Others may speak and read English __ more or less __ but it is our language not theirs.

It was made in England by the English and it remains our distinctive property, however widely it is learnt or used. Enoch Powell, Member of British Parliament, 1988

As an independent nation, our honour requires us to have a system of our own, in language as well as government. Great Britain... should no longer be our standard. Noah Webster, American Lexicographer, 1789

(From Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: time to retool by Andre Moskowitz in Proceedings of the 46th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A., November 9-12, 2005. Marian S. Greenfield, comp. American Translators Association, 2005. 295-417. The original publication from the Proceedings included illustrations of many of the items which, unfortunately, do not appear in this file.)

TOPICS IN SPANISH LEXICAL DIALECTOLOGY: TIME TO RETOOL Andre Moskowitz

Keywords: Spanish, regionalisms, terminology, dialectology, lexicography, sociolinguistics, tools. Abstract: This paper contains information on the words used in different varieties of Spanish for certain tools, materials, devices and miscellaneous items relating to construction and repairs/maintenance.1 0 INTRODUCTION

If you walk into a hardware store, any hardware store anywhere in the Spanish-speaking world, to buy a hammer__a claw hammer or ordinary carpenters hammer__you can request a martillo and receive a knowing and sympathetic response from the hardware store employee or owner. You may need to add a qualifier to martillo to specify the hammers weight or the type of claw you want it to have (the word for a hammers claw may vary2), but the unmodified or base term, martillo, will remain unchanged from Tijuana, Mexico in the North all the way to the Tierra del Fuego in the South and, across the Atlantic, in any of the Spanish-speaking regions of Spain as well. If, on the other hand, you want to buy a sledgehammer, your dealings in the hardware store will go more smoothly if you vary the term you use for this item in your request by choosing from one of a series of terms, such as almgana, combo, comba, mandarria, marro, marrn, maza, mazo or porra, depending on where in the Spanish-speaking world you are making the purchase. Possible reasons for lexical differences will occasionally be advanced in the individual sections__combo and comba, for example, come from a substrate language, Quechua__but in many cases the origins of the variation involve terminological coinage and/or semantic drift that 2

are difficult to explain. Although one can search for the earliest written attestation of a given usage, the term or phrase may have been in use in oral language long before it appeared in print and early published sources may not give many clues as to how the usage came about. Why, for example, is desarmador and/or desatornillador used more often in some countries than the General Spanish word for screwdriver, destornillador, that to some extent is used everywhere? All three of these nouns derive from perfectly castizo verbs (desarmar, desatornillar and destornillar, respectively), and unfortunately, there are many examples such as this one in which I have no theory that accounts for the regional preferences. In this article, you, the reader, will find hundreds of facts about who says what and where, but only a handful of theories and partial explanations as to why. Even many basic usage questions are posed that the limited data collected and sources consulted do not allow me to answer. Viewing the Spanish language synchronically (at a given point in time), and even diachronically (over a period of time), the name used for many and perhaps most items, tools among them, is essentially a constant: Martillo is a General Spanish word that works everywhere, and has for many centuries. In contrast, words for other items, such as sledgehammers, are geographic variables: People from different regions call them by different names. In some cases an items name may also vary along a social and/or situational axis, or among different professional, ethnic or age groups, and perhaps even between men and women. In this article, however, the primary focus will be on the diatopical (geographic) lexical variation among the different Spanishspeaking countries. Relatively little information will be presented regarding regional variation within nations, or between the different socioeconomic layers of each society, and none regarding variation among different ethnic groups, age brackets, or between the two genders. The amount of data collected in this study was insufficient to draw many conclusions in these areas. However, since the vocabulary involves specific trades, within a given country it is a speakers occupation/activities that is probably the most important factor governing a variation that is, in a sense, binary in nature: the existence or lack of existence of a specific name or names in a persons lexical repertoire. The following topics relating to carpentry, masonry, plumbing, electrical 3, farming/gardening, auto mechanics and other trades will be addressed: A) Tools: 1) screwdriver A - general screwdriver (base terms), 2) screwdriver B - phillips screwdriver or phillips-head screwdriver, 3) screwdriver C - slotted screwdriver, flat-head screwdriver, straight-blade screwdriver, flat-blade screwdriver or standard screwdriver, 4) sledgehammer or maul, 5) hacksaw, 6) pliers A - regular pliers, joint pliers, slip-joint pliers or diagonal pliers (standard adjustable, noncutting pliers), 7) pliers B - needlenose pliers or longnose pliers, 8) wrench A - crescent wrench or adjustable wrench, 9) wrench B - pipe wrench, 10) crowbar, pry bar or wrecking bar, 11) clamp, 12) vise, 13) trowel A - pointing trowel, brick trowel or masons trowel, 14) trowel B - finishing trowel, flat trowel, plasterers trowel or smoothing trowel, 15) pick or pickax, 16) hoe, 17) drill bit.

B) Materials, devices and miscellaneous: 1) plywood, 2) tar, 3) sawhorse, 4) form (for pouring concrete), 5) washer (metal washers for screws and bolts), 6) bearing (ball bearing, roller bearing, etc.), 7) steamroller, 8) screw anchor, 9) tire repair shop. Usage relating to each of these topics can be considered a dialectological or linguistic labyrinth that spans the entire Spanish-speaking world. The purpose of this article is to present the maze, outline its salient landmarks, and hold out a thread by which you, the reader, can find your way to some of the exits in most of the Spanish-speaking countries. Each way out can also be viewed as a way in, an entree into a particular aspect of a language variety. Information on the vocabulary for the items in A) Tools and B) Materials, devices and miscellaneous above is provided for Spain and the nineteen Spanish American republics, but none is offered for the Philippines, Equatorial Guinea, Western Sahara, Morocco, the United States, Trinidad and Tobago or other countries where Spanish and/or a Spanish-based creole is spoken. Spanish speakers from these countries were not queried on tool-related vocabulary for two reasons: First, because, with the exception of the United States, I do not have access to a pool of Spanish speakers from these nations, and secondly, because, even if I had, it is not clear how, if at all, one is to define Philippine Spanish, United States Spanish, etc., especially with regard to lexis. For information on these varieties, see La Lengua Espaola en Guinea Ecuatorial (Quilis and Casado-Fresnillo),El espaol en el mundo: frutos del ltimo siglo de contactos lingsticos (Lipski 2005), La lengua espaola en los Estados Unidos: avanza a la vez que retrocede (Lipski 2004a), Is Spanglish the third language of the South? Truth and fantasy about U.S. Spanish (Lipski 2004b), The place of Chabacano in the Philippine linguistic profile (Lipski 2001), and other works by John Lipski, some of which (as of this writing) are downloadable from his homepage at www.personal.psu.edu-/faculty-/j/m/jml34/ (eliminate the dashes after edu and faculty), and all of which are listed in its Publications section; each, in turn, contains an extensive bibliography. Information in this paper relating to the topics outlined above in A) Tools and B) Materials, devices and miscellaneous is organized into four sections: 1) 2) 3) 4) 0.1 Summary Terms by Country Details Real Academia Regional Review Summary

The Summary sections give a brief overview of the lexical variation that exists with respect to the items in question.

0.2

Terms by Country

The Terms by Country sections consist of lexico-geographic tables in which I present the terms offered by the Spanish speakers I questioned on usage (this studys respondents or informants), next to their countries of origin. The Spanish-speaking countries are listed in an essentially geographical order and the terms offered by respondents are presented in decreasing numerical order, with the terms offered by the largest number of respondents from each country appearing first. In these sections, regionally marked usages, i.e. those not part of General Spanish, appear in italics, and usages that are regional and were also given by 50% or more of respondents from a particular country (majority regionalisms) are written in italics and boldface. When ten or more responses from a given country were obtained, terms that were offered by only one or two respondents from that country (minority responses) are written in small print. I have adopted this formatting scheme because I consider each term that is in boldface and italics to be an important regionalism without which a speaker lacks communicative competence for a specific item in a given country or set of countries. Terms written in small print, in contrast, can for the time being be given little weight, unless other studies demonstrate they are widely used by a particular group or speech community. See Bolivia in section A13.3 (the pointing trowel) for an example of a term, pato, that was offered by only two respondents in this study, but a somewhat larger number in a different study. Combining the data from both studies suggests that more field work is needed to determine the currency of this usage in Bolivia, and that by no means should it be hastily dismissed. The number of respondents who were questioned in this project varied as did the number of those who were able to answer each question. As a result, the amount of data presented for each item and from each country spans a considerable range. My goal was to obtain fifteen responses for each item from each of the twenty Spanish-speaking countries whose usage was being studied, but in some cases I fell far short of this goal (obtaining only four or five responses from a given country), and in others I exceeded it obtaining over 20 responses. In some instances, even when ten to fifteen responses were obtained for a given country, their distribution was so disperse as to make it impossible to draw any conclusions about prevailing usage. For example, in section A14.2 (the finishing trowel), ten responses were obtained from Paraguayans, but six different terms were offered by them and no term was given more than twice. Had I obtained fifteen responses from each country for each item, this would have been fifteen multiplied by 20 countries multiplied by 26 items for a total of 7800 responses, a figure which does not include multiple responses given by individual respondents to the same item (e.g. people who said a screwdriver is called a desarmador or a desatornillador). In the section on sledgehammers, part of the table reads,
EL SALVADOR PERU

almgana (14/16), almdana (2/16), almdena (1/16), mazo (1/16). comba (19/21), mazo (6/21), combo (3/21).

This is to be interpreted as of the sixteen Salvadorans who were asked to identify the sledgehammer, fourteen offered the term almgana, two gave almdana, one almdena and one 5

mazo and, in the case of Peru, it means that of the twenty-one Peruvians asked the same question, nineteen indicated comba, six mazo and three combo. In many cases, such as these, some of the people interviewed stated that more than one term was commonly used in their homeland for a given item and, therefore, the sum of the ratios is often more than one. The terms almgana, almdana, almdena, comba and combo appear in italics in the above table because they are more regional than mazo, and the terms almgana and comba appear in boldface__they are written in both bold and italics__because they are regional terms that were also given by 50% or more of the respondents queried from El Salvador and Peru, respectively. Under El Salvador, almdana, almdena and mazo appear in small print because they were given by only one or two (out of sixteen) Salvadoran respondents. The word mazo can be considered the General Spanish term because, while it is the term used by a majority of this studys speakers in only a handful of countries, it was offered as a second or third choice by respondents from most of the remaining Spanish-speaking countries. The words almgana and combo, in contrast, are regionally weighted terms used primarily by Spanish speakers from northern Central America and the Andean region, respectively (see section A4 below). I collected much of the data presented in these sections by means of one-on-one, face-to-face interviews that consisted of showing the respondent a picture of the tool or other item in question and asking him or her (usually him) to name the item. Descriptions and comments were also used to focus the respondents attention on the specific item and in a few cases these verbal cues played a primary role. I also sometimes went about it in the opposite direction, that is, once I had established that a given term is commonly used in a particular country, I might ask people from that country, Qu es un(a) ____?, a question that was often followed by Y cul es la diferencia entre un(a) ____ y un(a) ____?. My preferred mode of seeking out respondents from specific countries was to visit the waiting rooms of the Spanish-speaking country consulates in San Francisco (California) and New York City, and striking up conversations with people waiting to get a document processed or some other service performed. Occasionally, I would run into Mexicans at the Consulate of El Salvador and vice versa, but 99% of the time the people I met at the consulates were from the country the consulate represented. For the most part, I found the public in these waiting rooms to be cooperative and willing to answer questions on usage, and this was especially true of those who had some expertise in particular tool-related topics. Not surprisingly, there were also some who tried to impress me with knowledge of the subject matter that their answers demonstrated they lacked. I also obtained information on tool terminology by going to the parking lot of my local Home Depot4 store in El Cerrito, California, and interviewing native speakers of Spanish (mostly Mexicans and Central Americans) who were in the stores parking lot waiting to be hired as day laborers. In the case of one country, Ecuador, I also visited hardware stores and construction sites and spoke to carpenters, plumbers and masons, etc. while on a trip there with my family in December of 2004.

Some of the information I obtained from respondents was not acquired through face-to-face interviews, but by written questionnaires, telephone conversations and e-mail correspondence. I also did something that many, if not most academic linguists would probably frown upon. I sent pictures of the items in this study to friends and colleagues in different cities in the Spanishspeaking world and asked them to take the images to hardware stores, construction sites, etc. and ask individuals from their local area (ones my contacts thought were knowledgeable about tools) to tell them the names they use for the items. My international contacts would then return the completed pictorial questionnaires to me. This technique has the disadvantage that the researcher conducting the overall study loses control over the data collection process in that a second party is in effect interviewing a third party. And other than providing the images to be shown to respondents, I admittedly had little control over the interviewing techniques and data collection processes employed by those kind enough to help me; I did not give them detailed instructions on how to obtain the information. Asking for outside assistance, however, has the advantage of allowing researchers with limited funds and no academic grants to collect more data, and possibly more accurate data, than they would be able to had they limited themselves to face-to-face interviews of respondents living in the researchers home country. While the ideal scenario would have been for me to personally travel to each of the twenty Spanish-speaking countries and visit hardware stores and construction sites to conduct my own interviews in situ, alas, this was not possible or practical due to the limitations on my own resources. Nevertheless, I am heartened by the fact that the information I received from abroad was largely consistent with the data collected in the United States. In any case, future studies will need to be conducted to determine how representative the information presented in this article is of the usage of Spanish speakers who regularly work with the tools in question. 0.3 Details

The Details sections consist of a review of published lexicographical and dialectological sources and occasional explanations of the information in the Terms by Country sections. In the Details sections, regional dictionary definitions and other sources are cited and compared to each other and to the information gathered in this study in an attempt to arrive at an understanding of prevailing usage in the different regions of the Spanish-speaking world. I examine what other published works have to say about usage in a particular country to see which information provided by the respondents in this study they confirm, which they contradict, and which they partly confirm, partly contradict and/or modify. In general, the goal is to identify those cases in which there appears to be consensus regarding the prevailing usage for a given item in a given region, as well as those in which there are conflicting reports about what people from a particular region say and what they mean. In these sections, you, the reader, will have the opportunity to observe some of the worlds top Spanish lexicographers go toe to toe, or mano a mano as some would say__perhaps pluma a pluma or teclado a teclado would be more accurate__and compare how they handle defining certain words with regard to both style and content, though the two are sometimes hard to separate. Compare, for example, the definitions of sledgehammer, pointing trowel and

steamroller cited in the respective sections of this article and judge for yourself which lexicographer demonstrates the best combination of marksmanship, conciseness, elegance, and precise imagery. Bear in mind, however, that a definition often has to sacrifice brevity for precision or vice versa and where the proper balance lies is a matter of opinion. While the outcomes of these dictionary duels are debatable, you will have ringside seats to bouts featuring some of the Spanish-speaking worlds most renowned lexicographers such as Luis Fernando Lara Ramos and his colleagues from the Colegio de Mxico, Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner and their disciples from the University of Augsburg, and, of course, the Real Academias own team of scholars. You will also be witness to definitions written by several lexicographers whose work is less well known internationally but who are nonetheless highly skilled in their craft and give those written by Lara Ramos, Haensch and Werner, and the Real Academia a good run for their money. Some of the definitions you will see, however, are crafted by lesser luminaries whose command of the subject matter and lexicographical skill and style are not as impressive. The dictionaries cited here are not all of equal quality or sophistication, yet each has some information to offer on regional tool terminology. Since all of them list their entry words in alphabetical order, only the Spanish-language term and the works abbreviation are indicated, not the corresponding page number. The published sources I consulted are far from exhaustive, but quite a bit of information on regional usage is cited from the following works that will be abbreviated as follows and whose complete bibliographical data appear in References. DB DEArg DECH DECu DEUMex DH DHAV DP DRAE DS DTP DUEN DV Diccionario de Bolivianismos. Dora Gmez de Fernndez and Nicols Fernndez Naranjo. 1996. Diccionario del Espaol de Argentina / Espaol de Argentina-Espaol de Espaa. Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner. 2000. Diccionario Ejemplificado de Chilenismos. Flix Morales Pettorino et al. 1984. Diccionario del Espaol de Cuba / Espaol de Cuba-Espaol de Espaa. Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner. 2000. Diccionario del Espaol Usual en Mxico. Luis Fernando Lara Ramos. 1996. Diccionario Hondureismos. Rosalo R. Zavala. 2003. (It is not entirely clear why this dictionary is not called Diccionario de Hondureismos.) Diccionario del habla actual de Venezuela. Roco Nez and Francisco Javier Prez. 1994. Diccionario de Peruanismos. Juan de Arona (Pedro Paz Soldn y Unnue). 1974. (Originally published in 1883 and 1884 in Buenos Aires and Lima.) Diccionario de la Lengua Espaola. 22nd edition. Real Academia Espaola. 2001. Diccionario de Salvadoreismos. Matas Romero. 2003. Diccionario de Trminos Panameos. Arnoldo Higuero Morales. 1993. Diccionario de uso del Espaol Nicaragense. Francisco Arellano Oviedo. 2001. Diccionario de Venezolanismos. Mara Josefina Tejera. 1983-1993.

HEDE NDCol NDCR NDU

El Habla del Ecuador / Diccionario de Ecuatorianismos / Contribucin a la Lexicografa Ecuatoriana. Carlos Joaqun Crdova Malo. 1995. Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos. Tomo I. Nuevo Diccionario de Colombianismos. Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner. 1993. Nuevo Diccionario de Costarriqueismos. Miguel A. Quesada Pacheco. 2001. Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos. Tomo III. Nuevo Diccionario de Uruguayismos. Gnther Haensch, Reinhold Werner and rsula Khl de Mones. 1993. (Volume II of the Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos series was the Nuevo Diccionario de Argentinismos which was superseded by the DEArg.)

