystalline) ZnO2-2 (crystalline) BrChromate (VI) CrO4-2 ClO3DiChromate (VI) Cr2O7-2 Ethanedioate ClC2O4-2 (oxalate) CNOxide O-2 CH3CO2Peroxide O2-2 C2H5OSulphate SO4-2 FSulphide S-2 HSulphite SO3-2 HCO3ThioSulphate S2O3-2 HSO4HexaCyanoFerrate III [Fe(CN)6]-3 OHCarbonate CO3-2 ClOINitride N-3 HCO2Phosphate PO4-3 NO3HexaCyanoFerrate II [Fe(CN)6]-4 NO2MnO4SCN-
Rules of thumb: Anions consisting of just one element have names ending -ide.
Anions consisting of an element plus oxygen have names ending in -ate. Notable exception: OH- is hydroxide, not 'hydrate'. If an element has two anions whose names should end in -ate, the one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
EXERCISE 1 Work out the formula for the following ionic chemicals
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1. Zinc Chloride ZnCl2 2. Sodium Oxide Na2O 3. Aluminium Fluoride AlF3 4. Iron III Chloride FeCl3 5. Aluminium Oxide Al2O3 6. Zinc Hydroxide Zn(OH)2 7. Copper (II) Nitrate Cu(NO3)2 8. Barium Sulphate BaSO4 9. Sodium Carbonate Na2SO4 10. Calcium Hydrogencarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 11. Lead Iodide PbI2 12. Nickel (II) Sulphate NiSO4 13. Ammonium Carbonate (NH4)2CO3 14. Manganese IV Oxide MnO2 15. Sodium Bromide NaBr 16. Magnesium Ethanoate Mg(CH3COO)2 17. Silver Nitrate AgNO3 18. Mercury II Chloride HgCl2 19. Magnesium Nitride Mg3N2 20. Potassium Phosphate K3PO4
What are the names of the following chemicals? 1. CuBr2 Copper II Bromide 2. K2O Potassium Oxide 3. K2Cr2O7 Potassium DiChromate (VI) 4. KNO3 Potasium Nitrate 5. AlCl3 Aluminium Chloride 6. FeCl2 Iron II Chloride 7. FeS Iron II Sulphide 8. Na2S2O3Sodium ThioSulphate 9. Al2(SO4)3 Aluminium Sulphate 10. Mg(OH)2 Magnesium Hydroxide 11. Pb(CH3CO2)2 Lead (II) Ethanoate 12. Na2Zn(OH)4 Sodium Zincate 13. Pb(NO3)2 Lead (II) Nitrate 14. KMnO4 Potassium Manganate (VII) 15. PbO2 Lead (IV) Oxide 16. Ni(NO3)2 Nickel Nitrate 17. Na2SO3 Sodium Sulphite/Sodium Sulphate (IV) 18. Ca(HCO3)2 Calcium HydrogenCarbonate 19. CuO Copper II Oxide 20. MgCO3 Magnesium Carbonate
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[edit] 1.1 MOLE CONCEPT AND AVOGADROS CONSTANT (2H) 1.2 FORMULAS (3H)
[edit] Relative molecular mass (Mr) and relative atomic mass (Ar).
Definition: The relative isotopic mass of 12C = 12 All other relative isotopic masses are measured relative to this standard and are not whole numbers e.g.
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The IB requires you to use whole numbers as an approximation to the relative isotopic mass of every isotope. The relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average value of an elements relative isotopic masses e.g. Ar (C) = 12 * 0.9889 + 13.0033 * 0.011 = 12.0098 What is Ar (Cl) if 75.77 % is 35Cl and the rest is 37Cl? Relative atomic masses are in your data booklet, written beneath each elements symbol in Table 5. e.g. The relative molecular mass (Mr) is the sum of a compounds relative atomic masses e.g. Mr (CO) = 12.01 + 16.00 What is Mr (CO2)? What is Mr (Al2(CO3)3)?
[edit] Calculating the mass of one mole of a species from its formula.
Another way of saying the same thing is to use the term Molar mass The molar mass (M) of carbon-12 atoms is 12 g mol-1 NB Molar mass has units (it is not relative) You must specify if it refers to atoms, isotopes, molecules, etc. EXERCISE 2: Calculate the Relative Molecular Mass, Mr, of the following
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1. Sodium Chloride 2. Copper Sulphate 3. Lead Nitrate 4. Magnesium Oxide 5. Potassium Hydroxide 6. Sulphuric Acid 7. Carbon Dioxide 8. Calcium Carbonate 9. Aluminium Sulphate 10. Sulphur Trioxide 11. Ammonium Nitrate 12. Zinc Chloride 13. Iron II Bromide 14. Iron III Iodide 15. Oxygen 16. Aluminium Zincate 17. Nitric Acid 18. Dilead II lead IV Oxide Pb3O4. 19. Magnesium Sulphate - 7 water MgSO4.7H2O 20. Ammonium Iron II Sulphate - 6 water (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6H2O Calculate M for :1. Copper Carbonate 2. Potassium Dichromate
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3. Magnesium Hydroxide 4. Sodium Phosphate 5. Calcium Hydrogencarbonate 6. Potassium Oxalate 7. Sodium Cyanide 8. Nitrogen Dioxide 9. Ethanol 10. Lead Chromate 11. Potassium Permanganate 12. Tin IV Chloride 13. Ethane 14. Lithium Carbonate 15. Ammonia 16. Butane 17. Sodium Chromate 18. Hydrochloric Acid
Mass = Amount x Molar mass or m = nM or Grams = Moles x Grams per mole EXERCISE 3 1. What is the mass of 0.5 moles of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)? 2. What is the amount of 27 g of water? 3. What is the relative molecular mass of fullerene if 2/3 mole has a mass of 480 g? 4. What mass of magnesium contains the same number of atoms as there are in 4 grams of calcium? 5. Calculate the mass of iron which contains the same number of atoms as there are molecules in 16 grams of oxygen. 6. What is the mass of copper sulphate (CuSO4 ) which contains the same number of copper atoms as there are atoms in 6.5 grams of zinc? 7. How much nitrogen contains the same number of atoms as there are sulphur atoms in 3.96 grams of ammonium sulphate ([NH4]2SO4)? 8. What mass of manganese contains twice the number of atoms that there in 0.6 grams of carbon?
EXERCISE 4 1. Analysis of two compounds showed that they contained the following proportions of elements: A: Carbon 26.1% Oxygen 69.6% Hydrogen 4.3% B: Carbon 52.2% Oxygen 34.8% Hydrogen 13.0% Calculate the empirical formula of each compound 2. If the empirical formula of methane is CH4, and its relative molecular mass is 16, what is the molecular formula? 3. If the empirical formula of ethane is CH3, and its relative molecular mass is 30, what is the molecular formula? 4. What is the mass of carbon dioxide that is produced when 50 g of calcium carbonate decomposes? CaCO3 CaO + CO2 5. If 12 g of magnesium react with oxygen to produce 20 g of magnesium oxide: a. What is the formula of magnesium oxide? b. What is the equation for the reaction? 6. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of the following compounds from the given information. a. 0.36 mol S are combined with 0.72 mol oxygen atoms. Mr of this compound is measured to be 64. b. 0.193 mol Fe combined with 0.2895 mol O and its molar mass is 160 g mol-1 c. 0.3285 mol Pb combined with 0.438 mol O. Mr = 685 d. 0.309 mol carbon combined with 0.618 mol H. Molar mass is 42 g mol-1 e. 0.379 mol H combined with 0.379 mol O. Mr = 34 7. A compound was shown by qualitative analysis to contain nitrogen and hydrogen as the only elements. It was found by quantitative analysis that 0.02 mol of nitrogen are combined with 0.04 mol of hydrogen. Its relative molecular mass is approximately 30. Determine its empirical formula and its molecular formula. 8. The relative molecular mass of a compound of boron and hydrogen was measured as just under 28. Every 0.25 mol of boron are combined with 0.75 mol hydrogen atoms. Find its empirical and its molecular formula. 9. Calculate the empirical formulae of the following substances whose compositions are given below: a. 5g of an oxide of magnesium which contains 3g magnesium b. 7g nitrogen combined with 16g oxygen c. 0.6g magnesium combined with 1.2g oxygen and 0.3g of carbon d. 3.5g nitrogen combined with 2g oxygen e. 4.8 g oxygen combined with 3.2 g copper and 1.4 g nitrogen f. 28.2 g of an oxide of potassium which contains 23.4 g potassium g. 0.08 mol uranium combined with 3.413 g oxygen h. 1 mol zinc combined with 32 g oxygen and 2 g hydrogen i. A chloride of lead in which 1.302 g of the compound contains 0.530 g chlorine j. Aluminium bromide which contains 2.4 g bromine in every 2.67 g of bromide 10. Determine the molecular formula of the following from the given information: a. 8 g carbon are combined with 2 g hydrogen and the molar mass is 30 g mol-1. b. 1.56 g of a hydrocarbon
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contains 1.44 g carbon and its relative molecular mass is 78 c. 0.2 mol nitrogen atoms are combined with every 6.4 g oxygen and the molar mass of this compound is 92 g mol-1. e. 3.55 g of an oxide of phosphorus contain 1.55 g phosphorus. Its relative molecular mass is estimated to be a little below 300. Find the formula for each of the following substances whose percentage composition is given 11. 40% calcium, 12% carbon & 48% oxygen 12. 40% copper, 40% oxygen & sulphur 13. the oxide of copper which contains 88.9% Cu by mass 14. the hydrocarbon which contains 85.7% carbon and has a relative molecular mass of 96 15. the carbohydrate which has a molar mass of 180 g mol-1 and contains 53.33% oxygen and 6.67% hydrogen.
Example 2 Si2H3 + O2 SiO2 + H2O This is unbalanced. Lets balance the silicon first: 1 Si2H3 + O2 2 SiO2 + H2O Now lets try the hydrogens: 2 Si2H3 + O2 4 SiO2 + 3 H2O Finally, time for the oxygens: 4 Si2H3 + 11 O2 8 SiO2 + 6 H2O Here is a trick you can use to guide you in steps 2 and 3: 1 Si2H3 + O2 2 SiO2 + 3/2 H2O Example 3 Ca10F2(PO4)6 + H2SO4 Ca(H2PO4)2 + CaSO4 + HF I dont like the calcium. It appears in more than two compounds here. Next in line is fluorine: 1 Ca10F2(PO4)6 + H2SO4 Ca(H2PO4)2 + CaSO4 + 2 HF The phosphate and sulphate can be treated as units: 1 Ca10F2(PO4)6 + H2SO4 3 Ca(H2PO4)2 + CaSO4 + 2 HF 1 Ca10F2(PO4)6 + 1 H2SO4 3 Ca(H2PO4)2 + 1 CaSO4 + 2 HF Note that although we have coefficients for every substance, the coefficients 1, 3 and 2 are not balanced with the coefficients 1 and 1 so I write them in two different colours. The hydrogens look tricky too, but its either them or the calcium now: 1 Ca10F2(PO4)6 + 7 H2SO4 3 Ca(H2PO4)2 + 7 CaSO4 + 2 HF Better do the calcium now Ca10F2(PO4)6 + 7 H2SO4 3 Ca(H2PO4)2 + 7 CaSO4 + 2 HF
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EXERCISE 5 Balance these equations: 1. Cu + O2 CuO 2. Fe + O2 Fe3O4 3. Mg + HCl MgCl2 + H2 4. Al + HCl AlCl3 + H2 5. P + O2 P2O5 6. NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 7. KClO3 KCl + O2 8. NaNO3 NaNO2 + O2 9. Cu(NO3)2 CuO + NO2 + O2 10. PbO + C Pb + CO2 11. C4H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O 12. C4H10 + O2 CO2 + H2O 13. Na2CO3 + HCl NaCl + H2O + CO2 14. KOH + H2SO4 K2SO 4 + H2O 15. (NH4)2SO4 + NaOH NH3 + Na2SO4 + H2O 16. Mg + H2O MgO + H2 17. Na + H2O NaOH + H2 18. Pb3O 4 + H2 Pb + H2O 19. Fe2O3 + CO Fe + CO2 20. Fe(OH)3 Fe2O 3 + H2O 21. CuO + H2 Cu + H2O 22. Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2 23. KClO3 KCl + O2 24. S8 + F2 SF6 25. Fe + O2 Fe2O3 26. C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O
potassium chloride solutions were mixed? When an acid and an alkali react, ionic equations can be very useful: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) react to form sodium chloride and water Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4) react to form magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) and water Treating Na+, Mg2+, Cl- and SO42- as spectator ions, what is the common ionic equation when a hydroxide reacts with an acid? EXERCISE 8 Write balanced equations for the following reactions. Put in the physical states in the appropriate manner and write the ionic equation as well where this is appropriate (numbers 1, 2, 5, 11, & 15). Occasionally, oxygen appears as reactant but is not in any of the named products. In these cases, assume it is converted into water. 1. Iron filings reacting with dilute hydrochloric acid to give hydrogen plus iron II chloride solution. 2. Zinc oxide powder dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid to give zinc chloride and water. 3. In the Contact process, sulphur dioxide and oxygen combine to form sulphur trioxide in the presence of vanadium V oxide catalyst and at a temperature of 450C. 4. When crystalline potassium nitrate [nitrate (V)] is heated, oxygen is given off and a residue of potassium nitrite [nitrate (III)] remains. 5. When chlorine is bubbled into aqueous potassium iodide, a ppt. of iodine is formed along with a solution of potassium chloride. 6. The effect of heat on dilead II lead IV oxide (Pb3O4) is to produce oxygen, leaving lead II oxide behind. 7. Baking soda, sodium hydrogen carbonate, is used in cooking and when heated it decomposes to form sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide and steam. 8. When carbon dioxide is bubbled through lime water (calcium hydroxide solution), milkiness is observed due to the formation of a ppt of calcium carbonate. 9. If carbon dioxide is allowed to continue to bubble through the solution from (8) for a long time, the ppt redissolves, forming calcium hydrogencarbonate. 10. In the blast furnace, carbon monoxide reduces iron III oxide to molten iron while being oxidised itself into carbon dioxide. 11. The chemical test for a sulphate is to add barium chloride solution to a solution of the test sample. A white ppt. of barium sulphate indicates a positive result. 12. Magnesium burns in an extremely exothermic reaction in which magnesium oxide is the product. 13. When conc. sulphuric acid (a liquid) is poured onto common salt, fumes of hydrogen chloride are observed, while sodium hydrogensulphate remains in the test tube. 14. A solution of hydrogen peroxide will decompose spontaneously, in the presence of manganese IV oxide catalyst, to liberate oxygen. 15. When solutions of ammonium chloride and sodium hydroxide were heated together, the smell of ammonia was observed. Sodium chloride was one of the other products.