Of the works in the preceding list, the DRAE is the most important and comprehensive general Spanish-language dictionary in existence. It is written from an essentially Peninsular Spanish perspective on the language, but it attempts to include Spanish American usage as well. The DEUMex is unique in that it is an abridged but general Spanish-language dictionary written from a non-Peninsular vantage point on the language (from a decidedly Mexican perspective) and is currently, to my knowledge, the only general Spanish-language dictionary that is not told from a Peninsular point of view. The other dictionaries that stand out from the rest are the four listed above directed by Gnther Haensch and Reinhold Werner. These are contrastive dictionaries that rigorously highlight and expose that portion of the lexicon of one national variety of the language (Argentine Spanish, Colombian Spanish, Cuban Spanish or Uruguayan Spanish) that functions differently when compared to a second variety, which we can perhaps call General Peninsular Spanish. Although this is an abstraction, the lexicon of General Peninsular Spanish is essentially Peninsular Spanish lexicon that is not especially Andaluz, Valenciano, Asturiano, or even Castilian. Each Haensch and Werner dictionary also explains regional differences within the Spanish American variety being presented, i.e. Oriente Cuban Spanish as opposed to the Spanish of central and western Cuba, or Cuyo Argentine Spanish as contrasted with Rioplatense Argentine Spanish. The research and writing in them is of the highest quality and anyone reading them can learn a great deal about both the highlighted Spanish American variety of the language and about Peninsular Spanish. One can only hope that they, or their disciples, will continue with this project and create contrastive dictionaries for other Spanish-speaking countries as well. I also occasionally cite two English-language dictionaries for the purpose of inter-language lexicographical comparison (see References for complete bibliographical data): AHD EWD The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. 4th edition. Joseph P. Pickett. 2000. Encarta Websters Dictionary of the English Language. 2nd edition. Anne H. Soukhanov and Kathy Rooney. 2004.

In addition, I have consulted and cited the twelve works published to date that are the fruit of the Proyecto de estudio coordinado de la norma lingstica culta de las capitales de Hispanoamrica y de Espaa, a project that was initially developed by Juan Miguel Lope Blanch 9

of the Instituto de Investigaciones Filolgicas of the Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico. In these studies, a dozen or more educated Spanish speakers__ones with at least a college education and in many cases also a graduate (postgraduate) or professional degree__who had grown up in a particular large city in the Spanish-speaking world, were queried on about 4500 lexical items that included a handful of tools. Half of the respondents were male and half female and they belonged to three different generations. The lxico del habla culta studies that were consulted are as follows with complete bibliographical data in References: Lxico del habla culta de Mxico. Juan Miguel Lope Blanch. 1978. Encuestas lxicas del habla culta de Madrid. Jos C. de Torres Martnez. 1981. Lxico del habla culta de San Juan de Puerto Rico. Humberto Lpez Morales et al. 1986. Lxico del habla culta de Santiago de Chile. Ambrosio Rabanales and Lidia Contreras. 1987. Lxico del habla culta de Granada. Francisco Salvador Salvador. 1991. Lxico del habla culta de La Paz. Jos G. Mendoza. 1996. Lxico del habla culta de Santaf de Bogot. Hilda Otlora de Fernndez. 1997. Lxico del habla culta de Buenos Aires. Academia Argentina de Letras. 1998. Lxico del habla culta de Caracas. Mercedes Sedano and Zaida Prez Gonzlez. 1998. Lxico del habla culta de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Jos Antonio Samper Padilla et al. 1998. Lxico del habla culta de Crdoba, Argentina. Mara Teresa Toniolo et al. 2000. Lxico del habla culta de Lima. Roco Caravedo. 2000. As comprehensive as the pioneering lxico del habla culta studies are, they were of limited use in comparing results to those of this study for several reasons. First, because many of the items addressed in this article, such as the sledgehammer, the crescent wrench, the pipe wrench, the crowbar and the sawhorse, were not among those tested in the lxico del habla culta studies and, secondly, because some of the tools tested in those studies appeared to be beyond the scope of their respondents knowledge as evidenced by the low percentage of them who were able to answer the questions. It is also hard to tell what some of the tools in the lxico del habla culta studies refer to, or whether the same item was tested in each study. For example, in the section in each of these works on HERRAMIENTAS CASERAS (household tools), item 1403 is called ALICATES and was tested by means of an illustration that was shown to respondents but is not presented in the books. As a result, it is not clear what type of pliers__whether slip-joint pliers (noncutting adjustable pliers), linesman pliers (nonadjustable cutting pliers), needlenose pliers, or some other type__were the ones respondents were shown. One very worthwhile aspect of the lxico del habla culta studies is that they provide a separate response for each informant queried. As a result, terms that were given by respondents in the singular form (e.g. alicate or pinza) are distinguished from ones in the plural form (alicates or pinzas) when speaking of a single pair of pliers. This is important in determining the level of competition between variants, and the existence of different patterns or regional norms as they relate to variants. My own tendency, in contrast, is to present forms that were offered by respondents from the same country, and that I consider to be variants, as a single word with the 10

part that varies in parentheses. Examples of this include alicate(s), when respondents from a given country offered both singular and plural forms, destornillador (de) estrella, when they indicated destornillador de estrella and/or destornillador estrella (see section A2.2 below), and (llave) pico (de) cotorra, when they said llave pico de cotorra, llave pico cotorra, pico de cotorra and/or pico cotorra (see section A8.2 below). In a few cases, when I found that some variants were much more common than others, I have presented separate response data for each variant. Sometimes the name of the category in the lxico del habla culta studies does not seem to correspond to the question posed to respondents and/or to the answers they gave. For example, in the Lxico del habla culta de Caracas (Sedano: 146-147), under item 1101, entitled PALUSTRE (supposedly the pointing trowel), three respondents gave cepillo and one paleta, but the three who gave cepillo were evidently confused or ignorant about these tools as the same three also gave cepillo as their response to item 1100, the flat trowel, entitled LLANA. In fact, cepillo refers to neither type of trowel in Venezuela or in any other Spanish-speaking country, but can designate a plane (a tool for smoothing and leveling wood). In the Lxico del habla culta de La Paz (Mendoza: 163 and 699), the item entitled LLANA was tested with an illustration, and according to its Appendix, the next item, PALUSTRE, was described to respondents as Parecida a la anterior pero de madera? (Palustre). Yet if we look at the DRAEs definition of palustre and the results of the article you are reading, it appears palustre is nowhere used in the sense of a wooden flat trowel or what in Spain, according to the DRAE, is called a frats. Thus, in the case of some tools, there appears to have been just as much confusion (or more) on the part of the researchers in the lxico del habla culta studies as to the meaning of the terms and the identification of the items as there was on the part of some of their informants who gave the same answers for two different categories or were unable to provide a response for one or several of them. In the Lxico del habla culta de La Paz (Mendoza: 809) and the Lxico del habla culta de Crdoba, Argentina (Malanca: 503), the question posed to respondents corresponding to item 3333, entitled TORNILLO, was Y la herramienta compuesta de dos piezas mviles entre las cuales se puede fijar, por ejemplo, una tabla para cepillarla? (Tornillo). This description is confusing as it could refer to either a clamp or a vise, and possibly inaccurate in that all vises and most clamps__such as a C-clamp, a pipe clamp or a bar clamp__consist of one fixed and one movable piece rather than two mobile ones. (In a carpenters wood clamp, both ends can be tightened simultaneously.) Not surprisingly, some of the answers to this question presented in the La Paz and Crdoba, Argentina studies, such as tornillo and tornillo de banco, also suggest that different respondents interpreted the question in different ways. And if you look at item 3333, TORNILLO, in many of the other lxico del habla culta studies (which do not provide the description or question that respondents were given), the answers offered, such as tornillo and tirafondo, suggest that the item tested was neither a clamp nor a vise but a screw or some other fastener. In short, with a number of tool items in the lxico del habla culta studies, it is hard to tell what the subject or target was and thus difficult to assess the results.

11

As the researchers in the lxico del habla culta studies may have found, and as I increasingly came to suspect while conducting my own research on both educated and uneducated respondents (and everything in between), the problem with trying to obtain information about tools from educated Spanish speakers is deep-rooted. In part, because of the stigma manual labor has in Hispanic cultures and its relatively low cost in most Spanish-speaking countries, educated Spanish speakers generally do not fall into the do it yourself homeowner category, tend to have little interest in carpentry, masonry, electrical, plumbing, gardening, etc. and, consequently, are often unfamiliar with some of the most basic tools names and uses. This is true of many educated native speakers of English as well, but my impression is that the percentage of educated Spanish speakers who have had little or no contact with tools is greater. Simplifying matters a bit, one need only look at the different roles played and attitudes held by early English and Spanish settlers to the New World. The Pilgrims who came to English North America were interested in working the land and would often kill or drive off any Indians who got in their way, whereas the Conquistadors arriving in Spanish America did not want to work at all and were intent on converting and subjugating the Indians they encountered so that they would do the work for them. With regard to manual labor, basic outlooks among upperclass Spanish Americans have changed little since then and, as a result, educated Spanish speakers__like the hablantes cultos interviewed in the lxico de habla culta studies__are often the worst people to ask about tools insofar as their responses tend to be the least authoritative and the least representative of what folks who know something about tools actually call them. This impression is subjective, as is the notion of what it means to be culto, and the words educated and cultured, like many translated terms, are only partial matches. The issue of what types of respondents should be tested in a lexical study is open to debate. One can argue, as linguists often do, that the usage of all speakers of a language is equally worthy of study. The other extreme is to examine the usage of only those who specialize in the domain or semantic field being studied to the exclusion of all other groups. There are also intermediate positions, according to which knowledge of most terminology is not viewed as so specialized as to require so-called experts but which nonetheless hold that it is more appropriate, fruitful and important to query some groups than others. For example, if you are conducting a study on the words used for school and office supplies, then it makes sense that the people you would be most interested in querying are those who teach in schools and universities, or work in offices, including home offices. On the other hand, if your project involves specific tools, then you would want to know what people who work with them call them, i.e. construction workers, contractors, craftsmen (artisans) and, perhaps to a lesser extent, architects, engineers and do-ityourself homeowners. In applying this type of semi-selective criteria, researchers would be no more interested in finding out what obreros or jornaleros call a stapler or a chalkboard eraser than they would be interested in knowing what psychologists call a C-clamp or a crescent wrench (unless they happen to be psychologists who regularly use these tools to fix and rebuild things). Thus when the Lxico del habla culta de Caracas study tells us that three out of twelve educated Caraqueo respondents said a pointing trowel is called a cepillo and eight out of twelve essentially fessed up to the fact that they had no idea what it was called, presenting this data strictly adheres to the habla culta studies goals and guidelinesto find out and divulge the words 12

that the habla culta in a given city knows and saysbut it is not information that is particularly useful to most readers. As a reader, I want to know what Caraqueos who know what this tool is called actually call it, not what educated Caraqueos who dont know call it. In doing the field work for this study on tool terminology, the criteria I used for selecting respondents were perhaps logical but admittedly unscientific and imprecise. For example, upon entering a consulate waiting room, I would take a moment to observe the prospects and, given the option of questioning a man in a business suit or one wearing work boots, I would choose the latter; if his boots were beaten up and his hands rough, all the better. 0.4 Real Academia Regional Review

The Real Academia Regional Review sections present an evaluation of the twenty-second edition of the DRAE (published in 2001) and grade this dictionarys definitions of specific terms using the following grading scale: A Corresponding definition, correct regions. This grade is given when the DRAE defines the term as used in a particular section of this article and correctly indicates the countries and/or regions in which the term is used in this sense. B Corresponding definition, incorrect regions. This grade is given when the DRAE defines the term as used in the section and specifies a region or regions but does not specify them correctly. Its definition either fails to include regions in which the usage occurs or includes regions where the usage does not occur. However, the grade of B is raised to an A if the DRAEs definition is appropriate, Amr. (Amrica, that is, Spanish-speaking Latin America) is specified in the definition, and the term is used in ten or more (over 50%) of the nineteen Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. C Corresponding definition, no regions specified. This grade is given when the DRAE defines the item in question but does not specify any countries or regions in which the term is used in this sense. In essence, it fails to identify a regional usage as regional. However, the grade of C is raised to an A if the term is used in at least ten (at least 50%) of the twenty Spanish-speaking countries. D No corresponding definition. This grade is given when the DRAE does not include in its definition of the term a sense that corresponds to the item in question. F Term not listed. This grade is given when the DRAE does not list the term at all. The DRAEs definitions themselves are quoted in these sections so that the reader can follow the analysis that went into their evaluations. However, only terms that were offered by three or more respondents from at least one country are graded, and definitions of some relevant terms that were not offered by respondents are also presented. Thus not all terms offered by respondents are graded and not all terms whose definitions are quoted were offered by respondents. When, in my judgement, the category under which a definition rightfully falls is debatable, the grade assigned is followed by a question mark; see, for example, porra in section A4.4. * * 13 *

I will now address the following question relating to Spanish lexical dialectology. Why is the study of Spanish regionalisms important? You may be wondering why you should bother learning Spanish regionalisms in the first place. After all, what is so important about learning provincialisms that, if used, could make you sound like a boorish local yokel? It is certainly true that using language inappropriately, whether General Spanish anywhere, or a regional variety in the wrong locale, can make one look foolish or worse and that increasing ones General Spanish vocabulary is extremely important . Indeed, as students or scholars of the Spanish language__I view the latter as merely more passionate versions of the former__some would say it is our duty to continually expand our knowledge of General Spanish vocabulary. But because Spanish is an international language (perhaps the second most international language on the planet after English, although French may be able to claim this honor), to increase our command of General Spanish in its broadest and most general context, we must learn something about the regional varieties of which it is composed. Thus, to understand General Spanish, we need to know what is general and what is regional and, to do so, we must learn something about the regionalisms themselves: what they are, where they are used, and what they mean to those who use them. To some extent, understanding Spanish regionalisms means having an international perspective on the language or, looked at from the opposite direction, even to scratch the surface of international Spanish requires us to learn aspects of regional Spanish. Without one, we cannot fully understand the other. All words are not created equal, but many descriptive linguists would say that the names for an item like the sledgehammer (such as almgana, comba, combo, mandarria, maza, mazo, marro, etc.) can be considered equivalent to the extent that they serve the same communicative function within their respective speech communities. Some prescriptivists and/or normativistas would probably dismiss many of these terms. Lexical dialectologists and other regionalism enthusiasts, however, are often more intrigued by the use of a term like Central Americas almgana or Perus comba than by the term mazo that is used in the sense of sledgehammer in so many countries (see section A4 below), and they might consider mazo to be standard, everyday vanillaflavor usage, and view almgana and comba as exotic spices, breaths of fresh air that take us away from the routine and the mundane. Indeed, there are those who revel in almgana and comba as much as others might reject them, though both reactions are really opposite sides of the same phenomenon, that is, almgana and comba are only as extraordinary as mazo is ordinary, and mazo can only be held up as more or less neutral Spanish usage due to the existence of more regionally marked ones. The regional and the general are but reflections of each other. Oftentimes regionalisms are not used in place of but in addition to General Spanish terms and, therefore, one can argue that the existence of regionalisms in a particular country should be viewed as a sign of linguistic enrichment, dexterity and even virtuosity rather than impoverishment. Since some Spanish speakers have both General Spanish destornillador and a regionalism such as desarmador and/or desatornillador in their lexical repertoire and at their

14

linguistic disposal, this view holds that their Spanish is lexically richer and more diverse with respect to this item than that of speakers who use only one term. When Anglicisms are involved in this diversity or plurality, however, attitudes among educated Spanish speakers are often negative. Thus the use of guacha in the sense of arandela (washer) is frowned upon, and the lexical diversity of Spanish speakers who use both terms is not seen as enrichment but as linguistic impoverishment or corruption since the introduction of Anglicisms into the Spanish language is generally given the pejorative label of Spanglish and, in some circles, is also viewed as yet another manifestation of Anglo and North American attempts at imperialism and cultural domination. Spanish speakers also desire linguistic purity when they make statements such as Spanish has arandela; we have no need for the Anglicism guacha. If you point out the fact that arandela comes from French rondelle (see section B5.4 below), this may not change their opinion in the least as they will still feel that their language has been violated by a word like guacha, but not by arandela. Several reasons may explain this. Both English washer and French rondelle have been adapted to Spanish phonology, but arandela probably entered the language long before guacha and more Spanish speakers recognize the foreign origin of the Anglicism guacha than that of the Gallicism arandela (which in the process of Hispanization added two more syllables to its French etymon). More importantly, France is no longer a world power and the number of Anglicisms entering the Spanish language each year is much higher than the number of Gallicisms. Anglicisms are viewed with both fascination and alarm, whereas Gallicisms are a mere curiosity. The use of foreign loan words in certain regions of the Spanish-speaking world raises the question as to why they were introduced (or summoned and actively recruited) there, and why words that are deemed more castizo have been partially discarded, or were never created in the first place. If your interest as a reader is to develop communicative competence in the topics addressed here, then apart from knowing the most widespread, neutral or General Spanish term for an item, such as destornillador, mazo and arandela for screwdriver, sledgehammer and washer, respectively, the most important terms/usages to learn in this article are the majority regionalisms (those offered by 50% or more of respondents from a given country) that appear in boldface and italics, words like desarmador, almgana, comba, guacha and rondana. We could also call these regionalisms mainstream regionalisms since they are names that are used by a majority of persons in a given speech community but are regional when Spanish is viewed from an international perspective. In other words, you cannot consider yourself communicatively competent in El Salvador with respect to sledgehammers if you do not know that almgana is the most effective term to use when speaking to Salvadorans about this tool. Looking at the issue in the opposite direction, terms such as almgana and guacha also serve as linguistic landmarks or beacons that give listeners clues as to the origin of the people they hear speak. If you hear someone say almgana when referring to a sledgehammer, or guacha when referring to a washer, you can already guess, with a fairly high degree of accuracy, the set of Spanish-speaking countries that person most likely comes from and eliminate a host of others. The larger the number of common regional equivalences you are familiar with, the more likely you will be able to pick out a persons origin within a few minutes of listening to him or her

15

based on word choice alone. Developing expertise in phonetics and phonology is another way to deduce a speakers region of origin although, to some extent, the more educated the speaker is, the less regional will be some of his or her linguistic traits in the case of both lexis and phonology. The beauty of words is that anyone can learn them, whereas to acquire an understanding of Spanish phonetics and phonology requires some technical training. The key to learning about regional variation of any type is being a good listener and gaining exposure to different varieties of the language. Mainstream regionalisms like combo or guacha are terms that may be criticized or ridiculed but are not easily ignored or denied within the context of their locale. To do so would be the linguistic equivalent of denying the existence of Blacks in the Dominican Republic or Indians in Bolivia, or disregarding the contributions of non-European cultures to Dominican or Bolivian national culture. This does not mean such attempts at negation do not take place (with race, ethnicity, or language), but they are cases of sticking ones head in the sand or trying to block out the sun with one finger.

16

A A1 A1.1

TOOLS SCREWDRIVER A - GENERAL SCREWDRIVER (base terms) Summary

Destornillador can be considered the General Spanish term as it is used, to some extent, throughout the Spanish-speaking world, but in many areas of Spanish America desarmador, desatornillador and other terms are used more frequently. Desarmador is particularly common in Mexico, Central America, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia; desatornillador in Chile and also much of Central America. Note: Throughout this article, the following formatting conventions will be used in the Terms by Country sections: 1) Terms considered regional are written in italics; in section A1.2 below, all words other than destornillador are in italics. 2) Regionalisms offered by 50% or more of the respondents from a particular country (majority regionalisms) appear in boldface and italics; Mexicos desarmador and Costa Ricas desatornillador are examples. 3) Words offered by only one or two respondents from a given country, when ten or more from that country were queried (minority responses), are written in small print; Guatemalas desatornillador and Perus entornillador are examples. A1.2 Terms by Country (6 terms) destornillador (15/15). desarmador (20/20). desarmador (17/18), desatornillador (2/18). desarmador (15/18), desatornillador (8/18), destornillador (1/18). desarmador (8/13), desatornillador (8/13), destornillador (2/13). desarmador (9/16), desatornillador (6/16), destornillador (3/16). desatornillador (10/16), destornillador (8/16). destornillador (11/11). destornillador (16/16). destornillador (15/15). destornillador (20/20). destornillador (17/17). destornillador (14/19), atornillador (2/19), desarmador (2/19), desatornillador (1/19). desarmador (8/14), destornillador (8/14). desarmador (12/18), desentornillador (5/18), destornillador (3/18), entornillador (2/18). desarmador (11/18), destornillador (8/18), desentornillador (4/18), desatornillador (1/18). 17

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

destornillador (12/12). destornillador (11/11). destornillador (20/20). destornillador (9/17), desatornillador (7/17), atornillador (5/17).

A1.3

Details

General: For information on phillips screwdrivers (screwdrivers used to turn phillips-head screws) and slotted or flat-head screwdrivers (screwdrivers used to turn slotted or regular screws), see sections A2 and A3 below, respectively. Spain: In this study, destornillador was the only Spanish term offered, though a few Catalnspeaking respondents offered the Cataln term, tornabs. The Encuestas lxicas del habla culta de Madrid (Torres Martnez: 225), the Lxico del habla culta de Granada (Salvador: 700), and the Lxico del habla culta de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Samper Padilla: 182 and 444) all confirm the overwhelming preference for the term destornillador by educated Madrileos, Granadinos and Grancanarios. In the first study, all fifteen Madrileos who answered the question indicated destornillador; in the second, 24 Granadinos indicated destornillador and one atornillador; and in the third, all twelve Grancanarios indicated destornillador and one atornillador as a second choice in the chapter Profesiones y oficios, and in the La casa chapter, under herramientas caseras, all twelve indicated destornillador. Mexico: The use of desarmador is confirmed by the DEUMex (Lara Ramos), which defines it as Herramienta que sirve para apretar y aflojar tornillos; consta de un mango y una punta que embona en la ranura de la cabeza del tornillo; desatornillador: desarmador de punta plana, desarmador de punta en cruz. It is unclear whether desatornillador is listed in this definition of desarmador to indicate that desatornillador is also commonly used in Mexico, or simply to include a foreign synonym as a point of reference. The fact that neither desatornillador nor destornillador is listed as a separate entry in the DEUMex, and the data from this study (which produced only desarmador), suggest that neither desatornillador nor destornillador is part of everyday Mexican Spanish among ordinary Mexicans. This, however, is contradicted by the Lxico del habla culta de Mxico (Lope Blanch: 446), a study in which sixteen educated Mexico City respondents gave desarmador, ten desatornillador and five destornillador. The small percentage of Lope Blanchs respondents who indicated destornillador can probably be attributed to their knowledge of Pan-Hispanic norms, but other questions remain: Is the use of desatornillador more common among educated Mexicans than among less educated ones? Has the use of desatornillador in Mexico declined (in favor of desarmador) between the time Lope Blanch conducted his survey and 2004-2005, when I did mine? Honduras: The DH (Zavala) does not define desatornillador or desarmador, but does define desatornillar as tr. Vulgarismo, por DESTORNILLAR. Nicaragua: The DUEN (Arellano Oviedo) confirms the use of both desarmador and desatornillador, defining the former as Destornillador and the latter as Destornillador. El ladrn forz la cerradura de la puerta con un desatornillador.

18

Puerto Rico: In the Lxico del habla culta de San Juan de Puerto Rico (Lpez Morales: 157), only three out of twelve respondents answered the question, but all three indicated destornillador. Venezuela: In this study, all seventeen respondents indicated destornillador, but in the Lxico del habla culta de Caracas (Sedano: 183), twelve indicated destornillador and three gave atornillador. How common is the use of atornillador in Venezuela? Colombia: The Lxico del habla culta de Santaf de Bogot (Otlora de Fernndez: 279) confirms the use of destornillador among educated Bogotanos as it was the only term offered by all 25 respondents in that study. Peru: In the Lxico del habla culta de Lima (Caravedo: 459), six educated Limeos indicated destornillador, six desarmador and three desentornillador. In this study, in contrast, desarmador was given by four times as many respondents as destornillador and desentornillador by nearly twice as many as destornillador. However, given that most of the people queried in this study were considerably less educated than the respondents of the Lxico del habla culta de Lima study (and therefore would be less aware of the General Spanish term destornillador), the results of both studies seem to be fairly congruent. Bolivia: The Lxico del habla culta de La Paz (Mendoza: 207) confirms the fact that there is substantial competition between destornillador and desarmador. Of the twelve educated Paceo respondents queried in that study, eight gave each of these two terms with many of them offering both destornillador and desarmador. The percentages offering desentornillador__three out of twelve in that study and four out of eighteen in this one__are also quite similar. Argentina: Both the Lxico del habla culta de Buenos Aires (Academia Argentina de Letras: 306) and the Lxico del habla culta de Crdoba, Argentina (Toniolo: 207) confirm the exclusive use of destornillador among educated speakers from both cities as destornillador was the unanimous choice by all Porteos and Cordobeses (about one dozen of each) that were queried in the two studies. Chile: The DECH (Morales Pettorino) confirms the use of both desatornillador and atornillador in the sense of screwdriver. It defines desatornillador as Destornillador; herramienta para atornillar y desatornillar... Var. [variante]: atornillador/. Ms usual que la var. castiza. (It is not entirely clear whether this source is indicating that in Chilean Spanish both desatornillador and atornillador are more common than destornillador, or whether only desatornillador is more common.) The Lxico del habla culta de Santiago de Chile (Rabanales: 202) suggests the less frequent use of atornillador and desatornillador among educated Santiaguinos: Of the twelve respondents tested in that study, eleven gave destornillador, four atornillador and two desatornillador. Attitudes toward destornillador vs. alternate terms: Linguistic attitudes within a country naturally vary from group to group and yet, in some cases, there are widely held beliefs that on a national level can be considered mainstream. Many Ecuadorans of different educational levels indicated to this author that they believe destornillador to be the correct term and desarmador to be the popular and incorrect term. Is this negative attitude toward terms other than destornillador also prevalent in other countries in which alternate terms are commonly used, or are desarmador and/or desatornillador, etc. 19

accepted in some as standard usage? Based on the definitions quoted above and the (albeit limited) information collected in this study, desarmador seems to enjoy general acceptance in Mexico and perhaps in Peru and Bolivia as well. In the case of Chile and Central America, many respondents seemed less confident in their use of alternate terms and more critical of them. A1.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: atornillador (C), desarmador (B), desatornillador (B), desentornillador (F), destornillador (A), entornillador (F). DRAE definitions: destornillador, Instrumento de hierro u otra materia, que sirve para destornillar y atornillar; atornillador, destornillador; desarmador, El Salv., Hond. y Mx. destornillador; desatornillador, destornillador. U. m. en Amrica [Usado ms en Amrica]. Questions/Comments: The DRAE indicates that desatornillador is used more in Spanish America than in Spain (U. m. en Amrica), which implies that it is also used in Spain to some extent. Yet no evidence of desatornilladors use in Spain was found in the two Peninsular Spanish lxico del habla culta studies, in the Canary Island one, or in this survey. Where in Spain is desatornillador used and by whom?

A2

SCREWDRIVER SCREWDRIVER Summary

PHILLIPS

SCREWDRIVER

or

PHILLIPS-HEAD

A2.1

In many areas of the Spanish-speaking world, the modifier de estrella is added to the base term destornillador, desarmador, etc. to specify a phillips screwdriver. However, in a number of countries other modifiers, such as phillips, de cruz or de estra(s), are more common than de estrella. Note: Since the distribution of the base terms for screwdrivers was addressed in section A1 above, the focus in sections A2 and A3 will be on the modifiers or qualifiers that are added to the base terms in order to designate a specific type of screwdriver (phillips or slotted). In section A2.2, modifiers other than (de) estrella__and variants such as (de) punta estrella__appear in italics, and majority regional modifiers in boldface and italics. A2.2 Terms by Country (4 modifiers plus variants and c. 18 terms plus variants overall) destornillador (de) estrella (14/15), destornillador de estra (1/15). desarmador de cruz (17/20), desarmador de estrella (2/20), desarmador en cruz (1/20). desarmador de cruz (10/17), desarmador phillips (6/17), desarmador (de) estrella (4/17), desatornillador de estrella (2/17).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA

20

EL SALVADOR

HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

desarmador phillips (14/18), desatornillador phillips (6/18), desarmador de cruz (5/18), desatornillador de cruz (2/18), desarmador de estrella (1/18), destornillador phillips (1/18). desarmador phillips (7/13), desatornillador phillips (6/13), desatornillador de estrella (2/13), destornillador phillips (2/13), desarmador estrella (1/13). desarmador de estrella (9/16), desatornillador de estrella(s) (6/16), destornillador de cruz (2/16), destornillador de estrella (1/16). desatornillador phillips (10/16), destornillador phillips (8/16). destornillador (de) estrella (9/11), destornillador phillips (4/11). destornillador (de) estra(s) (14/16), destornillador phillips (4/16). destornillador (de) estra(s) (15/15). destornillador (de) estra(s) (14/20), destornillador de estrella(s) (5/20), destornillador de punta (1/20), destornillador tipo phillips (1/20). destornillador (de) estra(s) (13/17), destornillador de cruz (3/17), destornillador estrella (1/17). destornillador (de) estrella (10/16), desarmador (de) estrella (2/16), desatornillador de estrella (2/16), destornillador (de) estra (2/16), atornillador de estra (1/16). destornillador (de) estrella (10/14), desarmador (de) estrella (9/14). desarmador (de) estrella (10/16), desentornillador (de) estrella (4/16), destornillador estrella (3/16), desarmador de cruz (1/16), desentornillador cruz (1/16), entornillador en cruz (1/16). desarmador (de) estrella (7/18), destornillador estrella (5/18), destornillador punta estrella (3/18), desentornillador de estrella (2/18), desarmador en cruz (1/18), desentornillador punta estrella (1/18), desarmador en cruz (1/18). destornillador (de) cruz (6/11), destornillador en cruz (2/11), destornillador (tipo) phillips (2/11), destornillador (de punta) estrella (2/11), destornillador de punta cruz (1/11). destornillador phillips (10/10). destornillador phillips (16/20), destornillador de cruz (1/20), destornillador de punta en cruz (1/20), destornillador en cruz (1/20), destornillador en cruz phillips (1/20). destornillador de cruz (6/16), desatornillador de cruz (3/16), destornillador
phillips (2/16), atornillador de cruz (3/16), atornillador de punta (1/16), desatornillador de punta (1/16), desatornillador phillips (1/16), destornillador de cruceta (1/16), destornillador de estrella (1/16).

A2.3

Details

General: Destornillador de estrella and destornillador estrella can be considered variants of each other, or the latter an abbreviation of the former, and the same applies to other pairs of terms in which the de is often dropped such as desarmador de estrella - desarmador estrella, or the more technical sounding destornillador de punta estrella - destornillador punta estrella. Indeed, de-dropping in such adjectival phrases appears to be a general phenomenon that is quite common in Spanish, though under what circumstances it occurs needs to be researched. In the case of the modifier phillips (as in destornillador phillips, desarmador phillips, etc.), alternate pronunciations and spellings are used that can be considered variants of each other. Thus destornillador phillips is also written and/or 21

pronounced destornillador Phillips, destornillador philips, destornillador filips, destornillador filics, destornillador filix, destornillador filic, destornillador fili, etc. Since the word phillips is a foreign word used more in speech than in writing, Spanish speakers who are unaware of the terms origin and unfamiliar with English-language orthography are often unsure of how it should be spelled. (Pero, aunque no sepan ingls, me imagino que lo escribirn a la inglesa aquellos hispanohablantes que usen el trmino destornillador phillips, o desarmador phillips, etc., y tambin tomen leche de magnesia Phillips.) Spain: Destornillador (de) estrella was given by all respondents from Peninsular Spain. However, one Canary Islander indicated destornillador de estra, a usage which we note matches that found in many parts of the Caribbean basin. Given the sustained emigration of Canary Islanders to the Antilles and Venezuela over the last two centuries, some of whom also returned to their homeland after an extended stay, resulting in linguistic crosspollination in both directions (Lipski 1994: 56-61), it would not be surprising if it turned out that the Canary Islands share the use of destornillador de estra with parts of the Caribbean. If so, then the question would be who got it from whom: A Caribbean or Canary Island origin? However, we are putting the cart before the horse since the first question is whether or not destornillador de estra is commonly used in the sense of phillips screwdriver in the Canary Islands. Mexico: The DEUMex, in its definition of desarmador (see section A1.3 above), indicates that a phillips screwdriver is called a desarmador de punta en cruz, but the majority of respondents in this study indicated simply desarmador de cruz; the former term appears to be a more technical (and fancier sounding) variant of the latter. Dominican Republic: Several respondents gave destornillador tra, which can be considered a phonetic variant (or reduction) of destornillador (de) estra. Given the extremely high rate of elision of syllable- and word-final /s/ that occurs in the Dominican Republic (Lipski 1994: 239), a word like estra is often pronounced etra, which is but a short step away from tra. To what extent has this phonetic variant become lexicalized in some speech communities in the Dominican Republic? Colombia: The majority of Colombians offered destornillador (de) estrella, but two from Santander said desatornillador de estrella, another from Santander gave destornillador estra, one from the Atlantic Coast gave destornillador de estra (which corresponds to Antillean and Venezuelan usage), and an elderly man from Quindo indicated atornillador de estra. A2.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: desarmador de cruz (F), desarmador de estrella (F), desarmador estrella (F), desarmador phillips (F), desatornillador de cruz (F), desatornillador de estrella (F), desatornillador phillips (F), desentornillador de estrella (F), destornillador cruz (F), destornillador de cruz (F), destornillador de estrella (F), destornillador estrella (F), destornillador punta estrella (F), destornillador de estra (F), destornillador estra (F), destornillador phillips (F).

22

Questions/Comments: The DRAE does not offer its readers any information on the names for phillips screwdrivers, and an argument can be made that such information is too technical to be included in a general dictionary. However, the boundary between technical language and general language is often blurry, or we could say that over time the distance between the two in many cases tends asymptotically to zero. If we compare the situation within English-language lexicography, we note that Phillips is defined in the AHD (Pickett) as A trademark used for a screw with a head having two intersecting perpendicular slots and for a screwdriver with a tip shaped to fit these slots. The EWD (Soukhanov) defines Phillips screw as tdmk a trademark for a screw with a cross-shaped slot on its head and Phillips screwdriver as tdmk a trademark for a screwdriver that has a cross-shaped tip so that it can be used to turn a Phillips screw. If English-language lexicography tells us what a phillips screwdriver is, why should the DRAE take a back seat and not do likewise? While it may not always be an easy task, in some instances it is a good idea to keep up with the Joneses (and the Garcas, and the other neighbors in the global village). By all means, take a look around, see what the other guys are doing. Lexicographers have as much to learn from others who speak a different language and come from a different culture as the rest of us.