[edit] 1.4 MASS AND GASEOUS VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS (3H)
[edit] Calculating theoretical yields from chemical equations.
EXERCISE 9 1 What is the amount of sodium nitrate (nitrate V) (NaNO3) in 17.0g ? What mass of sodium nitrite (nitrate III) will be obtained by heating this if it decomposes according to the equation :- 2 NaNO3 2 NaNO2 + O2
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2. What mass of zinc oxide remains after heating 9.45g zinc nitrate? 2 Zn(NO3)2 2 ZnO + 4 NO2 + O2 3. What mass of sodium carbonate remains after heating 4.2g sodium hydrogencarbonate? 4. What mass of powdered zinc would react with 0.96 g of sulphur? What is the expected yield of zinc sulphide? 5. What will be the loss in mass on heating 6.2g copper carbonate until no further reaction takes place? CuCO3 (s) CuO (s) + CO2 (g) 6. A solution contained 6.62g of lead nitrate. A solution of sodium chloride was added in order to precipitate lead chloride. What is the expected yield of lead chloride? 7. What is the amount of Mg contained in 4.8g magnesium? If this reacts with hydrochloric acid, what is the amount of hydrogen gas which will be produced? 8. An aqueous solution contains 12.6 g HNO3. What amount of HNO3 is this? Find the amount and the mass of potassium hydroxide which will just neutralise this. What mass of potassium nitrate could you expect as product? 9. 5.05 g of copper nitrate decomposes according to the following equation when it is heated 2 Cu(NO3)2 2 CuO + 4 NO2 + O2 (a) What mass of copper oxide is produced? (b) What amount of nitrogen dioxide is formed?
[edit] The limiting reactant and the reactant in excess: Theoretical, experimental and percentage yield.
EXERCISE 10 1. What mass of zinc will be required to react completely with 5g of copper sulphate and what mass of copper will be formed? 2. How much iron II sulphate will be required to react with 4g sodium hydroxide and what mass of iron II hydroxide will be formed? 3. 8g of calcium are dissolved in excess hydrochloric acid. How many molar masses of acid will actually react? What amount of calcium chloride can you expect? If this crystallises out of solution as CaCl2.6H2O, what is the maximum mass of crystals that can be produced? 4. A technician used 2.4g of magnesium ribbon to produce crystals of magnesium sulphate - 7 water by reaction with dil. sulphuric acid. What should his yield (in grams) have been? If he managed to make only 16.4 g, calculate his percentage yield.
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5. A portable gas stove burns butane at the rate of 116 g per hour. What mass of water will be produced after one hour? In what physical state will this water first appear? What will eventually happen to it? If the appliance is used in a confined space, state what problems or dangers might result. 6. 8.0 g of copper oxide were dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid and after suitable treatment 20 g copper II sulphate - 5 - water were obtained. What is the percentage yield? 7. Ethanol (20 cm3) was heated with an equal volume of ethanoic acid in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid catalyst. The yield of ethyl ethanoate was 8 cm3. (a) Calculate the mass and the amount of each reagent. (b) Which of the two reagents, ethanol or ethanoic acid is the limiting reagent i.e. which is not in excess? (c) Calculate the percentage yield of ester. [ densities in g cm-3 :- ethanol 0.79; ethanoic acid 1.05; ethyl ethanoate 0.9] 8. 8.4g of sodium hydrogen carbonate are mixed with 15g of hydrochloric acid. Explain which reagent is in excess. Find the amount of carbon dioxide produced in the reaction. Would more or less carbon dioxide have been produced by heating the hydrogencarbonate? 9. On heating 4.2g of a metal carbonate, XCO 3, 0.05 mol carbon dioxide was produced. Calculate the relative atomic mass, A r, of the metal X. XCO 3 XO + CO 3 10. Bath salts (sodium carbonate crystals) (9.53g) were gently heated in a crucible in order to drive off all their water of crystallisation. 3.53g of anhydrous salt remained. Calculate the number of molecules of water of crystallisation in the sodium carbonate and hence its formula. However when 12 g of the crystals were left in a hot room, the loss in mass was only 6.80g. What can you deduce about the formula of the sodium carbonate after it had undergone efflorescense in these conditions?
1. A sample of gas was heated while the pressure was kept constant. The changes in volume were recorded. Graph the following data: Temperature (C) Volume (dm3) 0 1.37 100 1.84 200 2.33 300 2.79 400 3.34 500 3.81 600 4.28 Use a scale which starts at -300 C and 0 dm3. Estimate the temperature required for the gas to have a zero volume. 2. Another gas sample was pressurised and the effect on its volume was recorded. The temperature was kept constant. Graph the following data: Pressure (bar) Volume (dm3) 1 4.64 2 2.40 3 1.60 4 1.19 5 0.94 6 0.82 7 0.67 What is the relationship between pressure and volume? 3. A gas was gradually introduced to a rigid, constant temperature, vacuum-filled container, and the pressure recorded as more gas was added. Graph the following data: Amount (mol) Pressure (bar) 0 0 1 0.500 2 0.998 3 1.510 4 1.988 5 2.517
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6 7
3.118 3.441
What is the relationship between pressure and amount? 4. One mole of a gas was kept in a 1 m3 (1000 dm3) container as the temperature was varied. The effect on the pressure was recorded: Temperature (K) Pressure (Pa) 253 2037 273 2280 293 2501 313 2615 333 2753 353 2918 373 2925 What is the relationship between pressure and temperature? What is the gradient of the graph? Use the gradient to estimate the temperature required for the pressure to be 101325 Pa (1 atm).
[edit] The relationship between temperature, pressure and volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas.
We can summarise the behaviour of an ideal gas with this equation: PV = nRT P is the pressure (in Pa or N m-2) V is the volume (m3) n is the number of moles of the gas
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R is the ideal gas constant (=8.31 J K-1 mol-1) T is the absolute temperature (K) You can see from this that if pressure increase, either the volume must decrease or the temperature increases. Similarly, increasing temperature causes increased volume and/or pressure. EXERCISE 12 Use PV = nRT to calculate: a) The volume occupied by 1 mol of a gas at 25 oC (298 K) and 100000 Pa (1 bar) pressure. b) The pressure required to make 5 mol of gas occupy 50 dm3 (50 x 10-3 m3) at 35 oC. c) The number of moles of gas which occupy 25 dm3 at 85 oC and 1.05 bar. d) The temperature of a 3 mol gas sample which has a volume of 18 dm3 at 1 atm (1.013 bar) pressure. If we change the conditions for a given sample of gas, we can simplify the equation considerably. Call the initial pressure, temperature and volume P1, T1 and V1, and the values after the conditions have changed are called P2, T2 and V2. The amount of gas, n, and the constant, R, are the same in both cases. This gives us the formula:
= P1*V1 / T1 = P2*V2 / T2
The 1 and 2 refer to the volume (V) of the gas under different conditions of Pressure (P) and Absolute Temperature (T - measured in kelvins) Helpfully, the pressure and volume do not now have to measured in Pa and m3. Any units are suitable, so long as the same units are used for P1and P2, and for T1 and T2. EXERCISE 13 1. Use the simplified equation (and answers to the previous exercise) to calculate: a) The volume occupied by 1 mol of a gas at 0 oC and 100000 Pa (1 bar) pressure. b) The pressure required to make 5 mol of gas occupy 40 dm3 (50 x 10-3 m3) at 35 oC. c) The temperature of a 3 mol gas sample which has a volume of 25 dm3 at 1 atm (1.013 bar) pressure. d) If a sample of gas which occupies 26.25 dm3 at 120.8 oC and 1.10 bar could be the same as a sample which occupies 25 dm3 at 85 oC and 1.05 bar.
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2. If 1 dm3 of gas is warmed from 298 to 745 K, while the pressure is kept constant at 1 atm, what is its new volume? 3. What pressure is now required to pressurise the hot gas until it reaches its original volume?
a) What amount of butanedioic acid was used (how many moles)? b) What amount was used in each titration? c) What amount (mol) of potassium hydroxide was present in each titration? d) What is the concentration of potassium hydroxide? 9) A technician was asked to analyse a solution of commercial caustic soda for its sodium hydroxide & sodium carbonate content. She did this by titrating a 25.00 cm 3 portion with hydrochloric acid solution (0.100 mol dm-3.) using firstly phenolphthalein and then, as part of the same titration, by adding methyl orange. Results obtained were 16.90 cm3 of acid to bring about the colour change of the phenolphthalein and a total end point of 24.55 cm3. At the first colour change (phenolphthalein goes pink to colourless), the reactions taking place are: OH- + H+ H2O & also CO3-2 + H+ HCO3-2. At the second colour change (methyl orange turns green to red), the reaction taking place is HCO3-2 + H+ CO2 + H2O Thus the first part of the titration relates to the concentration of hydroxide plus carbonate. The second part refers to the concentration of the carbonate (in its hydrogencarbonate form) only. a) Calculate the number of moles of acid used in the first part and thus the total number of moles of hydroxide plus carbonate in the 25.00 cm3 portion. b) Calculate the volume and hence the number of moles of acid used in the second part of the titration and thus the number of moles of hydrogencarbonate (and thus carbonate). c) From a) & b) calculate the number of moles of hydroxide and of carbonate in the 25.00 cm3 portion. From these results calculate the concentrations of the sodium hydroxide & sodium carbonate in the solution. Give your answer in each case in mol dm -3 & also in g dm-3. 10) 1.483 g of the mineral Dolomite were added to excess hydrochloric acid (50 cm 3, 1.0 mol dm-3). After reaction was complete, the solution was filtered and made up to 250 cm 3. 25 cm3 portions of this solution containing unreacted acid were titrated against 0.1 mol dm-3 KOH when a mean titre of 26.3 cm3 was obtained. Assuming that Dolomite is essentially magnesium carbonate plus insoluble silica, calculate its percentage composition. a) What amount of potassium hydroxide was in the 26.3 cm 3? b) What amount of hydrochloric acid would have reacted with this? c) What amount of hydrocloric acid was in the 250 cm 3 solution? d) What amount of acid was taken at the start? e) What amount of acid reacted with the Dolomite?
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f) Calculate the amount and hence the mass of magnesium carbonate which would have reacted with the hydrochloric acid. g) Calculate the percentage by mass of magnesium carbonate in Dolomite.
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IB Chemistry/Atomic Theory
< IB Chemistry Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
[hide]
1 Atomic Theory Revision Notes o 1.1 The nucleus o 1.2 Electrons 2 Wave nature of electrons 3 HL Material o 3.1 Electron shells o 3.2 The s Orbital o 3.3 The p Orbitals o 3.4 The d Orbitals 4 Material for new syllabus o 4.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE o 4.2 SL TOPIC 2.1 THE ATOM (1H). 4.2.1 The position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom. 4.2.2 the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons. 4.2.3 The terms mass number (A), atomic number (Z) and isotopes of an element. 4.2.4 The symbols for isotopes 4.2.5 The properties of the isotopes of an element. 4.2.6 The uses of radioisotopes 14 4.2.6.1 C in radiocarbon dating 60 4.2.6.2 Co in radiotherapy 131 125 4.2.6.3 I and I as medical tracers 4.2.7 The number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions o 4.3 2.2 THE MASS SPECTROMETER 4.3.1 The operation of a mass spectrometer. 4.3.2 How the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative atomic mass 4.3.3 Calculation of non-integer relative atomic masses and abundance of isotopes o 4.4 2.3 ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT (2H) 4.4.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. 4.4.2 A continuous spectrum and a line spectrum.
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o o
4.4.3 How the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to electron energy levels. 4.4.4 The electron arrangement up to Z = 20. 4.5 TOPIC 12: ATOMIC STRUCTURE (3 HOURS) 4.6 12.1 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION 4.6.1 How ionization energy data is related to the electron configuration. 4.6.2 Evidence from first ionization energies and sub-levels. 4.6.3 The relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals. 4.6.4 The maximum number of orbitals in a given energy level. 4.6.5 The shapes of s, px, py and pz orbitals. 4.6.6 The Aufbau principle, Hunds rule and the Pauli exclusion principle
Atoms are made up of a nucleus and electrons that orbit the nucleus.
[edit] Electrons
Electrons are negatively charged and fly around the nucleus of an atom very quickly. So far, they do not appear to be made up of anything smaller: they are fundamental particles. They are extremely tiny, so small in fact that no one has managed to detect any size whatsoever. They are also very light, much much lighter than either a proton or a neutron. Hence, the weight of the electron is not included in the atomic number. An atom in its natural, uncharged state has the same number of electrons as protons. If it gains or loses electrons, the atom acquires a charge and is then referred to as an ion. The number of
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protons in an atom defines its chemical identity (e.g. hydrogen, gold, argon, etc). Protons are not gained or lost through chemical reactions, but only through high energy nuclear processes. 2.1.3 : Mass number (A) -- Number of protons + neutrons. Atomic number (Z) -- number of proton. Isotope -- atoms with same atomic number but different mass number (i.e. different numbers of neutrons) 2.1.4 : AZX... A = mass number, Z = atomic number, X = atomic symbol. 2.1.5 : Isotopes may differ in physical properties (mass/density) and radioactivity but not generally in chemical properties. 2.1.6 : Atomic masses are the average of the atomic mass of each isotope (isotopic mass) times the isotope's relative abundance. results in non integer atomic masses 2.1.7 : Atomic number = number of protons (or number of electrons - ionic charge) , mass number - atomic number = number of neutrons. 2.2 Electron Arrangement 2.2.1 : Continuous spectrum goes continuously through red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. A line spectrum contains only some individual lines from this spectrum. 2.2.2 : Electrons are excited (usually by running an electric current through them). This causes electrons to 'jump' into higher electron shells ( X -> X* ) this state is only temporary, however, and the electron falls back to it's ground state. This change (When the electron falls back from the higher shell to a lower one) decreases the energy of the electron, and this energy is emitted in the form of a photon. If this photon falls into the visible spectrum of light, then it produces a visible spectrum. As electrons move further away from the nucleus, the electron shells become closer together in terms of space and energy, and so lines converge towards the end of the spectrum.