A3

SCREWDRIVER C SLOTTED SCREWDRIVER, SCREWDRIVER, STRAIGHT-BLADE SCREWDRIVER, SCREWDRIVER or STANDARD SCREWDRIVER Summary

FLAT-HEAD FLAT-BLADE

A3.1

Plano is the modifier most commonly added to the base term (destornillador, desatornillador, desarmador, etc.) to specify a slotted screwdriver, although many people refer to it as a destornillador comn, a destornillador corriente, or simply a destornillador with no modifier added since they understand slotted screwdrivers to be the default type. In a number of countries, however, other modifiers such as de paleta or de pala are used more often than plano. Note: Modifiers other than plano (and variants such as de punta plana), or comn, corriente, normal (and other similar default modifiers) appear in italics, and majority regional modifiers in boldface and italics. A3.2 Terms by Country (12 modifiers and c. 30 terms plus variants overall) destornillador plano (10/14), destornillador de punta plana (2/14), destornillador normal (1/14). desarmador plano (14/18), desarmador de paleta (2/18), desarmador de pal(it)a (2/18). desarmador plano (11/14), desarmador (tipo) castigadera (3/14), desarmador de paleta (1/14), desatornillador tipo castigadera (1/14). desarmador plano (11/14), desarmador (corriente) (3/14), desatornillador plano (3/14), desarmador de pala (1/14), desarmador de plancha (1/14), desatornillador (1/14), desatornillador de planchita (1/14). desatornillador plano (7/13), desarmador plano (6/13), destornillador plano (2/13). 23

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR

HONDURAS

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

desarmador de ranura (6/14), desatornillador de ranura (3/14), destornillador de ranura (3/14), desarmador (1/14), desarmador de raya (1/14), desatornillador comn (1/14), desatornillador recto (1/14), destornillador plano (1/14). desatornillador plano (7/16), destornillador plano (4/16), desatornillador (corriente)
(2/16), destornillador (corriente) (2/16), desatornillador de paleta (1/16), desatornillador de punta plana (1/16).

PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA

destornillador plano (8/9), destornillador cincel (1/9), destornillador de raya (1/9). destornillador de paleta (8/16), destornillador (5/16), destornillador plano (4/16). destornillador plano (14/15), destornillador de paleta (1/15). destornillador (de) paleta (17/20), destornillador (1/20), destornillador de pala (1/20), destornillador plano (1/20). destornillador plano (9/16), destornillador de pala (4/16), destornillador de paleta (2/16), destornillador punta plana (2/16), destornillador (1/16) . destornillador (de) pala (10/19), destornillador plano (4/19), desarmador de pala (2/19),
destornillador (2/19), atornillador pala (1/19), atornillador plano (1/19), desatornillador de pala (1/19), desatornillador de paleta (1/19). desarmador plano (8/14), destornillador plano (8/14), destornillador (corriente) (2/14).

ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA

desarmador plano (9/18), desentornillador plano (5/18), destornillador plano (3/18), desarmador (2/18), desarmador de punta plana (2/18), entornillador (1/18) . desarmador plano (6/18), destornillador plano (4/18), desarmador (comn) (2/18),
desentornillador (clsico) (2/18), destornillador (con) punta plana (2/18), desentornillador plano (1/18), desentornillador punta plana (1/18), desarmador en cuchilla (1/18). destornillador plano (6/10), destornillador (simple) (2/10), destornillador chato (1/10), destornillador de punta chata (1/10), destornillador de punta plana (1/10).

PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA

destornillador chato (4/11), destornillador plano (4/11), destornillador (comn) (3/11), destornillador de paleta (1/11). destornillador (comn) (5/16), destornillador de punta plana (5/16), destornillador
chato (2/16), destornillador plano (2/16), destornillador de punta chata (1/16), destornillador de hoja plana (1/16).

CHILE

destornillador (de) paleta (5/17), atornillador (de) paleta (4/17), desatornillador (de) paleta (4/17), desatornillador (regular) (3/17), destornillador plano (1/17). Details

A3.3

General: Many Spanish speakers consider the slotted screwdriver to be the standard or default type of screwdriver and refer to it as a destornillador corriente (or desarmador corriente, desatornillador corriente, etc.), as a destornillador comn (or desarmador comn, etc.), a destornillador normal (desarmador normal, etc.), or simply a destornillador (desarmador, etc.) with no modifier being added. Mexico: The DEUMex, in its definition of desarmador (see section A1.3 above), indicates that a slotted screwdriver is called a desarmador de punta plana, but the majority of respondents in this study indicated simply desarmador plano. Colombia: Destornillador (de) pala was offered by the majority of respondents, but desatornillador de paleta was given by one from the Atlantic Coast, and we note that the

24

qualifier de paleta matches the usage found in other parts of the Caribbean such as Cuba and Puerto Rico. United States English: Many English speakers from the United States consider the screwdriver of this section to be the standard or default screwdriver (as do many Spanish speakers) and use no specific name for it other than screwdriver, regular screwdriver, normal screwdriver or standard screwdriver, etc. The term flat-head screwdriver (with its spelling variants flathead screwdriver and flat head screwdriver) is also used frequently in the United States in this sense, but some object to this term claiming that flat-head refers to a type of screw that has a flat head and which can be either a phillips screw or a regular screw, but does not refer to a type of screwdriver. Some who make the latter claim prefer the term straight-blade screwdriver or flat-blade screwdriver (again with spelling variants along the same lines as those indicated above for flat-head screwdriver). Others may counter that the terms flat-head screw and flat-head screwdriver are unrelated; in other words, that the former refers to a screw with a flat head, which may be a phillips screw or a regular screw, and that the latter refers to a screwdriver whose shaft ends in a flat head (rather than a pointy phillips head), and that may be used with slotted screws regardless of the heads shape, whether flat-head screws, pan-head screws or screws of some other form. The Home Depot and Ace Hardware store online catalogues (at www.homedepot.com and www.acehardware.com, respectively) list only slotted screwdriver as the term for the class of screwdriver addressed in this section, but one can also object to this term since phillips-head screws also have slots (just different kinds of slots), and therefore, one can argue that phillipshead screwdrivers are slotted screwdrivers just as much as straight-blade screwdrivers are, insofar as both turn slotted screws. For this reason, some people prefer the term single slotted screw (and screwdriver). Because terminology varies along a specificity axis, and because it is under no obligation to strictly obey semantic logic, it is hard to reach a consensus on what the proper term for this type of screwdriver is even within a single country. A3.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: atornillador de paleta (F), desarmador castigadera (F), desarmador de pala (F), desarmador de paleta (F), desarmador plano (F), desarmador de ranura (F), desatornillador de paleta (F), desatornillador plano (F), desatornillador de ranura (F), desentornillador plano (F), destornillador chato (F), destornillador de pala (F), destornillador de paleta (F), destornillador de punta chata (F), destornillador de paleta (F), destornillador de punta plana (F), destornillador de ranura (F), destornillador plano (F). Questions/Comments: Should the DRAE define the commonly used terms for the slotted screwdriver? An argument can be made that this is unnecessary since the slotted screwdriver is often considered to be the standard or default screwdriver. Another reason that may possibly mediate against including a definition of a slotted screwdriver (or of a phillips screwdriver) is that the most common type of screwdriver is now an adjustable combination screwdriver called a multi-bit driver that contains four or more screwdriver heads, blades or bits, typically at least two different sizes of slotted-head and phillips-head bits. In other words, people who use this 25

type of screwdriver need to make a distinction between the different types of bits but not the different types of screwdrivers since several types of bits are contained in and used with a single screwdriver. Moreover, if we probe a couple of samples from English lexicography, we note that neither the 2000 edition of the AHD nor the 2004 edition of the EWD define the terms slotted screwdriver, straight blade screwdriver or flat-head screwdriver, nor do they include a picture of one next to the definition of screwdriver. On the other hand, if the DRAEs goal is to be international in scope, as it claims in its preface, then readers should be told what a destornillador de paleta or a desarmador plano, etc. is (with appropriate regional specifications) so that dictionary users will know whats what and where.

A4 A4.1

SLEDGEHAMMER or MAUL Summary

Mazo can be considered the most General Spanish term for sledgehammer since it is used in this sense in large areas of the Spanish-speaking world. Almgana and its variants are commonly used in northern Central America, combo or comba in the core Andean countries of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile (and perhaps in western Argentina as well), and mandarria in parts of Spain and the Caribbean basin. Other terms are used in Spain, Mexico, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Uruguay and Argentina. Note: Terms other than mazo (and maceta which refers to a small sledgehammer) appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. A4.2 Terms by Country (over 10 terms plus variants) mazo (12/17), maza (4/17), mandarria (3/17), marreta (2/17), maceta (1/17). marro (22/25), mazo (6/25), maceta (2/25). almgana (12/19), mazo (8/19), marro (3/19), almdana (1/19), chambn (1/19). almgana (13/16), almdana (2/16), almdena (1/16), armgana (1/16), mazo (1/16). almgana (14/15), mazo (4/15), almdana (1/15). mazo (13/13). mazo (14/14). mazo (13/13), maceta (2/13). mandarria (18/18). mandarria (14/16), marrn (10/16), maceta (5/16). marrn (17/18), mazo (2/18). mandarria (15/15). porra (15/24), mazo (13/24), maceta (6/24), mandarria (2/24), almdena (1/24), almudana (1/24), porro (1/24), porrn (1/24). combo (17/18), mazo (3/18). comba (19/21), mazo (6/21), combo (3/21). combo (17/17). 26

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

mazo (9/10), maza (2/10). marrn (8/12), maceta (5/12), mazo (4/12), maza (2/12). maza (18/20), combo (1/20), maceta (1/20), mazo (1/20), marrn (1/20). combo (18/18).

A4.3

Details

General: The term mazo was offered in the sense of sledgehammer by a majority of respondents from only five countries, but was given by some respondents in fifteen out of the twenty countries. However, since sledgehammers are closely related to mallets and gavels, etc., which can also be called mazos, it is possible that some of the respondents in this study confused the sledgehammer with one of these similar items. All respondents who offered maceta agreed that it refers to a small, short-handled sledgehammer. These mini sledgehammers, hand sledges or baby sledges are often wielded with only one hand and typically weigh between two and four pounds. Spain: In this study, mazo was offered in the sense of sledgehammer by the majority of Spaniards from diverse regions, and maza by four from different regions. Mandarria and marreta were given by respondents from Galicia, and of these one indicated that mandarria was the Spanish word for sledgehammer and marreta the Gallego term. The DRAE indicates that mazo refers only to a wooden mallet and includes no sense of maza that corresponds to a sledgehammer (see section A4.4 below). However, the DEArg (Haensch and Werner 2000a), a contrastive dictionary, indicates that both maza and mazo are the Peninsular Spanish equivalents of the Argentine terms for this tool (combo and maza, see Argentina below). Almdena, almdana and almdina are defined in the DRAE in the sense of sledgehammer (see section A4.4 below), but it is not clear what types of Spaniards tend to use these terms. Are almdena, almdana and/or almdina used primarily by older Spaniards, by Spaniards from specific regions, or by specialists such as carpenters, masons or quarry workers, etc.? No doubt there are Spaniards who say almdena, almdana and/or almdina, but they appear to be harder to come by than those that say mazo and/or maza. Mexico: The use of marro is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as Herramienta semejante al martillo, que consiste en una pieza slida de hierro, rectangular, con los bordes limados, montada en un fuerte mango de madera; se utiliza para romper piedras o golpear objetos grandes y resistentes. Mazo is defined similarly in the DEUMex, but its definition indicates it can also refer to a wooden mallet: Herramienta con que se golpea fuertemente un cuerpo slido, consistente en un mango largo de madera, al que se inserta en una de sus puntas un bloque cuadrangular pesado y grande, de hierro o de madera. Guatemala: A majority of respondents indicated almgana was the only term commonly used, but several stated that a mazo is a small almgana or refers to a rubber mallet. El Salvador: Almgana was offered by the majority of respondents, but one indicated armgana, which can be considered a phonetic variant of almgana. Exchange of syllable-final liquids /l/ and /r/ is common both historically and in terms of regionalisms; cf. pairs of words such as arveja-alverja (pea), telgopor-tergopol (styrofoam), and pilca-pirca (stone wall). See also Dominican Republic in section B4.3 below. 27

Honduras: The DH defines almgana as Corruptela de ALMADANA (in that publication accent marks were not used with capital letters). In this study, the majority of respondents indicated that almgana was the only term commonly used in the sense of sledgehammer, though most were persons with limited formal education. Only one Honduran, a collegeeducated man, said the proper term was almdana, but he admitted this term was seldom used. In addition, two stated that a mazo is a small almgana, but several others said a mazo is a wooden mallet. Cuba: The DECu (Haensch and Werner 2000b) confirms the use of mandarria, defining it as Tipo de martillo muy pesado. Dominican Republic: Some respondents stated that a mandarria is a larger sledgehammer than a marrn, but some said the opposite, that a marrn is larger than a mandarria; others indicated the two terms were synonymous. Do Dominican craftsmen, laborers, and others who regularly work with sledgehammers have a uniform understanding of the differences in meaning between these two terms? Venezuela: The DHAV (Nez) confirms the use of mandarria, defining it as Martillo muy grande y pesado, provisto de un mango largo, que se maneja con las dos manos y que se emplea, principalmente, en la construccin. Colombia: Many respondents indicated that both a mazo and a porra refer to sledgehammers, but one from Cundinamarca indicated that a mazo is a rubber mallet and a porra is a sledgehammer; this same respondent also indicated that an almdena refers to a sledgehammer that has a point on one end. Almudana was offered in the sense of sledgehammer by an elderly man from the department of Quindo. Ecuador: The HEDE (Crdova Malo) defines combo as Gran mazo de hierro para quebrantar piedras; macho. Peru: Why is comba the dominant term in Peru when combo is dominant in Perus Andean neighbors, Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile? The DRAE indicates that combo derives from Quechua kumpa (see section A4.4 below). Is the Peruvian use of comba somehow closer to the Quechua source, or are there other reasons that explain this difference? Bolivia: The use of combo is confirmed by the DB (Gmez de Fernndez), which defines it as 2. Almadana. It is not clear why there is no accent mark on the second a in the definition, though it can probably be attributed to a simple typographical error. Uruguay: The NDU (Haensch and Werner 1993b) defines marrn as 1 Martillo grande y muy pesado que se usa para demoliciones | 2 En los mataderos, mazo con el que se desmaya a las reses antes de sacrificarlas. In this study, a few respondents indicated that a marrn is a bigger sledgehammer than a mazo. Argentina: The DEArg defines combo as a General Argentine Spanish term (i.e. without any regional specification within Argentina) as Mazo de hierro, con un mango largo para asirlo, que se emplea en el mbito de la construccin, generalmente para partir piedras o para demoler and defines marrn as 3 NEArg [Northeast Argentina] Martillo de gran tamao que se emplea en la industria y en carpintera. The DEArg indicates that combo and marrn are synonyms of mazo, which is used in Spain, and of maza, which is used in both Spain and Argentina. In this study, however, the majority of Argentines queried gave only maza, but one from San Juan (in western Argentina) offered combo, and we note that combo is the predominant usage in much of the Andean region. If combo is 28

commonly used in the sense of sledgehammer throughout Argentina, as the DEArg seems to claim, why did only one Argentine in this study offer this term? If combo is regionally marked within Argentina, in what regions is it commonly used? Chile: The DECH confirms the use of combo, defining it as Mazo pesado, generalmente de hierro, provisto de un mango largo y una cabeza con los dos lados planos, igualmente aptos para golpear... Related concepts: Is mazo the word for mallet (short-handled hammer with a cylindrical head made of rubber or wood) and for gavel (mallet or hammer used by a presiding officer or auctioneer to signal for attention or order) that is used throughout the Spanishspeaking world, or is there regional variation for these items as well? A4.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: almdana (C), almdena (C), almdina (C), almgana (B), comba (D), combo (D), maceta (A), mandarria (B), marro (D), marrn (D), maza (D), mazo (D), porra (C or D?). DRAE definitions: almdena, (Del r. hisp. almtana, y ste cruce del r. cls. midan y el r hisp. patna, trasto, cacharro). Mazo de hierro con mango largo, para romper piedras; almdana, almdena; almdina, almdena; almgana, Hond. almdena; combo, (Del quechua kumpa, mazo de piedra). Am. [Amrica] mazo (|| martillo grande de madera); maceta, 2. Martillo con cabeza de dos bocas iguales y mango corto que usan los canteros para golpear el cincel o puntero; macho2, (Del lat marclus, martillo pequeo). Mazo grande que hay en las herreras para forjar el hierro; mandarria, (Quiz del it. dialect. mannara, hacha). Mar. [marina] Martillo o maza de hierro que usan los calafates para meter o sacar los pernos en los costados de los buques. || 2. Cuba. Tipo de martillo muy pesado; martinete, (Del fr. martinet). 2. Mazo, generalmente de gran peso, para batir algunos metales, abatanar los paos, etc.; maza, (Del lat. vulg. *matta). 2. Instrumento de madera dura, parecido a la maza antigua de combate, que sirve para machacar el esparto y el lino, para otros usos; mazo, (De maza). Martillo grande de madera; porra, (Del lat. porrum, puerro, por la forma de esta planta). 3. Martillo de cabezas iguales y mango largo algo flexible, que se maneja con las dos manos a la vez. Comments: Regardless of which word is selected as the base term to which the remaining synonyms could be cross-referenced, the sledgehammer should be defined as a type of heavy martillo (hammer), not as a type of mazo (mallet) made of metal as the DRAE has done. There are at least two reasons why martillo should be the fulcrum of the definition for the sledgehammer and not mazo. First, because martillo is a General Spanish word that everyone understands to mean the same thing. If you tell Spanish speakers that an almgana, a combo, a mandarria, a maza, or a mazo is a heavy martillo, they will instantly understand what you mean. The second reason is that mazo itself is defined in terms of martillo and is described as something that is strictly made of wood. In the DRAEs handling of this item, its lexicographers and/or editors not only demonstrate their lack of familiarity with Spanish American usage (which is not particularly surprising), but also show themselves to be unaware of the fact that mazo, maza and mandarria can refer to standard sledgehammers (with metal heads) in varieties of Peninsular Spanish. The DRAE indicates that mandarria is used in the language of sailors (presumably Spanish sailors) to refer to a special type of hammer found on ships, and is also 29

used in the sense of sledgehammer in only one country, Cuba (see definition of mandarria in section A4.4 above). Yet it defines mandarriazo as Cuba. Golpe que se da con la intencin de hacer dao and 2. coloq. Ven. Golpe dado con una mandarria o con cualquier tipo de martillo. Sense two of mandarriazo clearly implies that mandarria is used with the meaning of sledgehammer in Venezuela (which we know to be the case), but the DRAE editors failed to catch this inconsistency in two definitions that are consecutive (mandarriazo is the very next entry after mandarria), and thus failed to include Ven. in the regional specification of sense two of mandarria. This is just sloppy workmanship. Also, the definition of maceta, Martillo con cabeza... que usan los canteros para golpear el cincel o puntero is too restrictive. To put it in the vernacular, there are lots of folks besides quarry workers and stonemasons who use macetas, and they use em for poundin lots of things that aint chisels.