2.2.4 : Electrons are added from the left...after each shell is filled, move to the next...2, 8, 18...only up to Z = 20 is required.
[edit] HL Material
Topic 12 is the additional HL material for Topic 2. It's not just the energy that is quantized, other properties that an electron can posess are also split into distinct units with no in betweens. The angular momentum is quantised, the spin is quantised, the component of the angular moment in any direction that you care to choose is quantised. There are in fact a whole host of rules determining the values that each of these properties can take.
Starting from the 2nd shell, there is a set of p orbitals. The angular momentum quantum number of the electrons confined to p orbitals is 1, so each orbital has one angular node. There are 3 choices for the magnetic quantum number, which indicates 3 differently orientated p orbitals. Finally, each orbital can accommodate two electrons (with opposite spins), giving the p orbitals a total capacity of 6 electrons. The p orbitals all have two lobes of electron density pointing along each of the axes. Each one is symmetrical along its axis. The notation for the p orbitals indicate which axis it points down, i.e. px points along the x axis, p y on the y axis and pz up and down the z axis. The p orbitals are degenerate, they all have the same energy. P orbitals are very often involved in bonding.
TOK: None of these particles can be (or will be) directly observed. Which ways of knowing do we use to interpret indirect evidence gained through the use of technology? Do we believe or know of their existence?
[edit] the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons.
The accepted values are: 1 Relative Mass Charge proton 1 neutron 1 0 electron 1/1840 The mass of the atom is due to its nucleons (protons and neutrons). An atom is electrically neutral because it has equal numbers of electrons and protons. Chemistry is due to the behaviour of electrons.
[edit] The terms mass number (A), atomic number (Z) and isotopes of an element.
The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons. The mass number of an atom is the number of nucleons. The atomic number defines which element we are talking about. Element 16 could be used instead of sulphur.
The following notation should be used AZX, for example 126C Give the symbols for the following isotopes: Carbon-13 Uranium-235 Strontium-90 Phosphorus-32 13 235 90 32 6C 92U 38Sr 15P
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Cobalt-60 emits gamma radiation which can be directed onto tumours in an attempt to kill their cancerous cells. Whole-body irradiation can be used to destroy bone marrow before a transplant is attempted. [edit] 131I and 125I as medical tracers The thyroid is the only organ of the body which accumulates iodine, so isotopes of iodine can be used to study thyroid disorders. Iodine-131 or iodine-125 are given to patients in very low doses, and the pattern of radiation can reveal tumours or other abnormal growths. Larger doses of iodine radioisotopes can be used as therapy for thyroid cancer.
[edit] The number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions
Complete the following table: Symbol Protons Neutrons Electrons 5 6 5 5B 63 +2 29 34 27 29Cu 207 +2 82 125 80 82Pb 37 17 20 18 17Cl 197 +3 118 76 79Au 79
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[edit] How the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative atomic mass
By varying the strength of the magnetic field, ions of different masses can be brought to focus on the detector. In this way the relative abundances of ions of different masses produced from the sample can be determined. This is known as a mass spectrum. Usually the electron bombardment
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is adjusted to produce ions with only a single charge. Any doubly charged ions will be deflected more than the singly charged ions and will in fact behave in the same way as a singly charged ion of half the mass. That is why the x-axis is labeled m/z, where m is the relative mass of the species and z its relative charge. For example, Sulfur-32 (2+) will be observed at m/z=16.
33.8 moles of mercury-198 have a mass of 6692.4 g Molar mass of isotope Amount (mol) Mass (g) (g mol ) 198 199 200 201 202 204 total 33.8 56.4 77.5 44.3 100 23.0 335.0 mol 6692.4 11223.6 15500 8904.3 20200 4692 67212.3 g
-1
So we have a molar mass for the average mercury atom: = 200.6 g mol -1 Classwork 1. Copper has two stable isotopes: Isotope Abundance (%) 63Cu 69.1 65Cu 30.9 Calculate the molar mass of copper. 2. Bromine has two isotopes, 79Br and 81Br. Look up the molar mass of bromine. What is the proportion of the two isotopes? 3. Boron has two isotopes, 10B and 11B. What is the proportion? 4. Lead has four stable isotopes: Isotope Abundance (%) 204Pb 1.5 206Pb 23.6 207Pb 22.6 208Pb 52.3 Calculate the molar mass of lead. Homework due in next week. 1 An experiment was performed to determine the density of gold. The following measurements were recorded. Mass of sample of gold = 30.923 g (to 5 sig fig), Volume of sample of gold = 1.6 cm3 (to 2 sig fig). Which of the following is the most accurate value for the density of gold (in g cm-3) which can be justified by these measurements? A. 19.327 (to 5 sig fig) B. 19.33 (to 4 sig fig) C. 19.3 (to 3 sig fig) D. 19 (to 2 sig fig) 2 The nucleus of a radon atom 22286Rn, contains A. 222 protons and 86 neutrons. B. 86 protons and 136 neutrons. C. 86 protons and 222 neutrons. D. 86 protons, 136 neutrons and 86 electrons. 3 Which of the following statements is/are true according to our current picture of the atom? I More than 90 % of the mass of a given atom is found in its nucleus. II Different atoms of an element may have different masses.
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III The chemical properties of an element are due mainly to its electrons. A. I only B. I and II only C. II and III only D. I, II and III 4. In which pair do the species contain the same number of neutrons? A. 10846Pd and 11048Cd B. 118 120 196 198 +2 226 +2 222 50Sn and 50Sn C. 78Pt and 78Pt D. 88Ra and 86Rn 5 Which pairing of electrons and protons could represent a Sr+2 ion? Protons Electrons A. 38 36 B. 38 38 C. 38 40 D. 40 38 6 All isotopes of tin have the same I. number of protons; II. number of neutrons; III. mass number. A. I only B. II only C. III only D. I and III only
The electromagnetic spectrum. The red line indicates the room temperature thermal energy. (Opensource Handbook of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology). The energies are quoted in eV: 1 eV is 96.5 kJ mol-1. The frequency is directly proportional to the energy, and inversely proportional to the wavelength.
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When transferring energy, electromagnetic radiatio n behaves as packets of energy known as photons. Visible light has wavelengths of 400 (blue) to 700 (red) nm, which corresponds to energies of 299 (blue) to 171 (red) kJ mol-1. This is too small to interact with electrons in most bonds, but too large to set bonds resonating. Infrared light has wavelengths of 0.7 to 1000 um, and carries energies (less than 171 kJ mol -1) which can set bonds vibrating. In this way, infrared efficiently carries thermal energy. Ultraviolet light has wavelengths of 1-400 nm, which gives the waves enough energy (300+ kJ mol-1) to disrupt most chemical bonds.
[edit] How the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to electron energy levels.
When hydrogen gas is stimulated, it emits a characteristic set of spectral lines. The gas is usually stimulated by passing a current through a sample of the gas at low pressure, but the same effect occurs if hydrogen gas is heated strongly. The spectral lines have the following characteristics: There are several series of lines, which become more closely packed at higher frequencies (lower wavelengths) until finally the series ends. The highest frequency series, discovered by Lyman, is in the ultraviolet. Lower frequency series are in the visible and infrared: Series Convergence limit Lyman 91 nm (UV) Balmer 365 nm (Visible) Paschen 821 nm (IR) Brackett 1.46 m (IR)
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Pfund
2.28 m (IR)
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The lines are emitted by electrons in the hydrogen atoms. The electrons are excited by the energy input to the hydrogen sample (usually electrical current). Excitation means that the electron leaves its usual low energy orbit (its ground state) and enters a higher-energy orbit. The orbits of electrons are often called shells. Excited electrons eventually relax to lower-energy orbits. They emit the excess energy in the form of photons. From the emission spectrum patterns we can deduce two things: a) Because we observe a line spectrum, we know that there are only a limited number of higherenergy orbits for excited electrons. b) The energy of each successive orbit/shell converges to a maximum value, because each series of lines converges at higher energy. The Lyman series is caused by electrons relaxing directly to the ground state. Ionisation energy: The first ionisation energy is the energy required to remove an electron from each atom in a mole of gaseous atoms. e.g. Ca (g) Ca+(g) + eThe convergence limit of the Lyman series is related to the ionisation energy of the hydrogen atom: The maximum energy photon emitted in the Lyman series is the highest energy an electron can have while still remaining part of the hydrogen atom. The lower-energy series are caused by electrons relaxing, but not to the ground state. The Balmer series, for example, is due to photons emitted as electrons relax to the orbit with the secondlowest energy (to the second shell). Homework 1. The spectral line that corresponds to the electronic transition n = 3 n = 2 in the hydrogen atom is red in colour. What type of radiation is released during the transition n = 2 n = 1 ? A. Ultraviolet B. Red light C. Infrared
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D. Radiowaves 2. The electron transition between which two levels releases the most energy? A. First to third B. Fourth to ninth C. Sixth to third D. Second to first 3. (a) The diagram below (not to scale) represents some of the electron energy levels in the hydrogen atom.
(i) Draw an arrow on this diagram to represent the electron transition for the ionisation of hydrogen. Label this arrow A [2] (ii) Draw an arrow on this diagram to represent the lowest energy transition in the visible emission spectrum. Label this arrow B [2]
[edit] TOPIC 12: ATOMIC STRUCTURE (3 HOURS) [edit] 12.1 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
[edit] How ionization energy data is related to the electron configuration.
Studying the ionisation energies of an element such as calcium allows us to count the number of electrons which can occupy each shell. Ionisation Ionisation energy (kJ mol-1) log10(IE) 1st 6.00 x 102 2.78 3 2nd 1.15 x 10 3.06 3 3rd 4.91 x 10 3.69 3 4th 6.47 x 10 3.81
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5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th Classwork:
8.14 x 103 1.05 x 104 1.23 x 104 1.42 x 104 1.82 x 104 2.04 x 104 5.70 x 104 6.33 x 104 7.01 x 104 7.88 x 104 8.64 x 104 9.40 x 104 1.05 x 105 1.12 x 105 4.95 x 105 5.28 x 105
3.91 4.02 4.09 4.15 4.26 4.31 4.76 4.80 4.85 4.90 4.94 4.97 5.02 5.05 5.69 5.72
Plot a graph of the log10(IE) against the ionisation. Why does the ionisation energy always increase? What causes the sudden jumps between the 2nd and 3rd, the 10th and 11th, and the 18th and 19th ionisations? What is the electronic configuration of calcium? Draw your prediction for the equivalent graph for sodium: Homework Which element would produce a graph like this? Explain the shape of the graph.
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The charge on the nucleus increases from Li to Ne. If we subtract the charge of the inner shell of electrons we can calculate the charge exerted on the outer electron shell: The effective nuclear charge. Because each element in the period has the same number of inner-shell electrons, the effective nuclear charge increases from 1 (Li) to 8 (Ne). The increased charge holding the outer electrons in place increases the energy required to remove one of these electrons. (It also reduces the size of the atom: Li is larger than Ne). Why do the ionisation energies of boron and oxygen break the general trend? The s2 arrangement is stable (like 'noble gas configurations' are stable). Boron has a [He] 2s2 2px1 arrangement. Losing the px1 electron returns boron to this stable state, so losing this electron is suprisingly easy. Similarly, the s2 px1 py1 pz1 arrangement is stable. Oxygen has a [He] 2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1 arrangement. Losing a p x electron returns oxygen to this stable state, so losing this electron is surprisingly easy.
[edit] The relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals. [edit] The maximum number of orbitals in a given energy level.
Each energy level (shell) is made of orbitals (sub-shells). Each orbital can hold two electrons. The number of orbital types is equal to the shell number e.g. shell 3 has three types of orbital, s p and d. Shell 1 1s Shell 2 2s 2p Shell 3 3s 3p 3d Shell 4 4s 4p 4d 4f Shell 5 has, in theory, five types of orbital. No known element uses its g orbitals, however. The orbitals in each shell have increasing energy. s is least energetic, then p, d, f, etc. There is only one s orbital per shell. There are three p orbitals, five d orbitals, etc.
s orbitals are simple spheres: The three p orbitals are aligned along the x y and z axes:
The orbitals of shells 1 and 2 shown as (top) a cloud of possible electron positions and (bottom) surfaces containing most of the electron character.
[edit] The Aufbau principle, Hunds rule and the Pauli exclusion principle
The aufbau principle: To find the electron configuration of an element, we build up the electrons one by one, putting each electron into the orbital with the lowest available energy. An easy way to remember which is the lowest available orbital is to use the following diagram: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f 6s 6p 6d 7s 7p Hunds rule: If there is more than one orbital to choose from e.g. the 2p orbitals, then the orbitals are filled with one electron each, and then with pairs of electrons.