A5 A5.1

HACKSAW Summary

Sierra__with qualifiers such as de metal, para metal or de arco added for clarification if necessary__ is the predominant term in Spain, most Spanish-speaking countries of the Southern Hemisphere, and parts of Central America, that is, in roughly half the Spanish-speaking world. In the other half, in most countries of the Caribbean Basin, segueta is the term. Note: Segueta appears in italics and, where the majority term, in boldface and italics. A5.2 Terms by Country (2 base terms plus variants) sierra (11/11). segueta (19/19). sierra (13/17), segueta (5/17). sierra (16/18), segueta (3/18). segueta (11/16), sierra (5/16). sierra (14/15), segueta (3/15). segueta (13/13). segueta (12/12), sierra (2/12). segueta (16/16). segueta (15/15). segueta (18/18). segueta (13/15), sierra (2/15). segueta (16/18), sierra (2/18). sierra (12/12). sierra (16/16). sierra (15/15). sierra (8/8). sierra (10/10). 30

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY

ARGENTINA CHILE

sierra (15/15). sierra (15/15).

A5.3

Details

General: In countries where sierra is commonly used in the sense of hacksaw, modifiers such as de arco, de metal, para metal(es), de/para hierro, de/para fierro, de/para acero, cortametales, cortahierro, etc. are added to sierra to the extent people have a need to distinguish hacksaws from other sierras such as power saws (sierras elctricas); the diminutive form sierrita is also sometimes used in the sense of hacksaw. The term segueta, in contrast, is already specific in the countries it is used, and does not require a modifier. In more technical and/or specific language, speakers may distinguish between the hacksaw blade (la hoja) and the hacksaw frame (el arco de la sierra or el arco de la segueta), but see Colombia below for another possible scheme. The distinction between frame, blade and the two combined, however, is often not made as both items are typically found and needed in their combined form (neither the frame nor the blade by itself is particularly useful). Thus, people typically say psame la sierra or psame la segueta and receive the entire apparatus, though if several different types of sierras are available, then speakers from the non-segueta countries would say psame la sierra de arco or the psame la sierra de metal, etc., to specify the hacksaw. In section A5.2 above, only the short form sierra is presented, not the longer more specific terms such as sierra de arco. See saws in Appendix for other types of saws. Mexico: The use of segueta is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as Herramienta consistente en una hoja, por lo general de acero, recta, angosta y larga con numerosos dientes puntiagudos en uno de sus bordes; la cual, sujeta a un armazn en forma de marco, se usa para cortar metal u otros materiales duros... Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras & Nicaragua: Varying degrees of competition between sierra and segueta were found in these four countries and, based on the data collected in this study, sierra appears to be more common than segueta in Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua, whereas segueta appears to be more common than sierra in Honduras. In these four countries, how common is the use of segueta in the sense of hacksaw vis--vis sierra? Colombia: Most respondents in this study indicated that segueta was the entire hacksaw, but two said they understood segueta to refer to the blade only and, when asked what the frame was, one said it was the sierra and the other that it was the marco or the arco. Spelling of segueta: In countries where segueta is used in the sense of hacksaw, many people think the word is spelled cegueta. This is probably due in part to the fact that the verbs segar and cegar are homophones in Latin American Spanish, and to confusion about which spelling corresponds to which meaning. Among less educated speakers, zegueta is also a common spelling. A5.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: segueta (D), sierra (A or D?). 31

DRAE definitions: sierra, Herramienta para cortar madera u otros objetos duros, que generalmente consiste en una hoja de acero dentada sujeta a una empuadura; segueta, (De or. inc.) Sierra de marquetera; marquetera, (Del fr. marqueterie). Trabajo de ebanistera. Comments: The DRAEs general, all-purpose definition of sierra does not capture or encompass the meaning of hacksaw because it describes a saw in which the blade is attached to a handle, and a hacksaws blade is attached to a frame. Compare the AHDs definition of hacksaw: A saw consisting of a tough, fine-toothed blade stretched taut in a frame, used for cutting metal. The DRAE needs to include a separate sense corresponding to hacksaw in its definitions of both sierra and segueta, with appropriate regional specifications, and the DEUMexs description of segueta would be an excellent model to follow.

A6

PLIERS A - REGULAR PLIERS, JOINT PLIERS, SLIP-JOINT PLIERS or DIAGONAL PLIERS (standard, adjustable noncutting pliers) Summary

A6.1

Alicate(s) or pinza(s) are the most commonly used base terms for these types of pliers in many countries, tenaza(s) in several Central American countries, and playo in Ecuador. Note: Terms other than alicate(s) and pinza(s) appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. A6.2 Terms by Country (4 terms plus variants) alicate(s) (8/11), tenaza(s) (2/11), pinzas (1/11). pinza(s) (15/16), tenazas (1/16). alicate (13/14), tenaza (2/14). tenaza(s) (15/15). tenaza (5/6), tenanza (1/6). tenaza(s) (10/12), alicate (2/12). alicate (9/11), pinza (1/11), tenaza (1/11). pinza(s) (7/9), alicate (2/9). alicate(s) (10/16), pinza(s) (5/16), tenaza (1/16). alicate (15/15). alicate(s) (18/18). alicate(s) (16/16). alicate(s) (14/15), pinzas (1/15). playo (13/14), alicate (7/14). alicate (13/13). alicate (16/16). pinza(s) (8/9), tenaza(s) (2/9). pinza(s) (8/9), tenaza (1/9).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY

32

ARGENTINA CHILE

pinza (13/15), tenaza (2/15). alicate (13/14), tenaza (2/14).

A6.3

Details

General: Both the singular and plural forms, alicate-alicates, pinza-pinzas and tenaza-tenazas, can refer to a single pair of pliers. In this study, the majority of respondents from most countries indicated the singular forms (i.e. alicate, pinza or tenaza) when referring to a single pair of joint pliers, and in many cases the singular form was the unanimous choice: See GUATEMALA, HONDURAS, COSTA RICA, DOMIN. REP., ECUADOR, PERU, BOLIVIA, ARGENTINA and CHILE in section A6.2 above. However, more research needs to be done to determine where each is more common and whether or not the singular forms are more frequent in regions where word-final /s/ tends to be aspirated or deleted such as southern Spain and coastal areas of Spanish America. The modifiers comn/comunes, universal(es) or mecnico(s) are sometimes added to alicate(s), pinza(s) and tenaza(s) to specify joint pliers. In the lxico del habla culta studies, item 1402 is entitled TENAZAS and item 1403 ALICATES, but it is unclear what type of tool respondents were shown in each case. See, for example, Torres Martnez pp. 224-225, Samper Padilla pp. 182, Otlora de Fernndez pp. 341, or Lpez Morales pp. 76. Mexico: Although the use of pinza(s) in the sense of pliers is confirmed by the DEUMex, it defines the instrument broadly as sing o pl 1 Instrumento de distintos materiales y formas, compuesto por dos palancas unidas en un punto, cuyas puntas o extremos se unen o separan bajo la presin de los dedos y que sirve para agarrar algo con fuerza: Aflojo la tuerca con las pinzas, pinzas para las cejas, Se sac la espina con una pinza, pinza de cirujano, pinzas para colgar ropa. The fact that the term alicate is not listed in this dictionary is also noteworthy and suggests that this term is not usual in Mexico. Ecuador: Some Ecuadorans in this study made statements such as playo se dice vulgarmente and described this term as incorrecto and mal formado and indicated that alicate is the correct and castizo term. Others, however, indicated that playo is the only term for adjustable pliers, whereas alicate(s) are nonadjustable, wire-cutting pliers (linesman pliers). Still others, including carpenters, plumbers, and other specialists accepted both terms and indicated they are synonyms. Related terms: See pliers in Appendix for information on other types of pliers. A6.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: alicate(s) (A), pinza(s) (A), playo (A or D?), tenaza(s) (A). DRAE definitions: alicate, (Del r. hisp. *allaqqt, y este del r. cls. Laqqt, tenazas). Tenaza pequea de acero con brazos encorvados y puntas cuadrangulares o de forma de cono truncado, y que sirve para coger y sujetar objetos menudos o para torcer alambres, chapitas delgadas o cosas parecidas. U. m. en pl. [Usado ms en plural] con el mismo significado que en sing. [singular]; alicate de corte, El que tiene las puntas en forma de cuchillas y se emplea, sobre todo por los electricistas, para cortar cables; pinza, (Del fr. pince, tenaza). Instrumento cuyos extremos se aproximan para sujetar algo; pinzas, 4. Instrumento de metal, a manera de 33

tenacillas, que sirve para coger o sujetar cosas menudas; tenaza, (Del lat. tences, pl. de tenax). Instrumento de metal, compuesto de dos brazos trabados por un clavillo o eje que permite abrirlos y volverlos a cerrar, que se usa para sujetar fuertemente una cosa, o arrancarla o cortarla. U. m. en pl. con el mismo significado que en sing; playo, (Del ingl. pliers). Ecuad. Especie de tenazas pequeas, generalmente con ranuras finas en sus extremos. Comments: Spanish speakers from different regions seem to have different notions of what types of tools the terms alicate(s), pinza(s) and tenaza(s) can refer to, differences that are not captured by the DRAEs definitions of these terms. The DRAE defines playo as a specific type of small pliers, but based on the Ecuadorans queried in this study, playos seem to come in different sizes, both large and small.

A7 A7.1

PLIERS B - NEEDLENOSE PLIERS or LONGNOSE PLIERS Summary

Pinza and/or alicate, often with a modifier such as de punta or de pico, are the most commonly used terms for needlenose pliers. Honduras, Nicaragua and Cuba have more regional usages. Note: Terms other than pinza(s), alicate(s)__or these terms with modifiers such as de punta, de pico or the less precise elctrico(s)/elctrica(s)__appear in italics, and Honduras and Nicaraguas picuda(s) in boldface and italics. A7.2
SPAIN MEXICO

Terms by Country (4 or 5 base terms and over 20 modifiers plus variants) alicate(s) de punta (6/13), alicate(s) (3/13), alicate de boca plana (1/13), alicate de electricista (1/13), alicate de punta fina (1/13), alicate para electricidad (1/13), tenazas (1/13). pinzas de punta (6/17), pinza(s) de pico (2/17), pinzas elctricas (2/17), pinzas (1/17),
pinzas de cortar (1/17), pinzas de corte (1/17), pinza de electricista (1/17), pinza de nariz (1/17), pinzas para alambre (1/17), pinzas para cortar (1/17). pinza(s) (13/15), alicate (1/15), pinzas de punta (1/15). pinza(s) (11/15), tenaza de punta (2/15), alicate (1/15), pinzas de punta (1/15), pinzas picudas (1/15). picuda(s) (6/11), pinza (2/11), alicate (1/11), tenanza de punta (1/11), tenaza de pico (1/11). picuda(s) (8/15), alicate (4/15), pinza (4/15), tenaza de punta (2/15), tenaza picuda (2/15). alicate de punta(s) (8/11), alicate de tenaza (1/11), pinzas (1/11), pinza elctrica (1/11).

GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA

pinza(s) de punta (4/9), alicate de punta (3/9), pinza de pico largo (1/9), pinza elctrica (1/9), pinzas narizonas (1/9). pinza(s) (5/16), pinza (punta) de garza (3/16), alicates de punta fina (1/16), alicate
pinza (1/16), alicate punta de garza (1/16), pinza de corte (1/16), pinza de pico de loro (1/16), pinza punta de ganso (1/16), tenazas (1/16). pinza (17/18), alicate de pinza (1/18).

DOMIN. REP.

34

PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

pinza(s) (14/20),

alicate de punta (2/20), alicate de alambre (1/20), alicate de pinzas (1/20), pinzas de nariz larga (1/20), pinzas para electricidad (1/20). pinza(s) (14/16), alicate(s) de punta (3/16), alicate de pinza (2/16). pinza(s) (12/17), pinza(s) (de) punta (2/17), alicate (1/17), alicate de punta (1/17), cortapinzas (1/17), pinza cortafro (1/17). pinza(s) (8/10), alicate (1/10), pinza punta redonda (1/10). alicate de punta(s) (6/15), pinza(s) (5/15), alicate (de) pinza (2/15), alicate elctrico (1/15), tenaza (1/15). alicate (de) punta (8/14), pinza (3/14), alicate con punta (1/14), alicate de punta fina (1/14), alicate pinza (1/14), lorito (1/14).

pinza(s) (2/9), pinzas de punta (2/9), pinza elctrica (2/9), alicates de punta (1/9), pinza puntiaguda (1/9), tenaza (1/9). pinza(s) de punta (3/9), alicate(s) (3/9), pinza (1/9), pinza punta fina (1/9), pinza puntiaguda (1/9). pinza de punta (9/13), alicate (2/13), pinza(s) (2/13), pinza de pico fino (1/13). alicate de punta(s) (9/15), pinza(s) (5/15), alicate de tenaza (1/15), alicate pinza (1/15).

A7.3

Details

General: Most of the Spanish speakers queried in this study can be divided into two categories with respect to the two types of pliers tested. We could call Type A those speakers who use the same base term for needlenose pliers as for joint pliers, but to the former they add a modifier such as de punta or de pico. Such speakers appear to view needlenose pliers as a type of pinza or alicate. Type B speakers, in contrast, would be those who use one base term for joint pliers and a different base term for needlenose pliers. They conceive the two tools differently, that is, they do not view needlenose pliers as a type of joint pliers, as Type A speakers and some speakers of United States English do (who would call joint pliers regular pliers or ordinary pliers). There also appear to be some Spanish speakers, whom we could call Type C speakers, who use one base term for joint pliers and use a compound term for needlenose pliers that has a different base term from the one they use for the joint pliers. The key to understanding how the terms alicate(s), pinza(s), etc. function in the different varieties of Spanish, however, may be determining the names used for linesman pliers (nonadjustable cutting pliers), a type that, unfortunately, was not tested in this study. See pliers in Appendix. Type A speakers (same base term for joint and needlenose pliers): Based on the data collected in this study, Spaniards, Costa Ricans and Bolivians generally call joint pliers alicate(s) and needlenose pliers alicate(s) de punta or alicate(s) followed by some other modifier. Mexicans and Argentines typically call joint pliers pinza(s) and needlenose pliers pinza(s) de punta or pinza(s) followed by another modifier. (Quin dijo que los mexicanos y los argentinos no tienen nada en comn?) Type B speakers (different base term for joint and needlenose pliers): In contrast to Type A speakers, this study suggests that Guatemalans, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Venezuelans and Colombians generally call joint pliers alicate(s) and needlenose pliers pinza(s); 35

Salvadorans typically call joint pliers tenazas and needlenose pliers pinza(s); Nicaraguans and Hondurans joint pliers tenazas and needlenose pliers picudas; and Ecuadorans joint pliers playo and needlenose pliers pinza(s). The term picuda(s), however, appears to be an ellipsis of tenaza(s) picuda(s) and therefore, in a sense, Nicaraguans and Hondurans could be viewed as Type A. Type C speakers (different base terms and a modifier is added to needlenose pliers): Some Panamanians in this study called joint pliers pinza(s) and needlenose pliers alicate de punta. More research needs to be done to determine if Type C speakers are predominant in any particular country or region. United States English: In United States English, there may be a technical difference between the terms needlenose pliers and longnose pliers (which can also be spelled needle nose pliers or needle-nose pliers and long nose pliers or long-nose pliers, respectively) in that needlenose pliers have extra thin grippers whereas longnose pliers may be a more generic term (needlenose pliers would be a type of longnose pliers). In practice, needlenose pliers is probably the most commonly used term in everyday, nontechnical language for any pliers that have fairly long thin grippers, whereas longnose pliers is the term most often used for this general class of pliers in the Home Depot and Ace Hardware online catalogues at www.homedepot.com and www.acehardware.com, respectively. In these websites, there are pliers called long needle nose pliers, long chain nose pliers and curved nose pliers (with the tips of the grippers offset at an angle), and one company, X2, even manufactures a pair of long nose slip joint pliers that do not appear to be very common as many other manufacturers do not seem to make them. A7.4 Real Academia Regional Review

Questions/Comments: The DRAE does not describe needlenose pliers in its definitions of any of the terms presented in section A7.2 above. Should it? Using English-language lexicography as a point of comparison, we note that the EWD also does not define specific types of pliers. However, near its definition for pliers, it includes illustrations of slip-joint pliers, needlenose pliers and vise grips. The AHD neither defines needlenose or longnose pliers nor includes a picture of them, and an argument can be made that one can deduce the meaning of these terms from the meaning of pliers, needle, nose and long. The same would apply in Spanish to terms like alicates de punta and pinzas de punta. The problem is that the DRAE seeks to be international in scope and the terms alicate(s) and pinza(s) mean different things to different Spanish speakers. Other types of pliers such as linesman pliers or lineman pliers (nonadjustable or solid-joint cutting pliers) are less transparent because they are associative rather than descriptive and because the association lineman or linesman (person who repairs electrical or telephone cables) may be less well known than the name of the pliers. Although it would be helpful if the DRAE provided a picture of the three or four most common types of pliers next to its definition of pliers (with a legend that indicated which is which), if you start down that path, you must be prepared to seriously address variant terms and regional variation. It is interesting to note that the AHD and the EWD both define a few types of wrenches (see section A9.4 below), but not different types of pliers. 36

A8 A8.1

WRENCH A - CRESCENT WRENCH / ADJUSTABLE WRENCH Summary

Llave ajustable and llave inglesa are each used in a dozen or more countries, and llave francesa in at least a half dozen. Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Colombia and Bolivia have highly regional terms. Note: Terms other than llave inglesa, llave francesa, llave ajustable (and its variant llave de ajuste) appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. A8.2 Terms by Country (c. 13 terms plus variants) llave inglesa (13/13). perica (7/20), perico (7/20), llave perica (6/20), llave (de) perico (2/20). cangrejo (10/13), llave (de) cangrejo (3/13), llave de graduacin (1/13). cangreja (13/14), llave cangreja (1/14). llave ajustable (9/9), llave inglesa (1/9). (llave) cresen (10/11), llave ajustable (2/11). llave francesa (11/12), llave ajustable (1/12). llave de ajuste (4/9), llave inglesa (3/9), llave ajustable (2/9). llave ajustable (3/10), llave de expansin (3/10), llave de (ex)tensin (2/10), llave inglesa (2/10). llave ajustable (14/16), (llave) pico (de) cotorra (6/16), crayson (2/16), llave pico de loro (1/16). llave ajustable (6/11), (llave) cresen (3/11), llave de ajuste (1/11), llave inglesa (1/11). llave ajustable (8/10), llave inglesa (3/10). llave de expansin (14/22), llave alemana (7/22), llave inglesa (5/22), llave
ajustable (2/22), llave expansiva (2/22), llave de extensin (1/22), llave de graduacin (1/22), llave de pestn (1/22), llave pico de loro (1/22). llave francesa (9/10), llave inglesa (2/10). llave francesa (6/11), llave inglesa (5/11), pico de loro (1/11). llave cresen (12/16), llave inglesa (5/16), llave crsel (1/16).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA

ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

llave inglesa (7/8), llave ajustable (1/8), llave francesa (1/8). llave francesa (6/9), llave inglesa (2/9), llave ajustable (1/9). llave inglesa (12/20), llave francesa (7/20), llave ajustable (1/20). llave francesa (7/9), llave inglesa (2/9).