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The electron configuration of nitrogen is: 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz And not: 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz The simplest way to write the full electronic configuration is to note the last noble gas and then to add any extra electrons like so: Vanadium: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3 Vanadium: [Ar] 4s2 3d3 It does not matter if you write the orbitals in the order they are filled (as in the example above) or in order of their shells: Vanadium: [Ar] 3d3 4s2 Elements 24 and 29 are special cases. The 3d5 and 3d10 configurations are so stable that an electron is taken from the 4s orbital to create 3d5 and 3d10 configurations. e.g. Chromium is not: [Ar] 4s2 3d4 Chromium is: [Ar] 4s1 3d5 Complete the following table: 1s H He 2s 2p Li [He] Be [He] B [He] C [He] N [He] O [He] F [He] Ne [He] 3s 3p Na [Ne]
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Mg [Ne] Al [Ne] Si [Ne] P [Ne] S [Ne] Cl [Ne] Ar [Ne] 3d 4s 4p K [Ar] Ca [Ar] Sc [Ar] Ti [Ar] V [Ar] Cr [Ar] Mn [Ar] Fe [Ar] Co [Ar] Ni [Ar] Cu [Ar] Zn [Ar] Ga [Ar] Ge [Ar] As [Ar] Se [Ar] Br [Ar]
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Kr [Ar] 4d 5s 5p Rb [Kr] Sr [Kr] Y [Kr] Zr [Kr] Nb [Kr] Mo [Kr] Tc [Kr] Ru [Kr] Rh [Kr] Pd [Kr] Ag [Kr] Cd [Kr] In [Kr] Sn [Kr] Sb [Kr] Te [Kr] I [Kr] Xe [Kr] The four blocks of the periodic table are named after the highest-energy occupied orbital:
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IB Chemistry/Periodicity
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Contents
[hide]
1 Periodicity Revision Notes o 1.1 3.1 The Periodic Table o 1.2 3.2 Physical Properties 2 Periodic Trends - Moving Across the Periodic Table 3 Periodic Trends - Moving Down the Periodic Table 4 Noble Gases 0/8A/18 5 Halogens 7A/17 6 Alkaline Earth Metals group 2A/2 7 Alkali Metals group 1A/1 8 Hydrogen, an element like no other
As a period is crossed, valency electrons increase As a group is descended, a shell is added (with the same number of valency electrons)
Atomic radii
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Across a period, radii decreases due to an increasing nuclear charge and reduced screening (more electrons and protons in outer shell) Down a group, radii increases due to additional shells blocking nuclear charge and increased screening (shielding)
Ionic radii
Positive ions (Na Na+ + e-) have smaller radii due to 1 less shell and reduced screening Negative ions (F + e- F-) have larger radii because the positive charge of the nucleus has less positive pulling power (PPP) due to the presence of an extra electron in this ionic state.
Ionisation energy Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove 1MOLE of electrons from 1MOLE of gaseous atoms (e.g. M M+ + e-) Successive ionisation energies are 3rd > 2nd > 1st, because of a smaller radii and greater charge. Electron affinity Electron affinity is the energy change on the addition of 1 mole of electrons to 1 mole of gaseous atoms (e.g. X(g) + e- X-(g)) Electronegativity Electronegativity is the measure of the ability of an element in a bond to attract electrons. The most electronegative elements are (in decreasing) F, O and N.
Across a period, electronegativity increases because the increase in nuclear charge makes the nucleus more attracted to electrons Down a group, electronegativity decreases due to increased screening and less nuclear attraction
Melting Points
Melting point decrease down group 1 due the the elements metallic structure, which is held together by attractive forces between de-localized electrons. Melting point increases down group 7 due to the strong intermolecular forces that increase in strength with more electrons.
an element to gain electrons). This traces the tendency of atoms of metals to lose electrons while nonmetals gain them.
Electronegativity decreases in this group with increasing atomic mass, and oxygen is more electronegative than any element except fluorine; it acts much like a halogen except for its -2
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oxidation state. Fluorine and oxygen oxidize these elements to the +6 oxidation state, resulting in such substances (for sulfur) as sulfur hexafluoride SF6 and sulfur trioxide SO3 and its derivative sulfuric acid H2SO4, one of the most heavily-used industrial chemicals. Fluorine, oxygen, chlorine, and bromine oxidize all of the elements of this group except oxygen to the +4 oxidation state. Oxides of sulfur, selenium, and tellurium are acidic. Strong radioactivity largely masks the chemical properties of polonium.
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These elements are best marked by their reactivity. Physically they are soft, shiny (when freshly prepared) solids with low melting points; they conduct electricity well. They all have one outermost electron that they lose easily to almost any electronegative substance other than nitrogen (lithium reacts with nitrogen, unlike the others). None is ever found uncombined on earth, and none is ever put to use as a structural metal. They must be kept under inert liquids such as kerosene or in inert gases (nitrogen suffices for any of these elements other than lithium. All oxidize easily to the +1 oxidation state. High reactivity masks the chemistry of francium. They react with atmospheric oxygen to form various oxides and react violently with water, halogens, and acids. A typical reaction between one of these metals and water is as such: Na(s) + H2O Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + 1/2 H2 (g) (WARNING: this reaction generates much heat. One should not cast any alkali metal into water or acids except with the cautions that professional chemists use. The hydrogen gas from this reaction may itself ignite with atmospheric oxygen in a dangerous flame. These metals should never allowed to touch flesh because they react with any water upon them and yield corrosive hydroxides that burn flesh. Strong solutions of alkali metal hydroxides are destructive to flesh). Hydroxides of these elements dissociate completely in water to form some of the strongest bases known. These are as strongly alkaline as any acids and react violently with acids to form halides and water in neutralization: NaOH(s) + HCl (g) NaCl(s) + H2O (s) The results of any reactions of these metals and any acids are salts. Almost all salts of these elements are highly soluble in water and form conducting solutions, proving their ionic nature. The best known of these substances is sodium chloride, NaCl, a substance known as common salt. Salts of these elements and strong acids are neutral (for example, potassium nitrate KNO3); salts with weak acids such as acetic acid are alkaline (sodium carbonate, Na 2CO3).
but such hydrogen compounds are much less alkaline (or more acidic), much less ionic, and more volatile. Sodium chloride, the stereotypical salt, is neutral and clearly ionic; hydrogen chloride is a non-ionic gas under normal conditions and is a strong acid. The hydrogen analogue of sodium hydroxide is a volatile liquid under normal situations: unlike the strongly alkaline and solid sodium hydroxide, water is feebly ionic and effectively neutral. Hydrogen is a non-metal, forming a diatomic gas which results from the sharing of the single electrons of hydrogen atoms. It can achieve a stable ionic structure (no electrons!) by losing an electron or by gaining an electron and achieving the completed shell configuration of helium. The hydrogen molecule is best described as sharing the two electrons between two hydrogen atoms. This structure is highly stable and has little inclination to form bongos between other hydrogen molecules; hydrogen is a gas down to some of the lowest temperatures known. It is also the lightest of gases, weighing less even than helium. Hydrogen readily shares its electron with a strongly-electronegative element like any halogen, oxygen, or sulfur. The combination with fluorine is particularly violent and possible down to very low temperatures: 1/2 H2 (g) + 1/2 F2(g) HF(g) Light is enough to force combustion between hydrogen and chlorine, and a spark is enough to cause combustion between hydrogen and oxygen. In view of the Hindenburg disaster of 1936, helium has long replaced hydrogen in lighter-than-air aircraft. That reaction is as such: H2 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) H2O (g) (Note that at the temperatures associated with such a combustion, water is in the gaseous state!) Somewhat analogously (but not very well), hydrogen can act somewhat like a halogen, forming hydrides with some metals. Most of these react violently with water to form hydrogen gas and the metal hydroxide. Hydrogen compounds with non-metals are typically among the most volatile substances of those elements. Under pressure, in aqueous solution or non-solid acids, hydrogen is a good reducing agent. Strong acids attack most metals: Zn (s) + 2 H+ (aq) Zn 2+ (aq) + H 2 (g) . In the atmospheres of gas giants, gaseous hydrogen under great pressure reduces nitrogen to ammonia, carbon compounds to methane and other hydrocarbons, and oxides to water. Hydrogen forms more chemical compounds than any other element including carbon (almost all carbon compounds are compounds of hydrogen as well and vice-versa, but more substances containing hydrogen but not carbon exist than do compounds of carbon but not hydrogen). Hydrogen forms bonds with most non-metals, including oxygen, nitrogen, and
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carbon. Although a hydrogen atom can bond with only one other element, and then only in a single bond, hydrogen allows very long chains of carbon atoms to form. Most of the hydrogen compounds with carbon alone are combustible gases or volatile liquids or waxy solids that can be vaporized and burned to produce water, carbon dioxide, and much heat. Natural gas, gasoline (a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons), and waxes as found in candles make suitable fuels. With such other elements as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and in some cases metals hydrogen allows the formation of substances necessary for life, including carboxylic acids, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids, hemoglobin, and chlorophyll. Such complex compounds are ordinarily discussed in organic chemistry, a study associated more obviously with carbon.
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IB Chemistry/Bonding
< IB Chemistry Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction to Bonding 2 4.1 Ionic Bond o 2.1 What are ions? o 2.2 Description of Ionic Bonds o 2.3 Formation 3 4.2 Covalent Bond o 3.1 The Valence Bond Model o 3.2 Double and Triple Bonds o 3.3 Electron Sharing and Orbitals o 3.4 The Sigma Bond o 3.5 The Pi Bond 4 4.3 Intermolecular forces 5 4.4 Metallic bonding 6 4.5 Physical Properties o 6.1 Characteristics 7 HL Material
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Whether two atoms form a covalent or ionic bond can be predicted from the atoms' electronegativities: Type of bond Difference in atoms' electronegativities Example Non-polar covalent bond: 0.0-0.4 F2, CH4 Slightly polar bond: 0.5-0.9 Cl2O, NH3 Moderately polar bond: 1-1.3 CO2, SiCl4 Highly polar bond: 1.4-1.7 H2O, Al2Cl6 Slightly ionic bond: 1.8-2.2 NaCl, Al2O3 Ionic Bond: 2.3+ Na2O, CsF
Metallic bonds occur between metal atoms. In a metallically bonded substance, the atoms' outer electrons are able to freely move around - they are delocalised. Iron is a metallically bonded substance. Chemical bonding is one of the most crucial concepts in the study of Chemistry. In fact, the properties of materials are basically defined by the type and number of atoms they contain and how they are bonded together.
[edit] Formation
Lewis structure of the ionic bond between sodium and chlorine. Ionic bonds form when metals and non-metals chemically react. By definition, a metal is relatively stable if it loses electrons to form a complete valence shell and becomes positively charged. Likewise, a non-metal is relatively happy to gain electrons to complete its valence shell and become negatively charged. When a metal and a non-metal come into contact, the metal loses electrons by transferring them to the non-metal, which gains them. Consequently, ions are formed, which instantly attract each other and form an ionic bond.
4.1.2 : Group 1 metals form +1 ions, group 2 metals form +2 ions, metals in group 3 form +3 ions. Examples : Li+, Mg2+, Al3+...Greater ease of ionisation Li->Cs is due to the increased electron shielding of the nuclear attraction caused by additional inner shells of electrons. The easier atoms are to ionise, the more reactive they will be because less energy is required to ionise them, and so they react faster. 4.1.3 : Group 6 ions will form 2- ions, Group 7 ions will form 1- ions. Examples : O2-, Cl-... 4.1.4 : The transitions metals (elements from Ti to Cu, ignore Sc and Zn) can form multiple ions (ie Fe2+, Fe3+) (due to proximity of 4s and 3d shells) 4.1.5 : The ionic or covalent nature of the bonding in a binary compound is a result in the difference between their electronegativity...NaCl (s) is ionic, HCl(g) is (polar) covalent (also, covalent molecules tend to be gases/liquids, ionic tends to be solid...except network covalent which will be solid). In general, if the difference between electronegativities is greater than 1.7, the bond will be more than 50% ionic. 4.1.6 : Take the name of the group 1,2, or 3 metal and add...fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide etc , oxide, sulfide etc...Nitride and phosphide...how exciting :)
An example of a covalently bonded substance is hydrogen gas (H2). A hydrogen atom on its own has one electron there is room for two to complete its valence shell. When two hydrogen atoms bond, each one shares its electron with the other, i.e. the electrons are attracted by two nuclei instead of just one and so releasing energy. Both atoms now have access to two electrons: they become a stable H2 molecule joined by a single covalent bond.
positive. This hydrogen is then attracted to the lone pairs on other similar molecules--nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine all have lone pairs--forming a hydrogen bond, which is stronger than van der Waal's or dipole-dipole forces, but weaker than covalent bonding. 4.3.2 : Structural features -- Nonpolar molecules have van der Waal's forces only. This is also present in all other molecules, though its strength is often insignificant compared to the others. Polar molecules have dipole-dipole forces, which arise from polar bonds and asymmetry in molecules. Hydrogen bonds result from strongly delta positive hydrogen. This results in molecules with hydrogen bonding exhibiting stronger intermolecular forces, i.e. higher boiling/melting points etc. For example, H2O has a higher bp then H2S due to hydrogen bonding. Neutral molecules don't conduct electricity but some polar molecules exchange protons to form ions e.g. 2H2O makes H3O+ and OH-
solubility in polar solvents but long chains can eventually outweigh the polar 'head' and will dissolve in non-polar solvents.
[edit] Characteristics
. Ionically bonded substances typically have the following characteristics.
High melting point (solid at room temp) Hard Brittle (can shatter) Some dissolve in water Conduct electricity when dissolved or melted Typically stronger than covalent bonds.
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IB Chemistry/States of Matter
< IB Chemistry This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
[hide]
1 States of Matter Revision Notes 2 5.1 States of matter o 2.1 5.1.1 Solids o 2.2 5.1.2 Liquids o 2.3 5.1.3 Gas o 2.4 5.1.4 Transitions o 2.5 5.1.5 Increasing the temperature o 2.6 5.1.6 Diffusion
masses. The average (rms) speed of the movement of particles is proportional to temperature (in K). As a result, the kinetic energy of the particles is also proportional to temperature.
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IB Chemistry/Energetics
< IB Chemistry Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
[hide]
1 6.1 Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions 2 6.2 Calculation of enthalpy changes 3 6.3 Hess's Law 4 6.4 Bond enthalpies 5 6.5 6 6.6 7 HL Material
6.2.1 : change in energy = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature --> E = mcT 6.2.2 : Enthalpy changes (H) are related to the number of moles in the reaction...if all the coefficients are doubled, then the value of H will be doubled (attention must be paid to limiting reagents though). 6.2.3 : When a reaction is carried out in water, the water will gain or lose heat from (or to) the reaction, with hopefully little escaping the water. Therefore, the change in energy, and so the H value, can be calculated with E = mcT where E is equal to H, m is the mass of water present, and c = 4.18 kJ Kg-1 K-1. This H value can then be calculated back to find the enthalpy change for each mol of reactants. 6.2.4 : The solution should be placed in a container as insulated as possible, to keep as much heat as possible from escaping. The temperature should be measured continuously , and the value used in the equation is the maximum change in temp from the initial position. 6.2.5 : The results will be a change in temperature. this can be converted into a change in heat (or energy) by using the above equation and a known mass of water. this can be used to calculate the H for the amount of reactants present, and then this can be used to calculate for a given number of mols.
6.4.2 : If the reaction can be expressed in terms of the breaking and formation of bonds in a gaseous state, then by adding (or subtracting when bonds are formed) the H values the total enthalpy of reaction can be found.
[edit] 6.5
6.5.1 An increased disorder (entropy) can be caused by mixing two different types of particles, increased movement of particles (including state changes), or increased number of particles. Increasing the number of particles in a gaseous state gives the largest change in entropy. 6.5.2 Since S = -H/T, if H is -, then s is positive, and visa versa.
[edit] 6.6
6.6.1 Standard free energy of reaction is the free energy that a reaction takes or gives at standard values of temperature and pressure,. 6.6.2 If G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous. If G is positive, the reaction is not spontaneous. 6.6.3 If sT > H, the reaction is spontaneous. If temperature drops so that sT < H, then the reaction is non-spontaneous.
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IB Chemistry/Kinetics
< IB Chemistry Jump to: navigation, search Rates of reaction 7.1.1 : Rate of reaction is concerned with how quickly a reaction reaches a certain point (not to be confused with how far a reaction goes...i.e. equilibrium). 7.1.2 : Interpretation of rate graphs. Reaction rate graphs will generally be graphed with time on the x-axis and some measure of how far the reaction has gone (ie concentration, volume, mass loss etc) on the y-axis. This will generally produce a curve with, for example, the concentration of the reactants approaching zero. Collision theory 7.2.1 : Collision theory -- reactions take place as a result of particles (atoms or molecules) colliding and then undergoing a reaction. Not all collisions cause reaction, however, even in a system where the reaction is spontaneous. The particles must have sufficient kinetic energy, and the correct orientation with respect to each other for the two to react. Even then, the transition state may revert to the reactant molecules instead of forming the product molecules. 7.2.2 : Higher temperature causes a greater average kinetic energy of the particles in a material. This leads to a faster reaction because there are more collisions, and each collision is more likely to succeed. Higher concentrations cause more collisions and therefore a faster reaction. Catalysts may provide an alternative pathway with lower activation energy and increase the probability of proper orientation. Each collision is more likely to succeed and this results in a faster reaction. In heterogeneous reactions (where the reactants are in different states) the size of the particles of a solid may change reaction rate, since the surface is where the reaction takes place, and the surface area is increased when the particles are more finely divided; therefore smaller solid particles in a heterogeneous reaction cause a faster reaction. 7.2.3 : Most reactions involve several steps, which can be individually slow or fast, and which, all together, make up the complete reaction. The slowest of these steps is called the rate determining step, as is determines how fast the reaction will go. It is also not necessary that all the reactants are involved in ever step, and so the rate determining step may not involve all the
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reactants. as a result, increasing their concentration (for example) of a reactant which is not involved in the rate determining step will not change the overall reaction rate.
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IB Chemistry/Equilibrium
< IB Chemistry This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search 8.1 Dynamic equilibrium 8.1.1 : In all reactions, there are in fact two reactions occurring, one where the reactants produce the products, and the other where the products react to form the reactants. In some reactions, this second reaction is insignificant, but in others there comes a point where the two reactions exactly cancel each other out...thus the reactants and products remain in equal proportions, though both are continually being used up and produced at the same time. 8.2 The position of equilibrium 8.2.1 : The equilibrium constant Kc is a constant which represents how far the reaction will proceed at a given temperature. 8.2.2 : When Kc is greater than 1, products exceed reactants (at equilibrium). When much greater than 1, the reaction goes almost to completion. When Kc is less than 1, reactants exceed products. When much less than 1 (Kc can never be negative...so when it is close to zero) the reaction hardly occurs at all. 8.2.3 : The only thing which can change the value of Kc for a given reaction is a change in temperature. The position of equilibrium, however, can change without a change in the value of Kc. Effect of Temperature : The effect of a change of temperature on a reaction will depend on whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic. When the temperature increases, Le Castellani principle says the reaction will proceed in such a way as to counteract this change, ie lower the temperature. Therefore, endothermic reactions will move forward, and exothermic reactions will move backwards (thus becoming endothermic). The reverse is true for a lowering of temperature. Effect of Concentration : When the concentration of a product is increased, the reaction proceeds in reverse to decrease the concentration of the products. When the concentration of a reactant is increased, the reaction proceeds forward to decrease the concentration of reactants. Effect of Pressure : In reactions where gases are produced (or there are more mols of gas on the right), and increase in pressure will force the reaction to move to the left (in reverse). If pressure
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is decreased, the reaction will proceed forward to increase pressure. If there are more mols of gas on the left of the equation, this is all reversed. 8.2.4 : Based on the previous section, you should be able to predict what's going to happen given a reaction if the temperature, pressure, or concentration is changed. 8.2.5 : A catalyst does not effect either Kc or the position of equilibrium, it only effects the rate of reaction. 8.2.6 : N2(g) + 3H2(g) <=> 2NH3(g) : delta-H = -92.4 kJ mol-1 as can be seen, there are more mols of gas on the left than the right, so a greater yield will be produced at high pressure. The reaction is exothermic, therefore it will give a greater yield at low temperatures, however this is not possible as the rate of reaction becomes too low, and the temperature must actually be increased. A catalyst of finely divided iron is also used to help speed the reaction (finely divided to maximize the surface area).
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Contents
[hide]
1 Properties of acids and bases o 1.1 Properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution o 1.2 Experimental properties of acids and bases 2 Brnsted-Lowry acids and bases o 2.1 o 2.2 o 2.3 o 2.4 3 Lewis theory o 3.1 4 Strong and weak acids and bases o 4.1 o 4.2 Examples of strong and weak acids and bases o 4.3 5 The pH scale o 5.1 o 5.2 6 HL Material o 6.1 Calculations involving acids and bases o 6.2 Salt hydrolysis o 6.3 Acid-base titrations o 6.4 Indicators
Acids reacting with metals will produce hydrogen gas, e.g. Acids reacting with carbonates will produce water and carbon dioxide, e.g. .
, NH3, CH3COO-.
[edit]
For a compound to act as a B-L acid, it must have a hydrogen atom in it, which it is capable or losing while remaining fairly stable. A BL base must be capable of accepting a hydrogen ion while remaining relatively stable (or reacting to form a stable compound, e.g. water and a salt).
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Some compounds (such as water) may act as both, e.g. (H2O-> OH- or H3O+). These substances are called "amphoteric".
[edit]
Acid base reactions always involve an acid-base conjugate pair. If the reactant is an acid, the matching product is its conjugate base, e.g. HCl/Cl -, CH3COOH/CH3COO-, NH4+/NH3.
[edit]
The conjugate base will always have one less H atom than the acid (or the acid one more than the base). In compounds where there are many hydrogen atoms, the one which is held the weakest is generally the one which is lost, and this must be reflected in the writing of the compound, as in the CH3COOH example above.
Strong and weak acids are defined by their ease of losing (or donating) a proton. A strong acid, when placed in water, will almost fully ionise/dissociate straight away, producing H 3O+ ions from water. a weak acid will, however, only partially do this, leaving some unreacted acid remaining. This is set up as an equilibrium, and so when some of the H3O+ ions produced by a weak acid are reacted, LCP means that more of the acid will react to form H3O+ ions. This means that, given an equal number of moles of acid, they will be neutralized by the same amount of strong base, but their solutions will have different pH values. A weak base is the same as this, only it accepts protons and so produces OH- ions from water rather than H3O+. Any solution's ability to conduct electricity is defined by its ionic charges. As a result, a strong acid will produce more charged ions than a weak one, and so its solution will be a better electrical conductor than a weak acid. The same goes for strong/weak bases.
[edit]
The strength of an acid or base can obviously be measured with a universal indicator or a pH meter, and also the rate of reaction. Hydrogen production with metals or CO 2 with CaCO3 will reveal the strength of an acid. The relative acidities can also be found by neutralizing two acids with a strong base in the presence of an indicator.
[edit]
If we have two solutions with their pH values, the lower one will be more acidic and the higher one will be more basic (though they could both still be basic/acidic with respect to water pH 7). 9.4.3 : a change of 1 in the pH scale represents a 10 times change in the acidity or basicity of the solution (because it is a log scale). Concentration is equal to 10 -pH or pH=-log10[H3O+] where [H3O+] is the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.
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[edit] HL Material
Topic 18 is the additional HL material for Topic 9. Brnsted-Lowry acids and bases Lewis theory
Table adapted from: Stark JG & Wallace, HG (1982) Chemistry Data Book p103 2nd ed, John Murray, London.
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Contents
[hide]
1 Oxidation and Reduction Half Equations 2 Oxidation Numbers 3 Reactivity o 3.1 Reactivity Series 4 Voltaic Cells 5 Electrolysis o 5.1 Electrorefining o 5.2 Factors affecting discharge of ions o 5.3 Standard electrode potentials 5.3.1 Hydrogen Electrode 6 HL Material
2Mg 2Mg2+ +4eIf we were to combine these half reactions, we would obtain the full equation: 2Mg + O2 2MgO There are several mnemonics for oxidation and reduction, such as OILRIG ( Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain), and LEO GER (Lose Electrons: Oxidation, Gain Electrons: Reduction).
The oxidation number of an atom, or a single-atom ion, is the same as the charge: Species Oxidation number Au Au+ Au+3 Au0 +1 +3 -1
Consider every compound to be made of ions. Consider covalent bonds to break with the two electrons assigned to the higher electronegativity atom. If two identical atoms are covalently bonded, consider the bond's electrons to be assigned one to each atom. Species Oxidation number H2 HCl H2O O2 0 +1 (H) and -1 (Cl) +1 (H) and -2 (O) 0
Consequently:
The sum of all the oxidation numbers in an ion is the charge of the ion. The sum of all the oxidation numbers in a compound is 0. Elements not combined with anything have an oxidation number of 0. In compounds, the following rules are observed: o Group 1 always form +1 ions, and Group 2 always form +2 ions.
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o o o
Fluorine is always -1 Oxygen is always -2, except when in a peroxide (oxidation number is -1), or oxygen fluoride (oxidation number is +1) Hydrogen is always +1, except when in a hydride, for example sodium hydride (NaH), (oxidation number is -1)
We can quickly assign oxidation states using the observation above: NaHSO4 Na will be +1 (Group 1 elements only ever form +1 ions). H will be +1 (It is not a hydride). O will be -2. The sum of the oxidation numbers is 0, so S must be +6. Reduction occurs when the oxidation number decreases, and oxidation is when it increases. The change will be the number of electrons involved in the half equation. Keep this in mind that when something is being neutralized or precipitated it is not a redox reaction. An oxidizing agent is that which oxidizes something (it takes its electrons, thereby getting reduced). Oppositely, a reducing agent is one that reduces something (it loses its electrons, thereby getting oxidized). It is possible for an atom to have an oxidation number of 0, for example in Ni(CO) 4, due to the ligand nature of the bonds.
[edit] Reactivity
The reactivity of a metal is related to how readily it loses its outer electrons. This means that metals higher in the series will displace metals in an ionic reaction lower down. Metals high in the reactivity series are also better reducing agents, due to the fact that they lose their outer electrons more easily. As learned with periodicity, the electronegativity increases down the series. The reactivity series is below, which the better reducing agents are
K Na Li Sr Ca Mg Al C Zn Cr
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Fe Cd Co Ni Sn Pb H Cu Ag Hg Au Pt
[edit] Electrolysis
Electricity can be used to force a non-spontaneous redox reaction to occur. This is done in the electrolytic cell. Electricity is passed through the electrolyte. If the electrodes are inert, such as graphite, and the electrolye is a molten compound then the products will be the oxidized and reduced forms of each. The anode (positive electrode) is where oxidation occurs as negative ions are attracted and lose electrons. The electron flow is therefore from the positive to the negative electrode (which to me doesn't seem logical -- negative electrodes should be attracted?) If the electrolyte is aqueous then there is a different, more complicated scenario as there is oxygen and hydrogen that may also be formed at the electrodes. The lower in the reactivity series a metal is, the greater its ability to gain electrons (high electronegativity). Thus, if hydrogen is lower then it will be reduced at the cathode in preference to another positive ion. This means that copper and silver will be the only metal ions that wil be reduced in preference to hydrogen at the cathode. However, if one ion is more concentrated than another it will be discharged. For example, in dilute solutions of sodium chloride, oxygen gas is given off in preference as there is simply more of it. If the electrode is made of one of the metal of one of the ions in the electrolyte, ie there are copper electrodes and the electrolyte is CuSO4, then the positive electrode is oxidized, and the negative electrode is reduced. This means that the concentration of the metal ion is constant as it is being removed and deposited at the same rate.
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[edit] Electrorefining
Anode made from impure metal, cathode = sheets of pure metal, the electrolyte is a compound of the metal. Eg. copper: Oxidation at anode produces copper (II) ions and 2eat cathode the impure copper(II) joins with 2e- produced at anode to create copper metal. the impurities drop to the bottom of the cell where they can be removed.
Duration - More time means more electrons can be passed from one electrode to the other. Current - More current, more electrons available, more products Charge of the ion - Ions with 2+ charge require 2mol of electrons/ mol of products, therefore smaller charge = more products / electron flow.
To find how much is produced = Current*time/96500 = moles of electrons. Then you can work out how many moles of electrons you need per mol of product, and therefore find how much product will be produced, and the weight.
is always More Positive - More Negative. You should normally get a positive value since a positive E0 means a negative Gibbs free energy, which means the reaction is spontaneous. ELECTRONS ALWAYS FLOW FROM THE MORE NEGATIVE HALF-CELL TO THE MORE POSITIVE HALF-CELL. Thus you can always tell which is undergoing oxidation and which has reduction.