37

A8.3

Details

General: Given the proper context, terms such as llave ajustable, llave francesa and llave inglesa, etc. can and often do get reduced to (una/la) ajustable, (una/la) francesa and (una/la) inglesa, respectively, for the sake of efficiency and under the principle of entre buenos entendedores, media palabra basta. In some cases, the ellipsis__la cresen (Nicaragua) or la perica (Mexico)__may be more common than the full form (la llave cresen or la llave perica), while in others the derived forms__la cangreja (El Salvador) or el cangrejo (Guatemala)__appear to be much more common than their etymologies, la llave (de) cangreja or la llave (de) cangrejo, respectively. Llave inglesa: Although llave inglesa was offered by respondents from many countries in the sense of crescent wrench, many others stated that llave inglesa refers to a monkey wrench. A monkey wrench (see Figure A8'' in Illustrations) is one in which the adjustment opens and closes along an axis that is parallel to the shaft of the wrench, unlike the crescent wrench in which the adjustment opens and closes along an axis perpendicular to the shaft. In other words, a monkey wrench functions like a pipe wrench (see Figure A9 in Illustrations), but without the teeth in the gripping mechanism. However, since monkey wrenches are no longer as common as crescent wrenches, the term llave inglesa now seems to be applied to crescent wrenches in many parts of the Spanish-speaking world, although perhaps not by some professionals who use both types of wrench and therefore maintain a terminological distinction. The confusion regarding the meaning of llave inglesa is further complicated by the fact that it can also refer to a pipe wrench. See section A9 below. Mexico: The use of perico is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as II 1 Herramienta con que se aprietan o aflojan tuercas, que tiene dos picos curvos, ajustados por un tornillo sin fin. The terms perica and perico are an ellipsis of llave (de) perica and llave (de) perico, respectively, and all of these can be considered variants of each other. Cuba: Llave ajustable, llave de expansin and/or llave inglesa were the three terms given by the majority of respondents in this study when shown a picture of a crescent wrench. However, the DRAE defines picoloro as the Cuban term for crescent wrench or perhaps monkey wrench (see section A8.4 below). The DECu, in contrast, seems to define picoloro as groove joint pliers or tongue and groove pliers (see pliers in Appendix): Herramienta para aflojar y apretar tuercas, que consiste en unas pinzas largas que semejan el pico de un loro. What does picoloro refer to in Cuba and which terms are most commonly used in Cuba to refer to a crescent wrench? Dominican Republic: Llave ajustable was given by the largest number of respondents in this study. Llave pico de cotorra, llave pico cotorra, pico de cotorra and pico cotorra (or picocotorra) can be considered variants of each other and, viewed collectively, was the second-most frequently offered term. Colombia: Llave de expansin and llave alemana were the two most frequently offered terms in this study. One Colombian indicated that llave alemana is the older, more traditional term and is being replaced by llave de expansin.

38

Bolivia: Most respondents gave the spelling of llave cresen, but some indicated llave crecen. The origin of this term, as we know, is English crescent wrench and/or the brand name Crescent. Related terms: For information on flat wrenches or rigid wrenches, see wrench A in Appendix. United States English: In the United States, adjustable wrench is the official term for this type of wrench, the one that appears in catalogues and on the product packaging, but crescent wrench (from the brand name Crescent) is the term most commonly used b y Americans in this sense. An argument can also be made that for Americans crescent wrench is a more precise/specific term than adjustable wrench since pipe wrenches (see section A9 below) and monkey wrenches (see Figure A8" in Illustrations), though not generally called adjustable wrenches, are also adjustable. A8.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: ajustable (D), cangreja (D), cangrejo (D), cresen (F), llave ajustable (F), llave alemana (F), llave cresen (F), llave de ajuste (F), llave de expansin (F), llave francesa (F), llave inglesa (A), llave perica (F), llave pico cotorra (F), perica (D), perico (D). DRAE definitions: llave, 2. Instrumento que sirve para apretar o aflojar tuercas; llave inglesa, Instrumento de hierro de forma de martillo, en cuyo mango hay un dispositivo que, al girar, abre o cierra ms o menos las dos partes que forman la cabeza, hasta que se aplican a la tuerca o tornillo que se quiere mover; picoloro, Cuba. llave inglesa (|| instrumento de hierro para mover tuercas o tornillos). Questions/Comments: The DRAE does not define most of the terms used in the sense of crescent wrench including such classics as llave ajustable, llave francesa, llave cresen, cangrejo/a and perico/a. Even its definition of llave inglesa, the term that appears to be used in Spain for both crescent wrench and monkey wrench, describes only the latter type. In addition, its definition of picoloro does not match up with the DECus definition of the same term (see Cuba in section A8.3 above). Quin tiene la razn aqu, y quin meti la pata? Quin la embarr?

A9 A9.1

WRENCH B - PIPE WRENCH Summary

Llave inglesa, llave estilson, llave de (or para) tubo(s), and/or llave de plomera (or de plomero) and variants of these are the most commonly used terms. Note: Terms other than llave inglesa, llave estilson, llave de tubo(s), llave para tubo(s), llave de plomera, and llave de plomero appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics.

39

A9.2
SPAIN

Terms by Country (c. 14 terms plus variants) llave (de) grifa (3/8), llave de tubo(s) (3/8), llave de fontanero (1/8), llave de plomera (1/8). (llave) estilson (19/21), llave de pipa (1/21), llave de plomero (1/21). (llave) estilson (9/12), llave de tubo (3/12). (llave) estilson (11/12), llave de caera (1/12). llave de tubo (6/11), (llave) estilson (3/11), llave inglesa (2/11), llave de agua (1/11). (llave) estilson (11/11), llave de tubo (1/11). llave (de) caera (10/16), llave inglesa (4/16), llave de tubera (3/16), llave de plomera (2/16), llave cabeza de mula (1/16), llave de agua (1/16). llave de tubo (6/8), llave de plomera (1/8), llave inglesa (1/8). (llave) pico (de) loro (5/14), (llave) estilson (4/14), llave inglesa (4/14), llave de tubo (2/14), llave de plomera (1/14), llave de tubera (1/14). (llave) estilson (12/14), llave inglesa (2/14). llave de perro (10/15), llave de perra (2/15), llave (de) plomero (2/15), llave inglesa (2/15), estilson (1/15). llave de tubo (6/13), llave inglesa (6/13), llave de plomera (1/13), llave para tubera (1/13). llave (de) tubo(s) (7/14), llave inglesa (3/14), llave para tubo(s) (2/14), (llave) pico de loro (2/14), llave de agua (1/14), llave de paso (1/14). llave (de) tubo (8/11), llave inglesa (3/11), llave de tubera (1/11), llave estilson (1/11), llave para tubo (1/11). (llave) estilson (10/14), llave inglesa (7/14). (llave) estilson (12/14), llave inglesa (1/14), llave para caeras (1/14). llave francesa (3/8), llave de plomero (2/8), llave para caeras (1/8), llave para tubos (1/8), llave tuberas de agua (1/8), llave tubo (1/8). llave inglesa (5/6), llave de cao (3/6). llave inglesa (5/14), llave para caos (3/14), llave de plomero (3/14), llave (de) cao (3/14), llave estilson (2/14), llave francesa (1/14). (llave) estilson (6/13), llave inglesa (6/13), llave francesa (3/13).

MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

A9.3

Details

Llave estilson: Llave estilson derives from the brand name Stillson and is often abbreviated to estilson. The term is feminine, una estilson, since the word llave is feminine. Other phonetic/spelling variants that were offered by a few respondents from a number of countries included llave estimson and estimson, llave tilson and tilson, and llave tirso and tirso. In addition to phonetic change/distortion, there is also a wide range of spellings that respondents offered including stilson, stillson, stylson, etc., and these forms spelled with initial uppercase s. As is the case with many words of foreign origin that are used more in speech than in writing, there is a fair amount of linguistic insecurity regarding the written form. 40

Spain: The use of llave grifa in the sense of pipe wrench is confirmed by the DRAE (see section A9.4 below). Cuba: In this study, picoloro, and its variants llave pico de loro, llave pico loro, and pico de loro, as well as llave estilson (and estilson) and llave inglesa were the terms offered by the majority of respondents. However, the DRAE and the DECu indicate that picoloro refers to other tools and their definitions contradict each other (see sections A8.3 and A8.4 above). Argentina: In this study, llave para caos, llave de plomero and/or llave inglesa were given by the majority of respondents in the sense of pipe wrench. The DEArg, however, defines llave prusiana as Herramienta de metal, que se emplea para enroscar y desenroscar caeras. Although not a particularly precise description, this sounds like a pipe wrench. Is it? If so, how common is the use of llave prusiana in this sense vis--vis llave para caos, llave de plomero and llave inglesa? A9.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: estilson (F), llave de caera (F), llave de cao (F), llave de fontanero (F), llave de perro (F), llave de plomera (F), llave de plomero (F), llave de tubo (F), llave estilson (F), llave francesa (F), llave grifa (C), llave inglesa (D), llave para caos (F), llave pico (de) loro (F), pico (de) loro (D). DRAE definition: llave grifa, llave semejante a la inglesa, usada en fontanera. Comments: The DRAE should provide a full description of llave grifa that is independent of the term llave inglesa for several reasons. First, llave inglesa means different things to different people, and even if we limit ourselves to Peninsular Spanish usage, the term llave inglesa is often used in Spain to refer to a crescent wrench, which is dissimilar to a pipe wrench in that the shapes are different and the crescent wrench does not have teeth while the pipe wrench does. Also, as a general principle, if you can tell dictionary users exactly what a thing is, you should tell them what it is and not what it is like. In other words, when dictionary users look up the word llave grifa, they should not be told it is like a llave inglesa, but should be told what a llave grifa is. Compare the AHDs definition of pipe wrench: A wrench with two serrated jaws, one adjustable, for gripping and turning pipe. Voil, simplicity itself.

A10

CROWBAR, WRECKING BAR, PRY BAR

A10.1 Summary Pata de cabra (and phonetic variants such as pata cabra, paticabra, etc.) and/or palanca are used in the majority of countries and can perhaps be considered General Spanish terms. More regional terms include barra, barreta, pata de chancho and ua. Mexico has a particularly impressive arsenal of regional terms and both Mexico and Chile have unique usages not found elsewhere.

41

Note: Terms other than pata de cabra and palanca appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. A10.2 Terms by Country (c. 15 terms plus variants)
SPAIN MEXICO

palanca (7/15), pata (de) cabra (6/15), palanqueta (3/15). barra (10/26), chiva (9/26), barreta (7/26), pata (de) cabra (6/26), pata de chiva (3/26), barra de chiva (3/26), ua (3/26), chiva de barra (2/26), barra de
ua (1/26), barreta de ua (1/26), grifa (1/26), palanqueta (1/26), pata de chivo (1/26), pie de chivo (1/26), sacaclavos (1/26), ua de cabra (1/26). ua (15/18), barreta (2/18), palanca (1/18). barra de ua (13/17), pata (de) cabra (3/17), ua (2/17), llave de ua (1/17), ua de gato (1/17). barra de ua (6/14), pata (de) cabra (5/14), barra (2/14), sacaclavos (2/14), palanca (1/14), sacauas (1/14).

GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

pata de chancho (13/13). pata de chancho (14/14). pata (de) cabra (9/14), palanca (4/14), barra (2/14), barra pata de cabra (2/14). pata (de) cabra (18/19), palanca (1/19). pata (de) cabra (16/18), pie de cabra (1/18), pies cabra (1/18). pata (de) cabra (11/17), barra (de carpintero) (3/17), cua (3/17), ua (2/17), palanca (1/17). pata (de) cabra (15/15). pata (de) cabra (15/24), palanca (8/24), barra (4/24), palanca pata de cabra (2/24), barreta (1/24), ua (1/24). pata (de) cabra (15/19), barretilla (3/19), barreta (2/19), llave de ua (1/19), palanca (1/19), tumbapuertas (1/19), ua de cabra (1/19). pata (de) cabra (12/20), palanca (5/20), barreta (2/20), barretilla (1/20), pata de gallo (1/20), sacaclavos (1/20). pata (de) cabra (10/17), barreta (7/17), barreta pata de cabra (1/17), diablo (1/17), palanca (1/17). pata (de) cabra (6/9), palanca (4/9), barreta (1/9), barra (1/9), pie de cabra (1/9). ua (6/9), barra (1/9), barreta (1/9), palanca (1/9), pata de cabra (1/9), ua de gato (1/9). barreta (15/22), barra (2/22), palanca (2/22), pata de cabra (2/22), sacaclavos (2/22). diablo (12/16), diablito (3/16), pata de cabra (3/16), barreta (1/16).

A10.3 Details General: The term pata de cabra is often pronounced and written in variant forms such as patecabra, paticabra, patecabra, etc. These phonetic/spelling variants are not indicated in section A10.2 above and are represented there by the one umbrella term pata de cabra. Similar variants may also occur with pata de chancho and pata de chivo, though in this study no modified spellings were offered. Respondents from several countries indicated 42

that a ganza is a type of small bar that can be used by thieves to break locks and open doors (perhaps equivalent to what in the United States is called a jimmy), but it is not clear how universal the use of ganza is in this sense. The DRAE defines palanqueta in a way that suggests it may also be a synonym of ganza (see section A10.4 below). Although the term barra was offered by a number of respondents from diverse regions in the sense of crowbar, many others stated that a barra is not a crowbar but refers to other types of bars that do not have a claw for removing nails. Spain: What, if any, are the differences in meaning between and regional distributions of palanca, palanqueta and pata de cabra? Is palanqueta used in the sense of jimmy, as its name (a diminutive of palanca) implies? Five of the six Spaniards who gave pata de cabra were from Galicia, but one was from Valencia. Those who gave palanca did not hail from any single region, which suggests it may constitute General Peninsular Spanish usage. Mexico: Barra, and its variants, and chiva, and its variants, are the most commonly used terms, and barra de chiva and chiva de barra can be considered variants of both barra and chiva. One respondent from Puebla indicated that a chiva is smaller than a barra. The DEUMex defines barra as a different tool that does not have a claw for removing nails and does not define barreta, chiva, pata de cabra or pata de chiva in the sense of crowbar. What are the regional preferences within Mexico among the different terms for this item? Honduras: Many respondents indicated that a barra de ua and a pata de cabra are synonymous, but one said that a barra de ua is a smaller crowbar than a pata de cabra, and one indicated that a barra de ua was a flat bar (see bars in Appendix). Costa Rica: The use of pata de chancho is confirmed by the NDCR (Quesada Pacheco), which defines it as [Carp.] Utensilio de trabajo que es de hierro y tiene en un extremo una ua larga, el cual se utiliza para sacar clavos o desarmar construcciones hechas con tablas. Cuba: The DECu confirms the use of pata de cabra, defining it as Barra corta de acero con un extremo plano y el otro curvo, con una ua en forma de V, que se utiliza generalmente para hacer palanca, p. ej. para abrir una puerta but does not indicate a Peninsular Spanish equivalent. One respondent indicated that an esparraguillo is a small pata de cabra. Dominican Republic: Pata de cabra was offered by the vast majority of respondents. The two that offered pie de cabra or pies cabra (piescabra) were from el Cibao, but several other Cibaeos gave pata de cabra. Venezuela: The DHAV confirms the use of pata de cabra, defining it as Herramienta que consiste en una barra de metal con uno de los extremos terminado en una punta ungulada que se utiliza principalmente en labores de demolicin. Colombia: Pata (de) cabra and palanca are the two most commonly used terms, and palanca pata de cabra can be considered a variant of both. Chile: The DECH confirms the use of both diablo and diablito in the sense of crowbar. It lists diablo as a synonym of diablito, which it defines as Barreta de fierro provista de un mango largo con un extremo curvado y partido en forma de V, que se emplea como palanca para separar elementos firmemente unidos... Confes haber asesinado a su cnyuge con un diablito de fierro... Var [variante]: diablo. It appears that for some 43