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IB Chemistry/Organic Chemistry
< IB Chemistry Jump to: navigation, search Organic chemistry is the study of compounds which contain carbon. The name 'organic' refers to the historical link between these compounds and living organisms. 'Inorganic' compounds were those which could be derived from non-living sources. Confusingly, some inorganic compounds contain carbon. This material in this chapter is restricted to that needed by SL Chemistry students For further material see Organic Chemistry
[edit] 10.1
10.1.1 Describe the features of a homologous series. This is how organic compounds are classified into 'families'. Successive members of a homologous series differ by a -CH2. Molecular mass increases by a fixed amount as you go up the series. For example, alkanes. Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6, propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10). General formula: CnH2n+2 Other series have an additional 'functional group' which is also shown in the general formula. The functional group is usually a small group of atoms attached to a carbon atom in the molecule. For example, alcohols have the functional group -OH. General formula: CnH2n+1OH. 10.1.2 Predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series. Since successive members differ by -CH2, their carbon chains will continue to increase in length. Boiling point increases with increasing carbon number. Note that if you know the chemical characteristics of a functional group, you can predict the chemical properties of the series. 10.1.3 Distinguish between empirical, molecular and structural formulas. The empirical formula is the lowest whole number ratio of the atoms. The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms. The structural formula is a representation of how the molecules are bonded together. Full structural shows all bonds, whereas condensed structural omits bonds where they can be assumed. Ethane... Empirical: CH3, Molecular: C2H6, Condensed structural: CH3CH3 Full structural:
H | H |
HCCH
| |
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10.1.4 Describe structural isomers. Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms. 10.1.5 Deduce structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to C6. C4H10: Butane and 2-methyl propane.
H | H | H | H | H | H | H |
HCCCCHHCCCH
| H | H | H | H | | | H | H H C H | H
HCCCCCHHCCCCHHCH
| H H | H | | | H | H H C H | H | H | H | H | H | | | H | H H C H | H H | H | | | H C C C
[edit] HL Material
Naming Organic Compounds Organic chemistry is concerned with the compounds of carbon. Since there are more compounds of carbon known than all the other elements together, it is helpful to have a systemic way of naming them. Identify longest carbon chain 1 carbon = meth- 2 carbons = eth- 3 carbons = prop- 4 carbons = but- 5 carbons = pent- 6 carbons = hex- 7 carbons = hept- 8 carbons = oct-
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Identify type of bonding in the chain All single bonds in the carbon chain = -an- One double bond in the carbon chain = -en- One triple bond in the carbon chain = -ynIdentify functioning group Formula Name Example R-H Alkane Methane R-OH Alcohol ethanol R-NH3 Amine Ethylamine R-X Halogenoalkane Bromoethane (Where X = F, Cl, Br, I) R-C=O Aldehyde Ethanal
| H
Numbers are used to give the positions of groups or bonds along the chain. Homologous Series The alkanes form a series of compounds all with the same general formula CnH2n+2 e.g. Methane CH4 Ethane C2H6 Propane C3H8 If one of the hydrogen atoms is removed what is left is known as an alkyl radical R- (e.g. methyl CH3- ) When other atoms or groups are attached to an alkyl radical they can form different series of compounds. These atoms or groups are known as functioning goups and the series formed are all homologous eries. Homologous series have the same general formula with the neighbouring members of the series differing by by -CH2: for example the general formula of alcohols is CnH2n+1OH. The chemical properties of the individual members of an homologous series are similar and they show a gradual change in physical properties.
Boiling Points As the carbon chain gets longer the mass of the moleculaes increases and the van der Waals' forces of attraction increase. A plot of boiling points against the number of carbon atoms show a sharp increse at first, as the percentage increase in mass is high, but as successive CH2- groups are added the rate of increase in boiling point decreases. When branching occurs the molecules become more spherical in shape, which reduces the contact surface area between them and lowers the boiling point. Other homologous series show similar trends but the actual temeratures at which the compounds boilwill depend on the type of attractive forces between the
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molecules. The volatility of the compounds also follows the same pattern. The lower members of the alkanes are all gases as the attractive forces are weak and the next few members are volatile liquids. Methanol, the first member of the alcohols is a liquid at room temperature, due to the presence of hydrogen bonding. Methanol is calssed as volatile as its boiling point is 337.5K but when there are four or more carbon atoms in the chain the boiling points exceed 373K and the hugher alcohols have low volatility. Functional Group Strongest type of intermolecular attraction Alkane van der Waals' Alkene van der Waals' Alkyne van der Waals' Ester Dipole:Dipole Aldehyde Dipole:Dipole Ketone Dipole:Dipole Amine Hydrogen bonding Alcohol Hydrogen bonding Carboxylix Acid Hydrogen bonding
Low Reactivity of Alkanes Because of the strong C-H and C-C in alkanes they have low reactivity and only usually undergo combustion in the presence of Oxygen and substitution reactions with halogens in ultra-violet light. MECHANISM OF SUBSTITUTION REACTION WITH HALOGENS Chemical bonds can break homolytically or heterolytically. Heterolytically is when both of the shared electrons go to one of the atoms resulting in a positive and one negative ion. When halogen are exposed to ultraviolet light the halogen molecule bond can break homololytically meaning each of the atoms retains one of the pair of previously shared electrons. The bond between two halogen atoms is weaker than C-H or C-C bond in alkanes and so is more likely to become a free radical due to homolytic fission of the covalent bond. When a Chlorine molecule is exposed to ultraviolet rays and becomes two free radical chlorine atoms it is called the intiation stage. Free radicals have an unpaired electron and are therefore very reactive.
Topic 20 is the additional HL material for Topic 11. Determination of structure This HL Sub-topic is required for Sub-topic 1 of SL Option A Hydrocarbons The material on benzene in this HL Sub-topic is required for Sub-topic 1 of SL Option A Nucleophilic substitution reactions This HL Sub-topic is Sub-topic 4 of SL Option A Alcohols
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G.2.1: Describe, using equations, the addition of hydrogen cyanide to aldehydes and ketones. G.2.2: Describe and explain the mechanism for the addition of hydrogen cyanide to aldehydes and ketones. G.2.3: Describe, using equations, the hydrolysis of cyanohydrins to form carboxylic acids. G.3.1: Describe, using equations, the dehydration reactions of alcohols with phosphoric acid to form alkenes. G.3.2: Describe and explain the mechanism for the elimination of water from alcohols. G.4.1: Describe, using equations the reactions of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine with aldehydes and ketones. G.5.1: Describe and explain the structure of benzene using physical and chemical evidence. Physical Evidence:
All bonds of benzene are of equal lengthshorter than single bonds, but longer than double.
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Chemical Evidence:
Benzene does not undergo addition reactions Heat of hydrogenation of benzene is endothermic whereas the heat of hydrogenation of a triene would be extremely exothermic
G.5.2: Describe and explain the relative rates of hydrolysis of benzene compounds halogenated in the ring and in the side chain.
The rate of hydrolysis in the side chain is much faster than benzene compounds halogenated in the ring because benzene does not undergo addition reactions. Chlorobenzene is much slower than alkanes in hydrolysis and does not undergo nucleophilic substitution for two main reasons: 1. The nonbonding pair of election of the chlorine may react with the pi bond, and become delocalized, thus strengthening (and possibly depolarizing) the C-Cl bond. 2. The high electron density of the delocalized pi bond repels the nucleophile and blocks it from the slight positive carbon atom attached to the chlorine.
G.6.1: Outline the formation of Grignard Reagents. G.6.2: Describe, using equations, the reactions of Grignard reagents with water, carbon dioxide, aldehydes, and ketones G.7.1: Deduce the reaction pathways given the starting materials and the product. G.8.1: Describe and explain the acidic properties of phenol and substituted phenols in terms of bonding.
Alcohols are not very acidic because they produce an anion which contains only one resonance structure, and localized electrons. Phenol is acidic due to its electron-withdrawing groups. As an anion, it becomes more stable due to the delocalized electrons which produce various resonance structures. 2,4,6-trinitrophenol contains many electron-withdrawing groups which cause it to be very acidic due to further delocalization of the electrons.
G.8.2: Describe and explain the acidic properties of substituted carboxylic acid in terms of bonding.
The adjacent C=O bond weakens the normally strong O-H bond.
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The ion formed by the removal of the H from a carboxylic acid is more stable because of the delocalized electrons forming several resonance structures.
G.8.3: Compare and explain the relative basicities of ammonia and amines.
Ammonia is a weak base Amines are more basic than ammonia because the inductive effect of the alkyl group pushes the electrons towards the nitrogen atom, increasing the electron density of the nonbonding electron pairs of the nitrogen.
G.9.1: Describe, using equations, the reactions of acid anhydrides with nucleophiles to form carboxylic acids, esters, amides, and substituted amides. G.9.2: Describe, using equations, the reactions of acyl chlorides with nucleophiles to form carboxylic acids, esters, amides, and substitutes amides. G.9.3: Explain the reactions of acyl chlorides with nucleophiles in terms of an addition-elimination mechanism. G.10.1: Describe, using equations, the nitration, chlorination, alkylation, and acylation of benzene. G.10.2: Describe and explain the mechanism for the nitration, chlorination, alkylation, and acylation of benzene. G.10.3: Describe, using equations, the nitration, chlorination, alkylation, and acylation of methylbenzene.
The methyl group is an electron supplier and an activator, so it is an ortho/para-director.
G.10.4: Describe and explain the directing effects and relative rates of reaction of different substituents on a benzene ring. G.11.1: Deduce reaction pathways given the starting materials and the product.
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IB Chemistry/Human Biochemistry
< IB Chemistry This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search Option C: Human Biochemistry
Contents
[hide]
1 C.1 Diet (2h) 2 C.2 Proteins (3h) 3 C.3 Carbohydrates (2.5h) 4 C.4 Lipids (2.5h) 5 B.5 Micronutrients and Macronutrients 6 C.6 Hormones (2.5h) 7 B.7 Enzymes 8 B.8 Nucleic Acids 9 B.9 Respiration
This is due to combustion of 0.547 g of sucrose. Dividing by this mass gives us: 16.4 kJ g-1. 1 mole of sucrose has a mass of 342 g, so the molar enthalpy change is 5612 kJ mol-1. (342 g x 16.4 kJ g-1 or 8.98 kJ 1.60 x 10-3 mol.)
Questions 03NS3 C1. (a) State how genetically modified food differs from unmodified food. [1] (b) List two benefits and two concerns of using genetically modified crops. [4] C2 (d) 1.00 g of sucrose, C12H22O11, was completely combusted in a food calorimeter. The heat evolved was equivalent to increasing the temperature of 631 g of water from 18.36 C to 24.58 C. Calculate the calorific value of sucrose (in kJ mol1) given the specific heat capacity of water in Table 2 of the Data Booklet. [3] 05MS3 C1. (c) The energy content of a vegetable oil was determined using a calorimeter. A 5.00 g sample of the oil was completely combusted in a calorimeter containing 1 000 g of water at an initial temperature of 18.0 oC. On complete combustion of the oil, the temperature of the water rose to 65.3 oC. Calculate the calorific value of the oil in kJ g1 [4]
Example: Using paper as the solid phase and a 8:1:1 mix of ethanol:water:ammonia as the solvent, the Rf values of Aspartic acid, lysine and leucine were found to be 0.13, 0.35 and 0.84 respectively. Draw a chromatogram showing the expected pattern of spots for the three pure amino acids and a mixture of all three. Electrophoresis uses an electric field to separate the amino acids. Positively-charged amino acids will tend towards the cathode and negatively charged amino acids will move towards the anode. Each amino acid has an isoelectric point, given in table 20 of your data book. This is the pH which gives the amino acid an overall neutral charge. Above this pH, the amino acid is negative (deprotonated) and below this pH the amino acid is positive (protonated). For example, at pH 5.4: Charge Structure Movement Asparagine
Cysteine
Glutamine
The sequence of amino acids in a protein is called its primary structure. The sequence is given from the free amine end (N-terminal) to the free acid end (C-terminal). The backbone of the protein can form two regular patterns due to hydrogen bonding. These are called secondary structures: A single chain can form an -helix. Hydrogen bonds form between the C=O of one amino acid and the H-N of the amino acid four residues further down the chain. When two chains run alongside one another, the C=O groups of one chain and N-H groups of the other chain can be aligned and hydrogen bonds form. This forms a -sheet. Tertiary structure is the folding of the protein into its final shape. The main driving force is for oily amino acids to be buried within the structure and polar amino acids to be exposed on the
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surface. Other forces involved are hydrogen bonds, salt bridges (ionic bonds between acidic and basic amino acids) and disulphide bridges (covalent bonds between cysteine residues). A fictional peptide showing two disulphide bridges, a salt bridge, and inter-residue hydrogen bonding. Some proteins may be formed from multiple polypeptide chains. The assembly of two or more chains to form one protein is called quaternary structure. Like tertiary structure, the bonding may involve hydrophobic, ionic, covalent and hydrogen bonding. These are structure, biological catalysts (enzymes) and energy sources. Proteins are involved in holding biological structures together (e.g. collagen, keratin) Enzymes are biological catalysts which control metabolism. They are all proteins. Protein can be used as a source of energy but is generally only used if fat and carbohydrate is not available.
Questions 06MS3 C1. (a) (i) Deduce the structure of one of the dipeptides that can be formed when the two aminoacids below react together.[2] (ii) State the name given to this type of reaction and identify the other product of the reaction. [2] (b) Describe how a mixture of aminoacids can be analysed using electrophoresis. [4] (c) (i) Explain what is meant by the primary structure of proteins. [1] (ii) Explain, with reference to hydrogen bonding, why the -helix and -sheet secondary structures of proteins are different. [2] (iii) Identify three types of interactions responsible for the tertiary structure of proteins. [2]
-glucose straight-chain version of glucose -glucose You need to know these formulae of glucose. Galactose undergoes a similar reaction: The OH group on carbon 1 of -glucose can link to the OH group on carbon 6 of fructose. H2O is lost and a bridging O- links the two molecules. This disaccharide is called sucrose. If the OH group on carbon 1 of -galactose links to the OH group on carbon 4 of glucose, a similar reaction occurs resulting in the disaccharide lactose. A chain of -glucose molecules linked carbon 1 to carbon 4 is called amylose. It is part of starch and glycogen. Amylose chains can be linked together by connecting the carbon-1 at one end to the carbon-6 of another chain. This branched polymer is called amylopectin and it is the second component of starch and glycogen. These are energy sources, energy reserves (eg glycogen) and precursors for other biologically important molecules. Glucose is broken down into water and carbon dioxide to yeld metabolic energy. Other carbohydrates are converted into glucose and metabolized in a similar manner. Starch and glycogen are used as stores of glucose in plants and animals respectively. Carbohydrates are used in other roles but are usually modified beforehand e.g. as glycoproteins, glycolipids, hormones.
Questions 03NS3 C2. (a) Draw the straight chain structure of glucose. [1] (b) The structure of -glucose is shown below. Outline the structural difference between -glucose and -glucose. [1] (c) Glucose molecules can condense to form starch which can exist in two forms, amylose and amylopectin. Describe the structural differences between the two forms. [2] 05NS3 C1. (a) The equilibria which exist in an aqueous solution of glucose is shown in the structures below. (i) Identify the and forms of glucose [2] (ii) State, with a reason, whether or not the two ring forms of glucose are enantiomers. [1] (iii) In structure B identify, by stating the numbers, the carbon atoms which are not chiral. [1] (b) The structure of lactose, a disaccharide formed from glucose and galactose, is shown in the Data Booklet. Draw the ring structure of galactose and state whether it is an or isomer. [2] (c) State one major function of polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen. [1]
Tricglycerides(Oils) Fats and oils (collectively known as lipids) have a variety of chemical structures, but they are all insoluble in water. The most common lipid structure is the triacylglyceride (TAG) which is an ester. Three longchained acids form ester bonds to a single molecule of glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol). Saturated fatty acids have no C=C double bonds. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more C=C double bonds. Polyunsaturates have more than one C=C. Saturated fatty acids tend to have higher melting points. The intermolecular bonds must be greater. This is due to the more efficient van der Waals' forces that are possible when the flexible saturated chains lie alongside one another the contact surface is maximised. In unsaturated fatty acids the double bonds reduce the flexibility of the molecules, and this prevents the molecules aligning so efficiently. Margarine manufacturers use unsaturated vegetable oils and hydrogenate them until they become saturated enough to have the right semi-solid consistency at room temperature. The number of C=C bonds can be determined from the number of moles of I2 which add to one mole of fat. Like Br2 in the test for alkenes, I2 will add to the C=C double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids. Unlike Br2 it only reacts with C=C bonds. The iodine number is the mass of iodine which reacts with 100 g of a lipid. For saturated fatty acids such as palmitic acid (C15H31COOH) the iodine number is zero. For unsaturated fatty acids like hexadecadienoic acid C15H27COOH the iodine number is calculated as follows: The number of double bonds is calculated by comparing the fatty acid to the appropriate saturated fatty acid. For every two hydrogens missing, there must be one double bond. In this case, compare C15H27COOH with C15H31COOH: There are four missing hydrogens and therefore two C=C bonds.
Example
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Calculate the molar mass of the fatty acid and the iodine: C15H27COOH 252 g mol-1 I2 254 g mol-1 Every C=C will react with one iodine, so: one mole of C15H27COOH will react with two moles of I2 252 g of C15H27COOH will react with 508 g of I2 100 g of C15H27COOH will react with 202 g of I2
Hydrolysing TAGs into glycerol and fatty acids is achieved by refluxing with sodium hydroxide. The fatty acid salts which result acts as soaps. The ionic salt end is water-soluble but the long alkane chain is oily. The molecule can therefore bridge between water and oily impurities. C.4.5 List the major functions of fats in the body. These are energy sources, insulation and cell membranes. Fats are used as a source of energy. They are more slowly broken down than carbohydrates so they are not as useful in an emergency as glycogen. On the other hand, fats do not accumulate water so they are more efficient energy stores, pound for pound, than glycogen. Fat is a good thermal insulator (blubber).
Phospholipids Made of three structures: -Glycerol(backbone) -2 fatty acid chains -phosphate chain. It is amphipathic meaning the head, glycerol is polar but the chains are not. Phosopholipids form bilayers. The bilayers form cell membranes
Steroids 3 Cyclohexane rings and 1 cyclopentane ring bonded together Examples of steroids are: Vitamins, hormones and cholesterol.
Questions 03NS3 C3. Linoleic acid (C17H31COOH, Mr = 280) and stearic acid (C17H35COOH, Mr = 284) both contain eighteen carbon atoms and have similar molar masses. (a) Explain why the melting point of linoleic acid is considerably lower than the melting point of stearic acid. [3] (b) Determine the maximum mass of iodine (I2 Mr = 254) that can add to (i) 100 g of stearic acid:
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[1] (ii) 100 g of linoleic acid: [2] (c) (i) Draw the simplified structural formula of a fat containing one stearic acid and two linoleic acid residues. [1] (ii) Give the formulas of the products formed when this fat is hydrolyzed by sodium hydroxide. [1] 05MS3 C1. (a) A brand of vegetable fat consists of 88 % unsaturated fats and 12 % saturated fats. State the major structural difference between unsaturated and saturated fats. [1] (b) Linoleic acid, CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH, and palmitic acid, CH3(CH2)14COOH, are components of vegetable fat. Explain why palmitic acid has the higher melting point. [3] (d) List two functions of fats in the human body. [2] 06MS3 C2. (a) The formula of oleic acid is CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH3)7COOH. Using R to represent CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH3)7, show the structure of the triglyceride formed from this acid. [1] (b) Explain why some triglycerides that are liquid at room temperature become solids when they are completely hydrogenated. [3] 05NS3 C2. (a) The general formula for saturated fatty acids is CnH2nO2. The molecular formula of linoleic acid is C18H32O2. (i) Determine the number of carbon to carbon double bonds in linoleic acid. [1] (ii) Iodine number is defined as the number of grams of iodine that adds to 100 g of a fat or an oil in an addition reaction. Determine the iodine number of linoleic acid. [2] (b) (i) State one structural similarity between fats and oils. [1] (ii) Explain, by referring to their structures, why fats are solid at room temperature, but oils are liquid. [3] (c) When a fat is reacted with aqueous sodium hydroxide, soap and one other product are formed. (i) State the condition required for this reaction. [1] (ii) Draw the structural formula of the other product. [1]
[edit] B.5
B.5.2 - Compare the structures of retinol (vitamin A), calciferol (vitamin D) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
Vitamin C - Has hydroxyl groups (4), Ester within in the ring, polar because hydroxl groups make it easy to dissolve in water.
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Vitamin A - Only 1 hydroxyl group, long polyene chain. Has small polar parts, but overall non-polar (therefore doesn't dissolve in water, fat soluable) Vitamin D - Only one hydroxyl group. Some alkene groups, small parts are polar areas but overall no big difference. Overall non-polar due to the carbon chains and cyclocarbons.
B.5.3 - Deduce whether a vitamin is water or fat soluable from its structure Water
soluble molecules have a high proportion of electronegative atoms in their structures. Fat soluble vitamins are relatively non-polar and consist mainly of hydrocarbon.
B.5.4 - Discuss the causes and effects of nutrient deficiencies in different countires and suggest solutions. Micronutrient defiencies include:
Iron - anemia Iodine - goitre Retinol (vitamin A) - Xerophythalmia, night blindness Niacin (Vitamin B3) - Pellagra Thiamin (Vitamin B1) - Beriberi Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) - Scurvy Calciferol (Vitamin D) - Rickets
Macronutrient definciencies
Solutions include
Providing food rations that are composed of fresh and vitamin -and mineral- rich foods Adding nutrients missing in commonly consumed foods Genetic modification of foods Providing nutrition supplements Providing selenium supplements to people eating foods grown in selenium-poor soil
Questions 04MS3 C1. (a) The structures of three important vitamins are shown in Table 22 of the Data Booklet. State the name of each one and deduce whether each is water-soluble or fat-soluble, explaining your choices by reference to their structures. [5]
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(b) Identify the metal ion needed for the maintenance of healthy bones and state the name of the vitamin needed for its uptake. [2] (c) State the name of the vitamin responsible for maintaining healthy eyesight and the name of the functional group which is most common in this vitamin. [2] (d) Identify one major function of vitamin C in the human body and state the name of the most common disease caused by deficiency of this vitamin. [2] (e) Fresh fruits and vegetables are good sources of vitamin C. Explain why some meals made from these foods may contain little vitamin C. [2]
05NS3 C3. (a) State the name of a disease which results from the deficiency of each of the following vitamins. [2] vitamin A vitamin C vitamin D (b) A person consumes an excess of both vitamin A and C. State, with a reason, which one is more likely to be stored in the body and which is more likely to be excreted. [2] 06MS3 C3. The structures of vitamins A and C are shown in Table 22 of the Data Booklet. State, with a reason, whether each is fat soluble or water soluble. [3]
05MS3 C2. (a) By referring to Table 22 of the Data Booklet, identify one vitamin that is water soluble and one vitamin that is fat soluble. Explain the differences in solubility in terms of their structures and intermolecular forces. [4] (b) Vitamins C and D are vital in a balanced diet. State one major function of each of these vitamins and state a disease that results from the deficiency of each one. [4]
DNA RNA
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IB Chemistry/Environmental Chemistry
< IB Chemistry This page may need to be reviewed for quality. Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
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1 E1 Air Pollution o 1.1 E.1.1 Describe the main sources of carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere. o 1.2 E.1.2 Evaluate the current methods for the reduction of air pollution. 2 E2 Acid Deposition o 2.1 E.2.1 State what is meant by the term acid deposition and outline its origins. o 2.2 E.2.2 Discuss the environmental effects of acid deposition and possible methods to counteract them. 3 E3 Greenhouse Effect o 3.1 E.3.1 Describe the greenhouse effect. o 3.2 E.3.2 List the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects. o 3.3 E.3.3 Discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on the atmosphere. 4 E4 Ozone Depletion o 4.1 E.4.1 Describe the formation and depletion of ozone in the stratosphere by natural processes. o 4.2 A.4.2 List the ozone-depleting pollutants and their sources. o 4.3 E.4.3 Discuss the alternatives to CFCs in terms of properties. 5 E5 Dissolved oxygen in water o 5.1 E.5.1 Outline biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) as a measure of oxygendemanding wastes in water. o 5.2 E.5.2 Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water. o 5.3 E.5.3 Describe the process of eutrophication and its effects. o 5.4 E.5.4 Describe the source and effects of thermal pollution in water. 6 E6 Water Treatment o 6.1 E.6.1 List the primary pollutants found in waste water and identify their sources. o 6.2 E.6.2 Outline primary, secondary, and tertiary stages of waste water treatment, and state the substance that is removed during each stage. 6.2.1 Primary Treatment: the removal of large solids 6.2.2 Secondary Treatment: the removal of organic materials using microbes
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6.2.3 Tertiary Treatment: the removal of remaining organics, nutrients and toxic heavy metal ions o 6.3 E.6.3 Evaluate the process to obtain fresh water from sea water using multistage distillation and reverse osmosis. 7 E7 Soil o 7.1 E.7.1 Discuss salinization, nutrient depletion and soil pollution as causes of soil degradation. o 7.2 E.7.2 Describe the relevance of the soil organic matter (SOM) in preventing soil degradation, and outline its physical and biological functions. o 7.3 E.7.3 List common organic soil pollutants and their sources 8 E8 Waste o 8.1 E.8.1 Outline and compare various methods for waste disposal. o 8.2 E.8.2 Describe the recycling of metal, glass, plastic and paper products, and outline its benefits. o 8.3 A.8.3 Describe the characteristics and sources of different types of radioactive waste. o 8.4 A.8.4 Compare the storage and disposal methods for different types of radioactive waste. 9 E9 Ozone Depletion (HL) o 9.1 E.9.1 Explain the dependence of O2 and O3 dissociation on the wavelength of light. o 9.2 E.9.2 Describe the mechanism in the catalysis of O3 depletions by CFCs and NOx o 9.3 E.9.3 Outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in the polar regions. 10 E10 Smog (HL) o 10.1 E.10.1 State the source of primary pollutants and the conditions necessary for the formation of photochemical smog. o 10.2 E.10.2 Outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog. 11 E11 Acid Deposition (HL) o 11.1 E.11.1 Describe the mechanism of acid deposition caused by the oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur. o 11.2 E.11.2 Explain the role of ammonia in acid deposition. 12 E12 Water and Soil (HL) o 12.1 E.12.1 Solve problems relating to the removal of heavy-metal ions, the phosphates and nitrates from water by chemical precipitation. o 12.2 E.12.2 State what is meant by the term cation-exchange capacity (CEC) and outline its importance. o 12.3 E.12.3 Discuss the effects of soil pH on cation-exchange capacity and availability of nutrients. o 12.4 E.12.4 Describe the chemical functions of soil organic matter (SOM).
[edit] E.1.1 Describe the main sources of carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere.
see chart below
[edit] E.1.2 Evaluate the current methods for the reduction of air pollution.
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[edit] E.2.2 Discuss the environmental effects of acid deposition and possible methods to counteract them.
Some effects of acid deposition include:
Leeches important nutrients from soil such as Ca 2+, Mg2+, and K+ which can lead to reduction in chlorophyll and therefore the ability to photosynthesize. Can kill aquatic life in lakes and rivers, and nitrates can lead to eutrophication. Erosion of stone which contains calcium carbonate (such as marble) Irritation of the mucus membranes increases the risk of respiratory illness such as asthma, bronchitis and emphysema
Acid deposition can be counteracted by lower the amount of sulfur and nitrogen oxides with:
Improved engine design Catalytic converters Removing sulfur before, during, and after use of sulfur-containing fuels
It can also include the reduction of the amount of fuel burned, alternative energy methods and the use of mass transportation. Furthermore, alkaline scrubbers, such as CaCO 3 and CaO, to remove the oxides.
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Adding CaO or CaOH to lakes may also neutralize acidity, increases amount of calcium ions, and precipitate Al from the solution.
[edit] E.3.2 List the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects.