Chileans diablo is the unspecified term and diablito a diminutive, whereas for others diablito is the base term__it is a diminutive that has been lexicalized__and diablitito would be the first-order diminutive form. More research needs to be done on this point and on the relative frequencies of the two competing unmarked forms. Related terms: For information on flat bars and nail pullers (cats paws), see bars in Appendix. A10.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: barra (D), barra de chiva (F), barra de ua (F), barreta (D), cua (D), chiva (D), diablo (D), diablito (D), palanca (D), palanqueta (C?), pata de cabra (B), pata de chancho (F), sacaclavos (D), ua (D), ua de cabra (F). DRAE definitions: palanca, (Del lat. palanga, y este del gr... garrote). Barra inflexible, recta, angular o curva, que se apoya y puede girar sobre un punto, y sirve para transmitir una fuerza; barreta1, Barra o palanca pequea de hierro que usan los mineros, los albailes, etc.; palanqueta, (Del dim. de palanca). Barreta de hierro que sirve para forzar las puertas o las cerraduras; pata de cabra, 3. Per. Herramienta de hierro usada en albailera, con dos uas, que sirve para sacar clavos y palanquear; pie de cabra, Palanqueta hendida por uno de sus extremos en forma de dos uas u orejas; sacaclavos, herramienta para sacar clavos; serrucha, jerg. Hond. ganza (|| garfio para abrir cerraduras). Comments: Asserting that pata de cabra with the meaning of crowbar is a regionalism of Peru alone is nothing short of absurd, and what is noteworthy is that the DRAE does not provide the reader with a Peninsular Spanish or a Castilian equivalent of pata de cabra. This combined with the fact that the definition of pata de cabra states this tool is used in masonry but not other fields (such as carpentry, especially demolition) leads one to believe that the DRAE editors/lexicographers who wrote this definition were virtually clueless about what a crowbar is and what the geographic distributions of the terms used for it are. Compare the DHAVs definition of pata de cabra in Venezuela above, which aptly states that the tool is used in demolition. The DRAE should probably acknowledge pata de cabra as the General Spanish term as it is used in practically all twenty Spanish-speaking countries, including Spain (though perhaps not common in Castilla), and should cross-reference all other terms to pata de cabra, with appropriate regional specifications. The other option would be to define palanca as the base term and cross-reference all other terms to it. CLAMP (such as a C-clamp, pipe clamp or bar clamp)

A11

A11.1 Summary Prensa__with modifiers such as manual or de mano, etc. added for clarification__is the most commonly used term. Terms other than prensa and its variants appear in italics, and Cubas sargento in boldface and italics. 44

A11.2 Terms by Country (c. 12 terms plus variants)

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

gato (5/11), prensa (de tornillo) (2/11), torniqueta (2/11), torniquete (1/11), torno porttil (1/11). prensa (de mano/manual) (13/14), abrazadera (1/14), gendarme (1/14), prensadora (1/14), sargento (1/14). prensa (de mano/manual) (8/11), prensadora (1/11), sargento (1/11), torno (1/11). prensa (de mano/manual) (8/12), sargento (3/12), abrazadora (1/12), ajustador (1/12), prensa de tornillo (1/12). prensa (de mano/manual) (7/7). prensa (de mano/manual) (6/8), prensa porttil (1/8), sargento (1/8). prensa (de mano/manual) (5/11), sargento (5/11), prensa de carpintero (1/11). prensa (de mano/manual) (7/8), abrazadera (1/8). sargento (6/9), presilla (2/9), abrazadera (1/9), torniquete (1/9). prensa (de mano/manual) (7/11), sargento (6/11). prensa (de mano/manual) (7/11), sargento (3/11), prensa de sargento (1/11). prensa (de mano/manual) (6/10), sargento (2/10), pinza ajustable (1/10), torniquete (1/10). prensa (de mano/manual) (10/11), prensa de carpintera (1/11). prensa (de mano/manual) (9/10), prensadora (1/10). prensa (de mano/manual) (7/10), prensadora (2/10), tornillo de presin (1/10). prensa (de mano/manual) (10/10). prensa (de mano/manual) (2/7), torniquete (2/7), prensador (1/7), prensa porttil (1/7), sargento (1/7). prensa (de mano/manual) (5/7), morsa (chica) (3/7). prensa (de mano/manual) (9/12), morsa (de mano) (2/12), prensa de mordaza (1/12), sargento (1/12). prensa (de mano/manual) (9/10), abrazadera (1/10).

A11.3 Details General: The item tested on respondents was a C-clamp (see Figure A11 in Illustrations). Prensa: The modifiers de mano, manual, porttil and others can be added to prensa to distinguish clamps from vises (which are often called prensas de banco or prensas de mesa), and from other meanings of the word prensa. Vises (see section A12 below) are similar to clamps but are attached to a work bench or other structure and generally have a larger gripping surface. Morsa: The DEArg (Argentina) defines morsa as Especie de prensa pequea que emplean, entre otros, los carpinteros y los mecnicos, para mantener sujetas las piezas sobre las cuales trabajan and the NDU (Uruguay) defines morsa almost identically. In this study, however, most Argentines and Uruguayans queried indicated that a morsa generally refers to a vise rather than a clamp. Whether the word generally refers to a clamp, a vise, or either one, River Plate Spanish morsa most likely derives from Italian, a language 45

in which mrsa means clamp or vise: The Vocabolario della Lingua Italiana (Zingarelli) indicates that Italian mrsa derives from morso from the verb mordere, to bite, and defines mrsa as a vise as follows: [f. sost. di morso (2); 1582] 1 Attrezzo fissato al tavalo da lavoro, costituito da una ganascia fissa e una ganascia mobile, le quali blocano, mediante un dispositivo a vite, il pezzo da lavorare: m. parallela; m. a coda; m. a piede. The Dizionario della Lingua Italiana (Istituto Geografico de Agostini) defines mrsa as 1. strumento di ferro o di legno, formato da due ganasce, una fissa e laltra mobile, con il quale si tiene fermo il pezzo da lavorare, which suggests that mrsa can refer to either a clamp or a vise. The massive Italian immigration to the Buenos Aires-Montevideo region at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century also lends credence to the notion that River Plate Spanish morsa derives from Italian mrsa. Nevertheless, questions remain such as how, and to what extent, morsa was able to displace words of traditional Spanish stock such as prensa and torn(ill)o, and how the different terms compete in the interior of Argentina and Uruguay, regions that have less Italian influence. See Argentina and Uruguay in section A14.3 below for a similar case, fratacho/fretacho. Sargento: The DECu (Cuba) defines sargento as Prensa manual que se usa en carpintera para mantener fija una pieza, p. ej. despus de que ha sido encolada. In this study, Cuba was the only country from which a majority of respondents, when shown a picture of a Cclamp, indicated it was called a sargento. One Cuban, however, indicated that a presilla C is a C-clamp and a sargento is a pipe clamp. And both an Argentine respondent and a Costa Rican respondent indicated that a sargento refers specifically to a pipe clamp but not to a C-clamp (or any other type of clamp). Two Salvadorans, however, stated they call a C-clamp a sargento, and a third Salvadoran said a sargento is a type of C-shaped spring clamp used by masons for holding forms together (a clamp that works by spring action, not with a screw). C-clamps: Many respondents indicated that prensa C is used for a C-clamp, and a few indicated other base terms followed by C, but some indicated prensa G. While it is not particularly fruitful to argue over whether a C-clamp is shaped more like a C or more like a G, it would be interesting to find out where the modifier C is more common, where G is more common, and where a separate term (such as sargento) is more common. A11.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: gato (C), morsa (B), prensa (A?), sargento (D). DRAE definitions: gato, 4. Instrumento de hierro que sirve para agarrar fuertemente la madera y traerla a donde se pretende. Se usa para echar aros a las cubas, y en el oficio de portaventanero. || 11. Carp. Instrumento de hierro o de madera compuesto de dos planchas con un tornillo que permite aproximarlas de modo que quede fuertemente sujeta la pieza que se coge entre ambas; morsa2, Arg. Instrumento que sirve para sujetar piezas que se trabajan en carpintera, herrera, etc., compuesto de dos brazos paralelos unidos por un tornillo sin fin que, al girar, las acerca; prensa, Mquina que sirve para comprimir, cuya forma vara segn los usos a que se aplica; tornillo, 2. Instrumento con que se mantienen sujetas las piezas que se estn trabajando, por medio de dos topes, uno fijo y otro mvil.

46

Questions/Comments: Should gato, morsa, prensa and/or sargento be cross-referenced to each other? The evidence suggests that at least some of these can refer to the same thing, but you wouldnt know that from reading the DRAEs definitions of these terms. The DRAE indicates that the origin of General Spanish morsa1 (the walrus) is Finish or Lap by way of French (Del fr. morse, y este del fins mursu o del lapn morssa), but no etymology is provided for River Plate Spanish morsa2 (the tool), which appears to derive from Italian (see Morsa in section A11.3 above).

A12

VISE

A12.1 Summary Prensaoften with the modifiers de banco or de mesa added for clarificationis the most commonly used term. Tornillo de banco is also common in a number of countries, and Argentina and Uruguay have a usage not found elsewhere. Note: Terms other than prensa, prensa de banco, prensa de mesa or prensa with other modifiers appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. A12.2 Terms by Country (c. 6 terms plus variants)
SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU

torno (3/7), prensa (de banco/de mesa) (2/7), tornillo (de banco) (2/7), prensa de sujecin (1/7). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (10/13), prensa de tornillo (2/13), tornillo (de presin) (2/13). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (9/11), prensador (1/11), prensadora (1/11). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (10/10). prensa fija (4/7), prensa (de banco/de mesa) (2/7), prensa de presin (1/7), prensa estable (1/7). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (6/7), prensa de yunque (1/7). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (7/10), prensa de presin (1/10), prensa mecnica (1/10), tornillo de banco (1/10). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (7/7), tornillo de banco (1/7). tornillo de banco (11/13), prensa (2/13). prensa (de banco) (5/8), prensa fija (3/8). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (11/11). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (10/12), prensa de presin (1/12), torniquete (1/12), torno (1/12). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (9/12), prensa de mordaza (1/12), prensa fija (1/12), prensa industrial (1/12), prensa para banco (1/12). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (5/9), tornillo de banco (4/9). tornillo de banco (6/10), prensa (de banco/de mesa) (4/10), prensa de tornillo (1/10), prensadora de banco (1/10). 47

BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

prensa (de banco/de mesa) (9/10), prensadora (1/10). prensa (de banco/de mesa) (7/7), tornillo de banco (1/7). morsa (5/8), prensa (4/8), morsa grande (1/8). morsa (14/15), morsa de mesa (1/15). tornillo (de banco/de mesa) (6/10), prensa (de banco/de mesa) (3/10), prensa de tornillo (1/10), tornillo mecnico de banco (1/10).

A12.3 Details General: In most Spanish-speaking countries, prensa de banco and prensa de mesa are the most commonly used terms in general language. To what extent are tornillo de banco or torno more common than prensa in technical language? Bolivia: The Lxico del habla culta de La Paz (Mendoza: 499 and 809) suggests that tornillo (given by seven our of twelve respondents) and prensa (offered by five) are synonyms, but it is not clear from the description respondents were given in that study whether the tool being discussed was a clamp or a vise. In this study, none of the ten respondents gave tornillo. A12.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: morsa (B or D?), prensa (A or D?), prensa de banco (F), prensa de mesa (F), tornillo (D), tornillo de banco (A or C?), torno (D). DRAE definitions: tornillo de banco, Utensilio usado en carpintera, cerrajera, etc., que se compone de una parte fijada en el banco y otra que se mueve mediante un tornillo, entre las que sujeta, apretndola, la pieza que se trabaja; prensa, Mquina que sirve para comprimir, cuya forma vara segn los usos a que se aplica. Questions/Comments: The DRAE provides a very precise definition corresponding to vise of the term tornillo de banco, but does not list the more widely used terms prensa de banco and prensa de mesa, and its definition of prensa is too general to be of assistance to a dictionary user who did not already know what a prensa de banco or a prensa de mesa is. However, one can argue that dictionary users who understand the very general definition provided for prensa can figure out that a prensa de banco refers to a vise. How true is this in practice, and how much figuring out should a dictionary user be expected to do? TROWEL A - POINTING TROWEL, BRICK TROWEL or MASONS TROWEL

A13

A13.1 Summary Cuchara__with the modifiers de albail or de albailera added for clarification if necessary__is the most commonly used term in about half the Spanish-speaking world, but in the other half more regional terms are used.

48

Note: Terms other than cuchara (de albail/de albailera) appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. A13.2 Terms by Country (c. 6 terms plus variants)
SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

paleta (de albail/de albailera) (16/16). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (20/20). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (15/15). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (17/17). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (10/10). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (13/15), palastre (1/15), paleta (1/15). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (11/11). palastre (4/10), palustre (3/10), palajustre (2/10), balastre (1/10). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (15/15). plana (17/17). palastre (8/13), paleta (3/13), balastre (2/13). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (14/14). palustre (19/20), palaustre (1/20). bailejo (17/18), balaustre (1/18). badilejo (14/14). badilejo (11/14), pato (2/14), paleta (1/14). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (8/8). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (10/10). cuchara (de albail/de albailera) (20/20). plana (9/10), cuchara (1/10), paleta (1/10).

A13.3 Details General: The modifiers de albail and/or de albailera are added to cuchara and paleta whenever the speaker feels specification is necessary (since cuchara and paleta are commonly used with other meanings), whereas the other terms presented in section A13.2 above, such as palastre and badilejo, are specific terms that already refer to pointing trowels without the need for a modifier. Spain: the DRAE defines paleta and palustre with no regional specification in the sense of pointing trowel (see section A13.4 below), but in this study all respondents offered only the former term, as well as the variants paleta de albail and paleta de albailera. The Encuestas lxicas del habla culta de Madrid (Torres Martnez: 173) and the Lxico del habla culta de Granada (Salvador: 236) both confirm the preference for the term paleta by educated Madrileos and Granadinos. In the former, eleven Madrileos indicated paleta and four palustre, and in the latter, nineteen Granadinos indicated paleta, two palustra, two palustre and one repellador. In the Lxico del habla culta de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Samper Padilla: 141), in contrast, pala or pala pequea was given by seven educated Grancanarios, paleta de albail or paleta pequea by three, palilla by one

49

and cuchara pequea by one. How common is the use of pala, palustre and palustra in the sense of pointing trowel in the different regions of Spain? Mexico: The use of cuchara is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as 2 Instrumento de albailera consistente en una pieza plana y puntiaguda de metal y un mango, que sirve para poner mezcla y aplanarla. In this study, cuchara (de albail/de albailera) was the only term offered by all twenty respondents, but in the Lxico del habla culta de Mxico (Lope Blanch: 155), ten educated Mexico City respondents indicated cuchara, and ten paleta, in addition to other minority responses. How common is the use of paleta in the sense of pointing trowel in Mexico? Costa Rica: The NDCR defines cuchara as [Alb.] Llana del albail. However, all respondents in this study indicated that a cuchara (de albail/de albailera) is a pointing trowel, not a finishing trowel, as the NDCR claims. The NDCR and the DRAE both seem to make the same mistake (see sections A13.4 and A14 below). Cuba: The DECu correctly defines cuchara as Plancha metlica triangular, con mango de madera, que usan los albailes para remover y aplicar la mezcla but mistakenly indicates that llana is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. Compare the DEArgs definition of cuchara under Argentina below, which correctly indicates that paleta is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent, and the discussion of this issue in section A13.4 below. Venezuela: The DHAV confirms the use of cuchara, defining it as Instrumento de albailera que consiste en una plancha de hierro, generalmente de forma triangular, provista de un mango o asa que se utiliza para colocar y alisar el yeso o la mezcla sobre ladrillos o paredes. However, the DV (Tejera) defines cuchara as Llana o trulla que usan los albailes para tender el yeso o mezcla de cal o cemento en las obras, and it is possible this source may have copied this incorrect information from the DRAE (see section A13.4 below and Costa Rica above). Colombia: The NDCol (Haensch and Werner 1993a) confirms that palustre is the General Colombian Spanish term, which it does not define since it indicates that palustre is also used in Spain (remember that the NDCol is a contrastive dictionary). This source, however, does define babilejo, palastre, palaustre, balaustre, balastre and balustre as Herramienta de albail usada para extender la mezcla, consistente en una pala triangular con un mango perpendicular en la insercin y doblado luego. The NDCol indicates that palaustre, palastre, balaustre and balastre are used in the Atlantic Coast region and in the department of Norte de Santander, that babilejo is used in the departments of Caquet, Cauca, el Huila, Nario and el Valle, and that balustre is used in Boyac, Cauca, Cundinamarca, el Huila, Norte de Santander and el Valle. In this study, all Colombian respondents gave palustre except for one from the Atlantic Coast who gave palaustre. One respondent from Cundinamarca indicated that balaustre refers to mezcla (mortar). The Lxico del habla culta de Santaf de Bogot (Otlora de Fernndez: 279) confirms the preference of palustre among educated Bogotanos. In that study, ten respondents indicated palustre, two esptula, two paleta, one pala de albail and one balustre, among other minority responses. Ecuador: The HEDE5 defines bailejo as Norte. Plana, llana, herramienta de los albailes. In this study, however, respondents from different regions of the country__not only from northern Ecuador__indicated that bailejo is used in the sense of a pointing trowel, not a 50