Gas
Source Anaerobic decay Termites Rice fields Petroleum and natural gas production Evaporation Combustion of hydrocarbons Combustion of fossil fuels, biomass Decay of plants and animals Oxidation of soil Forest fires Internal combustion engines Bacterial action Fertilizers Secondary pollutant smog Refrigerants Propellants
CH4
30x
18%
H2O
0.1x
>1%
CO2
1x
50%
N2O O3 CFCs
6% 12% 14%
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[edit] E.3.3 Discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on the atmosphere.
Increasing greenhouse gases could increase the earths natural greenhouse effect and lead to global warming. The oceans may expand with an increase in temperature, and polar ice caps may melt. Also, changes in temperature and precipitation, thus leading to changes in crop production may result from a possible global warming.
Formation:
O2 + UV 2O O2 + O O3
Depletion:
O3 + UV O2 + O O3 + O 2O2
Initiation:
CF2Cl2 + UV Cl + CF2Cl
Propagation:
Cl + O3 Cl + O2 ClO + O O2 + Cl
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Termination:
ClO + ClO 2Cl + O2 In this way, the CFC is acting as a catalyst destroying the existing O3 and preventing the formation of O3 without being consumed. NOx can also react catalytically with O3. NO + O3 NO2 + O2 NO2 + O NO + O2 Net effect: O3 + O 2O2 NO2 + UV NO + O O3 + O 2O2
[edit] E.5.2 Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water.
If theres sufficient oxygen present in the water, organic matter is broken down by microbes aerobically. This oxidizes the C, N, P, S, and H to produce CO2, NO3, PO34, SO24, and H2O. If theres an insufficient amount of oxygen present in the water, organic matter is decomposed by microbes that dont require oxygen. They break down C, N, S, and P to form CH4, NH3, H2S, and PH3. Element Aerobic product Anaerobic product C CO2 CH4 N NO3 NH3 P PO34 PH3
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SO24
H2S
[edit] E.5.4 Describe the source and effects of thermal pollution in water.
If water is heated, the solubility of oxygen in the water decreases. At the same time, fish are cold-blooded, so as the temperature of the water increases, their metabolism increases. This forms a dilemma since the DO decreases as the BOD increases. This process helps to contribute to red tide.
Nitrates: from fertilisers or acid rain. they are toxic at high levels, especially to babies because they have less stomach acid than adults, can cause blue baby syndrome Heavy metals: Cadmium (Cd) (from recharageable batteries), Mercury (Hg) (from batteries), Copper (Cu) (from household plumbing), Lead (Pb)
[edit] E.6.2 Outline primary, secondary, and tertiary stages of waste water treatment, and state the substance that is removed during each stage.
[edit] Primary Treatment: the removal of large solids Primary treatment removes 60% of the solid material and a third of the BOD waste in the water. However, afterwards the water will still not be safe to drink. Primary treatment involves running water through the below mechanisms in order: 1. Bar screens: these remove large objects and debris from the surface of the water and remove floating solids. 2. Settling tanks: these are used to settle out sand, grit, and small objects from the water (as they sink to the bottom); these particles are then sent to landfills. 3. Sedimentation tanks: Alum (Ca(OH)2 and Al2(SO4)3) precipitates out and carry with them solid suspended particles (this process is called flocculation) [edit] Secondary Treatment: the removal of organic materials using microbes
Activated sludge process: o Air is bubbled into sewage which has been mixed with bacteria-laden sludge. o Aerobic bacteria oxidize organic material in the sewage. o Water-containing decomposed suspended particles are passed through the sedimentation tanks where the activated sludge is collected. o Some of the sludge is recycled, and some is sent to landfills. o This removes 90% of organic oxygen-demanding waste, 50% of nitrogen, and 30% of phosphates Effluent is then treated with chlorine or ozone to kill pathogenic bacteria before releasing the water to lakes or rivers Other methods include a carbon bed to remove the remaining organics, ion exchange which removes many soluble ions, reverse osmosis and electrodialysis.
[edit] Tertiary Treatment: the removal of remaining organics, nutrients and toxic heavy metal ions
Heavy metal ions and phosphates are removed by precipitation, for example, nickel:
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Aluminum sulfate and phosphates are removed by precipitation: Al3+(aq) + PO34 (aq) AlPO4 (s) Al3+(aq) + SO24 (aq) Al2(SO4)3 (s)
Aluminum sulfate and calcium oxide can be used to remove phosphates: 3CaO(aq) + 2PO34 (aq) + 3H2O Ca3(PO4)2 (s) + 6OH(aq)
Heavy metals will precipitate in the presence of hydroxide: Cr3+(aq) + 3OH(aq) Cr(OH)3 (s)
Nitrates are more difficult to remove by precipitation because theyre quite soluble, however, there are some ways to remove them: o Anaerobic denitrifying bacteria can reduce nitrates into nitrogen 2NO23 (aq) N2 (g) + 3O2 (g)
Another method is to pass them into algae ponds where algae uses nitrate as a nutrient
[edit] E.6.3 Evaluate the process to obtain fresh water from sea water using multi-stage distillation and reverse osmosis.
There are also a few other treatments, such as distillation. In distillation, sea water is pumped into a reservoir, at which point it is heated. The pure water which evaporates condenses on the cool water being pumped in, leaving a salty brine, which is then pumped out. Another method used is the reverse osmosis system. In this type of system, there is a semipermeable membrane which the water is pumped through, thereby being the opposite of a normal osmosis system (in which water would flow from low concentration to high concentration).
[edit] E7 Soil
[edit] E.7.1 Discuss salinization, nutrient depletion and soil pollution as causes of soil degradation.
Soil is a complex mixture of inorganic and organic materials, including living organisms. Soil degradation lowers crop production and is caused by a variety of human factors including; acidification, salinization, contamination, desertification, erosion.
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Salinization: the result of continual irrigation of soil; In poorly drained soil, after the water evaporates, salt is left behind, and plants die because they are unable to take water away from the salty soil. Nutrient Depletion: plants remove nutrients and minerals from soil as they grow. If not properly managed by crop rotation or fertilizing the soil, nutrients will become depleted. Soil Depletion: caused by improper use of pesticides and over-fertilizing; chemicals can disrupt the food web, reducing soils biodiversity, and ultimately ruining the soil.
[edit] E.7.2 Describe the relevance of the soil organic matter (SOM) in preventing soil degradation, and outline its physical and biological functions.
SOM refers to the organic constituents in the soil. This includes plant and animal tissue, partial decomposition products and soil biomass. Chemicals found in SOM from decomposition of plants are high molecular mass organics such as Polysaccharides, proteins, sugars, and amino acids. The end product of decomposition is humus. Humus is the organic decomposition layer which plants live on. It has a mixture of simple and more complex organic chemicals from plants, animals, or microbial origin.
helps soil to retain moisture, and dark color helps to retain heat and warm the soil during the spring. contains mineral nutrients that it exchanges with plants (at the roots). it improves the soil structure it reduces soil erosion.
humus provides a source of nutrients (such as N, P, and S) to the soil. Nitrogen provides proteins, Phosphoros provides enzymes, Sulfur provides amino acids.
SOM can retain several times its mass of water (like a sponge). Therefore more SOM means more water, making the soil more stable.
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Chemically, SOM acts like clay with cation exchange capacity (CEC): it contains active sites that enable it to bind to nutrient cations. Humus also has the ability to maintain a constant pH by acting as a buffer.
[edit] E.7.3 List common organic soil pollutants and their sources
Here is a list of common soil pollutants and their major sources:
Agrichemicals: from pesticides, herbicides and fungicides. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons: from incomplete combustion of coal, oil, gas, wood and garbage. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): from transformers and generators (they are used as a coolant). Organotin compounds: from bactericides and fungicides (used in paper, wood, textile and anti-fouling paint). Hydrocarbons and other VOCS: from transport, solvents and industrial processes.
[edit] E8 Waste
[edit] E.8.1 Outline and compare various methods for waste disposal.
Method of disposal | Advantages (+) | Disadvantages (-) Landfill | (+)Cheap, leaves large amount of land reused after fill | (-)Leaches into soil and ground water; needs time to settle, maintenance for methane Open Dumping | (+)Extremely cheap, convenient | (-)Unsightly; causes disease, odor, ground water pollution Ocean Dumping | (+)Cheap, convenient | (-)Toxic in oceans, dangerous to fish, pollutes the sea Incineration | (+)Provides source of energy, takes up little space, has stable residue | (-)Causes air pollution Recycling | (+)Produces new raw materials, creates a sustainable environment | (-)Expensive, still causes some air pollution
[edit] E.8.2 Describe the recycling of metal, glass, plastic and paper products, and outline its benefits.
There are 3 main benefits to recycling that apply to metal, glass, plastic and paper. These are:
Saving energy (as energy is required to produce new materials) Saving space (in landfills)
In addition, glass and metals can be constantly recycled (over and over) without much degradation in the material.
Metals: sorted (by magnets or flotation) --> melted --> re-moulded --> re-used. Glass: sorted (colour) --> washed --> crushed --> re-moulded --> re-used. Plastics: sorted --> degraded to monomers (through pyrolysis, hdrogenation, gasification and thermal cracking) --> repolymerised --> re-used. Paper: mixed into water and chemicals (to form pulp) --> pulp is spun (removes staples/paper clips) --> washed to remove ink --> dried and bleached white --> re-used.
[edit] A.8.3 Describe the characteristics and sources of different types of radioactive waste.
Low-level waste includes any gloves, paper towels or protective clothing that has been used in areas where radioactive materials have been handled. The level of activity is low and the half lives are short. This waste generally comes from hospitals due to cancer treatment, and includes any items that have come in contact with the radioactive material. High-level waste is generated by nuclear power plants and the military. It demonstrates a high level of activity and generally isotopes have long half-lives. High-level waste also comes from fuel rods or the reprocessing of spent fuel (power companies, military)
[edit] A.8.4 Compare the storage and disposal methods for different types of radioactive waste.
The nuclear decay process produces heat and energy. Low-level waste is stored in cooling ponds until the activity has fallen to safe levels (generally a few years). The water is then passed through ion exchange resins which remove isotopes responsible for activity. The water is then diluted and released into the sea. High-level waste takes thousands of years to lose activity. Much of spent radioactive fuel is recovered for reuse. If not, the waste, generally a liquid mixture of radioactive waste, is converted into a solid glass component through a vitrification process: The waste is dried in a furnace and fed into a melting pot together with glass-making material (sand). The molten material is then poured into a stainless steel container where it cools and solidifies. These containers will remain radioactive for thousands of years. The containers are currently stored in concrete vaults, but it is hoped that they will later be transferred to salt chambers one day to be stored for thousands of years until the activity falls to safe levels.
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[edit] E.9.2 Describe the mechanism in the catalysis of O3 depletions by CFCs and NOx
See A.4.2
[edit] E.9.3 Outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in the polar regions.
A hole in the ozone layer is found above Antarctica. Depletion is seasonal with the largest holes occurring during the early spring (October/November). This decrease is due chemicals produced by man. In the winter (Jun-Sept), NO2 and CH4 are trapped with ClO and Cl2 on the surface of ice. A catalytic reaction on the surface of the ice converts the ClO into Cl2 and HClO forming a chlorine reservoir. This temporarily lessens the amount of chlorine released into the atmosphere. When the ice melts in the spring, the chlorine contained in the ice crystals surges into the atmosphere, thus causing the hole in the ozone layer to temporarily expand.
sunlight, these chemicals are converted into secondary pollutants. Smog tends to form in large cities and is favored by a lack of wind. It also occurs more often in bowl-shaped cities because the higher ground surrounding these cities prevents the movement of air. Smogs typically occur where there is a temperature inversion. Normally, the temperature decreases with altitude. Warm air typically rises, takes the pollutants with it, and is then replaced by cleaner cooler air. However, typically in areas which are notorious for smog, the atmospheric conditions cause a layer of still warm air to layer a blanket of cooler air. The trapped pollutants cannot rise, and if the condition persists, the amount of pollutants in the warm air near the ground can rise to dangerous levels.
[edit] E.11.1 Describe the mechanism of acid deposition caused by the oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur.
NOx and SOx are converted into acid via free radical reactions: H2O + O3 2HO + O2 The hydroxyl radicals then react directly with SOx and NOx in the presence of water to form acids. HO + NO2 HNO3 HO + NO HNO2 or, HO + SO2 HOSO2 HOSO2 + O2 HO2 + SO3 SO3 + H2O H2SO4
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5. Plug the E line into the equilibrium equation and solve for x, then follow through to find what the question is asking for (i.e. plug back into 2x if concentration, or find Ksp if appropriate.)
[edit] E.12.2 State what is meant by the term cation-exchange capacity (CEC) and outline its importance.
Both SOM and clay have negatively charged particles which will bond to cations such as Ca+2, Mg+2, Na+, K+, Al+3. The amount of positively charged cations that soil can hold is called the cation-exchange capacity(CEC). A larger CEC indicates a larger capacity to hold cations. These cations are exchanged with cations such as hydrogen on the root hairs of a plant to provide it with nutrients.
[edit] E.12.3 Discuss the effects of soil pH on cation-exchange capacity and availability of nutrients.
If soil is more acidic, there is a higher percentage of acidic cations found in the soil. Soil pH is important because acid cations such as aluminum ions are harmful to the plants. Although soil has some buffering capacity, it is sometimes necessary to add lime to the soil to raise the pH and increase the concentration of basic cations held by the clay and the SOM. When soil is analyzed, the total concentration of basic cations is compared to the total concentration of acidic cations. Cations such as Al+3 are harmful to plants. Soil pH is important because above pH=5, Al+3 will precipitate out of solution. If there is acid in the rain which lowers the pH of the soil, the Al+3 will no longer precipitate out of the solution. This cation is toxic to plants, so in essence, acid rain would be killing the plants.
[edit] E.12.4 Describe the chemical functions of soil organic matter (SOM).
In addition to the nutrient cations required by the plants and organic matter, SOM can also bind to organic and inorganic compounds in the soil which helps to reduce the negative environmental effects of contaminants such as pesticides, heavy metal ions and other pollutants. SOM contributes to CEC, enhances the ability of soil to buffer changes in pH, and forms stable complexes with cations. SOM also reduces the effect of pesticide, heavy metals, and other pollutants.
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