finishing trowel (see section A14 below), except for one from el Carchi (which is in the Sierra Norte bordering Colombia), who indicated that balaustre refers to the pointing trowel. Peru: The DP (Arona) defines badilejo as Instrumento primordial del albail; la llana: he aqu su verdadero nombre. Nuestro provincialismo ha sido derivado, sin duda, de la palabra espaola badil, que es una cuchara o pala de hierro para remover la lumbre en la chimenea. In this study, however, no respondent indicated that badilejo refers to the finishing trowel (la llana, see section A14 below); all said it is a pointing trowel. Bolivia: The Lxico del habla culta de La Paz (Mendoza: 163) confirms the use of both badilejo and pato. Of the nine educated Paceos in that study who answered the question, badilejo and its diminutive form (badilejito) were offered by five and pato or patito by four, among other minority responses. Argentina & Uruguay: The DEArg (Argentina) defines cuchara (de albail) and badalejo as Herramienta de albailera, empleada para remover y aplicar la mezcla, formada por una plancha triangular y un mango de madera. The definitions indicate that cuchara (de albail) is the General Argentine Spanish term, that badalejo is used in the Northwest of Argentina, and that paleta is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. The definition of cuchara (de albail) in the NDU (Uruguay) is almost identical to the DEArgs definition of this term. The Lxico del habla culta de Buenos Aires (Academia Argentina de Letras: 112) and the Lxico del habla culta de Crdoba, Argentina (Toniolo: 165-166) both confirm the use of cuchara (de albail), which was offered by seven out of ten educated Porteos in the former study and by five out of ten educated Cordobeses in the latter; three Porteos, however, offered paleta, and three Cordobeses gave pala (de albail), in addition to other minority responses. A13.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: badilejo (D), bailejo (D), balaustre (D), balastre (D), cuchara (D), palaustre (F), paleta (C), palustre (C), plana (D). DRAE definitions: paleta, 5. Utensilio de palastro, de forma triangular y mango de madera, que usan los albailes para manejar la mezcla o mortero; palustre1, (De pala). Paleta de albail; llana, 13. Herramienta compuesta de una plancha de hierro o acero y una manija o un asa, que usan los albailes para extender y allanar el yeso o la argamasa; badilejo, (Del dim. de badil). llana (|| herramienta que usan los albailes); bailejo, Ecuad. llana (|| herramienta que usan los albailes); cuchara, 7. Can. y Am. [Canarias y Amrica] llana (|| herramienta que usan los albailes); plana1, (Del lat. plana). llana (|| herramienta que usan los albailes). Questions/Comments: The DRAEs definition of paleta is too restrictive in saying ... y mango de madera... since not all pointing trowels have handles made of wood. More importantly, the Real Academia is under the mistaken impression that cuchara and bailejo are used in some regions of Spanish America in the sense of finishing trowel (llana) when, in fact, they refer to the pointing trowel. The DRAE also defines badilejo with no regional specification in the sense of finishing trowel (llana). Where, if anywhere, is this the case? All evidence in this study indicates that badilejo is used in the sense of pointing trowel in Peru and Bolivia only, and

51

nowhere in the sense of finishing trowel. They really dropped the ball and missed the boat on this one. TROWEL B - FINISHING TROWEL, FLAT TROWEL, PLASTERERS TROWEL or SMOOTHING TROWEL (trowels with the handle on the top-center of the blade)

A14

A14.1 Summary Llana can be considered the General Spanish term, but other words such as plancha, plana and/or flota are more common in many countries. Note: Terms other than llana appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. Some terms presented in section A14.2 refer to metal trowels and some to wooden ones (see section A14.3 below). A14.2 Terms by Country (c. 18 terms plus variants)
SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

llana (10/13), plancha (2/13), alisador (1/13). llana (16/24), plana (8/24), flota (5/24), paleta (2/24), trola (2/24), diana (1/24), plancha (1/24), planador (1/24). plancha (10/12), alisador (1/12), aplanador (1/12), repelladora (1/12). plancha (11/13), afinador (2/13), plana (2/13), afinadora (1/13), llana (1/13). codal (6/12), plana (6/12), plancha (5/12), planchuela (3/12), alisadora
(1/12).

plana (4/10),
repellador (1/10).

llana (2/10), paleta (2/10), afinador (1/10), diana (1/10), plancha (1/10),

llaneta (8/13), plancha (7/13), paleta (2/13). llana (8/10), flota (2/10), plana (2/10), paleta (1/10). flota (8/18), plana (7/18), llana (5/18), frota (2/18), paleta (1/18). flota (15/17), llana (2/17), diana (1/17). llana (7/13), flota (3/13), resanadora (2/13), paleta (1/13). llana (3/9), paleta (3/9), alisador (1/9), frisador (1/9), plancha (1/9). llana (15/16), paleta (1/16). llana (10/18), paleta (9/18), diana (1/18), plana (1/18), plancha (1/18). plancha (11/16), paleta (5/16), plana (1/16). plancha (13/16), frotacho (5/16), paleta (2/16), frotador (1/16). fratacho (2/10), latacho (2/10), llana (2/10), paleta (2/10), plancha (2/10), alisador (1/10). llana (4/9), fretacho (3/9), fletacho (2/9), fratacho (1/9), frotacho (1/9). fratacho (10/20), llana (8/20), alisadora (1/20), fletacho (1/20), fretacho (1/20). llana (9/9), platacho (2/9), patacho (1/9).

52

A14.3 Details General: Here we are combining, if not apples and oranges, at least apples and pears (actually different varieties of apples and pears), because in many Spanish-speaking countries__perhaps in all__one term is used to refer to finishing or flat trowels made of metal, and another for ones made of wood. The distinction is significant in that the two tools are used to flatten and smooth out different materials and create different effects. Some masons use wooden flat trowels for coarse smoothing out of concrete on floors or other surfaces, and the metal ones for finer finishes. There are also rubber floats used for smoothing out the surface of plaster, cement, stucco, grout, etc. The Spanish terms flota and frota (when used in the sense of flat trowel or float) derive from English float. Spain: The DRAE defines llana, plana and trulla in the sense of a metal flat trowel, and frats in the sense of a wooden one (see section A14.4 below). Are plana and trulla regionally marked within Spain? There is evidence that plana may be more common in southern Spain since in the Encuestas lxicas del habla culta de Madrid (Torres Martnez: 173), fourteen educated Madrileos indicated llana, one pala, and one plana, whereas in the Lxico del habla culta de Granada (Salvador: 236), thirteen respondents indicated plana, eight llana, and one aplanador, among other minority responses; in the Lxico del habla culta de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Samper Padilla: 141), most respondents were unable to answer the question, but three educated Grancanarios gave llana, one gave flota as a second choice (his first choice was llana), and one gave alisadora, among other minority responses. Mexico: In this study, many respondents indicated that a plana refers to a wooden flat trowel and a llana to a metal one, whereas others said that a flota refers to a wooden flat trowel and a llana or a trola to a metal one (trola appears to derive from English trowel). Still others said a flota refers to a float (see General above). In the Lxico del habla culta de Mxico (Lope Blanch: 154), seven educated Mexico City respondents indicated llana, two pala, one plana and one aplanador, in addition to other minority responses. El Salvador: Most respondents indicated plancha as the generic term for flat trowels, but one said that a llana is a metal one and a plancha a wooden one. Another said a plancha can be made of either metal or wood and that an afinadora is made of metal. Honduras: Plana, plancha or planchuela refer to a metal flat trowel and codal to a wooden one according to several respondents. Costa Rica: Llaneta refers to a metal one and plancha to a wooden one according to several respondents. Panama: Most respondents gave only llana, but one indicated that plana refers to a metal one, and llana and flota to a wooden one. Cuba: The DECu defines flota as Herramienta de albail que consta de una plancha con un mango, y que sirve para extender y alisar algunos materiales, especialmente cemento y yeso. In this study, many respondents confirmed this stating that a flota can refer to any flat trowel. However, some stated that a flota or frota refers to a wooden one, whereas a plana is a metal one, and one said that a flota is specifically a float (see General above). The DECu also defines flotear as Extender o alisar con la flota un material,

53

especialmente cemento o yeso: una persona flotea un material. See cement/plaster (verbs) in Appendix. Dominican Republic: The vast majority of respondents in this study indicated that flota can refer to either a metal or a wooden flat trowel. However, a few said a flota was a wooden one and a llana or a diana a metal one. Colombia: The Lxico del habla culta de Santaf de Bogot (Otlora de Fernndez: 278) confirms the use of llana in the sense of (some kind of) flat trowel among educated Bogotanos. In that study, twelve indicated llana, three mistakenly gave palustre (some of whom also indicated palustre for the pointing trowel), and one said aplanador, among other minority responses. Ecuador: Llana refers to a metal flat trowel and paleta to a wooden one according to many respondents. Peru: Plancha refers to a metal one and paleta to a wooden one according to a few respondents. Bolivia: Plancha refers to a metal flat trowel and frotacho or frotador to a wooden one according to several respondents. The Lxico del habla culta de La Paz (Mendoza: 163) seems to confirm the use of plancha for the metal flat trowel, which was given by four respondents; llana was also given by two. Paraguay: Llana refers to a metal one and fratacho or latacho to a wooden one according to a few respondents. One Paraguayan said he believed latacho to be a deformation of fratacho and that the latter was the correct term. What is the origin of latacho? Uruguay: The NDU defines fretacho as var fletacho Pequea tabla de madera pulida, de forma rectangular y con un asa en una de sus caras, que se emplea en albailera para extender y alisar el revoque and indicates that frats is used in both Spain and Uruguay in this sense. In this study, respondents indicated that llana refers to a metal finishing trowel and fretacho or (less often) fratacho to a wooden one. No Uruguayan in this study offered or confirmed the use of frats, and we note that in the DEArg the same authors of the NDU make no mention of frats being used in Argentina (see Argentina below), which suggests that one would probably be hard pressed to find a Uruguayan who used this term. Argentina: The DEArg defines fratacho, with the regional specifications of Argentina Rioplatense, Cuyo and Nordeste de Argentina, and fletacho, with the regional specifications of Argentina Central and Noroeste de Argentina as Pequea tabla de madera pulida, de forma rectangular y con un asa en una de sus caras, que se emplea en albailera para extender y alisar el revoque. The DEArg also indicates that frats is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent of Argentine fratacho/fletacho and defines fletachar and fratachar (with the same regional specifications corresponding to fletacho and fratacho) as Extender y alisar yeso, argamasa o cualquier mezcla sobre una pared con un fletacho/fratacho: alguien fletacha/fratacha una pared; enrasar is given as the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. Most respondents in this study indicated that llana refers to a metal flat trowel and fratacho, fretacho or fletacho to a wooden one. Of the respondents in the Lxico del habla culta de Buenos Aires (Academia Argentina de Letras: 112) who were able to answer the question, four offered llana and three fratacho, and in the Lxico del habla culta de Crdoba, Argentina (Toniolo: 165), six indicated fratacho, five llana, three fretacho and one fletacho. However, it appears that neither the 54

respondents in these two studies, nor the researchers conducting them, grasped the distinction between the metal flat trowel and the wooden one. With regard to the River Plate Spanish terms fratacho, fretacho and fletacho, there is evidence to suggest that these words derive from Italian. The Dizionario della Lingua Italiana (Istituto Geografico de Agostini) defines frattzzo and frettzzo as 2. tavoletta di legno, quadrata o rettangolare, che i muratori usano per spianare sulle pareti la calce fresca, impugnandola per il manico, and the Vocabolario della Lingua Italiana (Zingarelli) defines frattzzo and fratzzo as Tavoletta rettangolare di legno, con maniglia, usata dal muratore per spianare la malta con cui si intonaca un muro. SIN. spianatoio. For another example of a River Plate name for a tool that appears to derive from Italian, see Morsa in section A11.3 above. Chile: The DECH defines platacho as alb. Plana o llana rstica de madera: Los maestros slo necesitan de un platacho, herramienta similar a la que usan los estucadores, y una esptula... and defines platachar as Pasar el platacho para extender y allanar el yeso o la argamasa: falta platachar las murallas del patio... as well as platacheo and platachada as alb. Accin y efecto de platachar. In this study, two respondents also made this distinction between llana (metal finishing trowel) and platacho or patacho (wooden one), but none indicated that a platacho could refer to a plana (pointing trowel), as the DECHs definition of platacho suggests; see section A13.2, CHILE, above. In the Lxico del habla culta de Santiago de Chile (Rabanales: 158-159), six respondents indicated llana, three platacho, and five did not answer the question, but the distinction between llana and platacho (metal vs. wooden flat trowel) seems to have been lost on both the respondents and the researchers conducting the study. What is the origin of platacho? Diana vs. llana: A handful of this studys respondents offered a term for these items that, to my ear, sounded like diana (see MEXICO, NICARAGUA, DOMIN. REP. and ECUADOR in section A14.2 above). However, diana is not defined in the DRAE with any meaning related to those of llana, and what I perceived as a dental stop (phrase-initial /d/) may have actually been an affricate that is lighter than the consonantal sounds in English judge, which is a possible realization of phrase-initial /y/. If so, then what I transcribed as diana is really just a phonetic variant of llana. Research by phonologists needs to be done on this point. Origin of the use of plana in parts of Spanish America: Can the use of plana (= flat trowel) in Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Cuba__and perhaps elsewhere in Spanish America__be attributed to Andalusian influence? We note that plana, in the sense of flat trowel, appears to be more common in Granada than in Madrid (see Spain above). Andalucista theories of Latin American Spanish generally attempt to explain phonetic and phonological similarities between the speech of Andaluca and that of Spanish America such as: a) aspiration and deletion of word-final and syllable-final s in Andaluca and coastal Spanish America; b) neutralization of s and z into a single phoneme /s/ in Andaluca and all of Spanish America (historically these were four phonemes in the Castellano dialect that were reduced to two in northern and central Spain and became one in southern Spain); and c) the pronunciation of j and g (followed by e or i) as a simple aspiration in Andaluca and much of Spanish America. If Andalusian influence can account for some phonetic and phonological characteristics of Latin American Spanish, 55

perhaps it can also explain specific shared lexical and semantic features. For an analysis of the andalucista theories of Latin American Spanish, see chapter two of Latin American Spanish, The linguistic heritage of Spain (Lipski 1994: 34-62). A14.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: codal (D), diana (D), fletacho (F), flota (B), fratacho (B), fretacho (F), frotacho (F), latacho (F), llana (A), llaneta (F), paleta (D), plana (C), plancha (D), platacho (F). DRAE definitions: llana, 13. Herramienta compuesta de una plancha de hierro o acero y una manija o un asa, que usan los albailes para extender y allanar el yeso o la argamasa; flota, 8. Cuba. llana (|| herramienta que usan los albailes); plana1, (Del lat. plana). llana (|| herramienta que usan los albailes); trulla2, (Del lat. trulla). llana (|| herramienta que usan los albailes); frats, (De fratasar). Arq. Utensilio compuesto de una tabla pequea y lisa, cuadrada o redonda, con un tarugo en medio para agarrarla. Sirve para alisar una superficie enfoscada, humedecindola primero; fratacho, Ur. frats. Questions/Comments: The DRAE has properly defined flota, fratacho, plana and llana (albeit in some cases with improper regional specifications), but it has left many Spanish American usages uncovered with respect to these two items. Curiously enough, the DRAE does not list fletacho but does define fletachar as Ur. fratasar. These and other lacunae (see DRAE grades above) need to be filled. In terms of etymologies, the DRAE indicates that the origin of trulla is Latin trulla, but the AHD states that English trowel derives from Late Latin truella, the diminutive of Latin trua, ladle. Which etymology is more accurate, the DRAEs or the AHDs, or are they essentially equivalent? Also, unless the DRAEs etymologists have a better theory as to the origin of River Plate Spanish fratacho, fretacho, etc., the etymologies (Del it. frattzzo) or (Del it. frettzzo) should be included in the DRAEs definitions of these terms (see Argentina in section A14.3 above).

A15

PICK or PICKAX

A15.1 Summary Pico is the General Spanish term, but regional terms are common in Mexico, Central America, Puerto Rico, Colombia, Bolivia and Chile. Note: Terms other than pico appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. Some Spanish speakers use two different base terms for two different types of pickax (see section A15.3 below). A15.2 Terms by Country (c. 8 terms plus variants)
SPAIN MEXICO

pico (14/14). pico (18/21), talache (8/21), (1/21), zapapico (1/21). 56

talacho (2/21), picoleta (1/21), sacapico (1/21), talacha

GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

piocha (14/17), pico (5/17), coba (1/17), piocha de pico (1/17). piocha (18/18), pico (5/18). piocha (10/11), pico (3/11). piocha (8/12), pico (6/12), coba (1/12). pico (10/12), sacho (8/12). pico (8/10), piqueta (5/10), zapapico (1/10). pico (12/15), pico piocha (2/15), picachn (2/15). pico (14/14). pico (11/17), picota (7/17), piqueta (2/17), pica (1/17). pico (13/13). pica (11/17), pico (7/17), zapapico (2/17), zapapica (1/17). pico (9/11), zapapico (5/11), sacapico (1/11). pico (13/13). picota (15/17), pico (4/17). pico (8/8). pico (9/9). pico (15/15). picota (13/15), pico (4/15).

A15.3 Details General: Some Spanish speakers use two different base terms to distinguish between two different types of pickax. One term is used for a pickax that has a point on one end and a narrow blade on the other (often called a pick and used for digging in hard or rocky ground or for chipping stone), and another term for a type that has a point on one end and a wider blade on the other (also called a mattock and whose wide end is used for digging in compact soil). In the ensuing descriptions, we will refer to these two types of pickax as narrow-blade pickax and wide-blade pickax, respectively. The wide-blade pickaxes sometimes have a blade that is more curved than the narrow-blade ones. In this study, these two types of pickax were shown to respondents, but they were not specifically asked to differentiate between them and many did not. Other types of pickaxes were not targeted in the field work and research needs to be done to determine which Spanish speakers use different base terms for different types of pickax and what the distinctions are. The lxico del habla culta studies do not indicate what type of pickax respondents were shown. Spain: The Encuestas lxicas del habla culta de Madrid (Torres Martnez: 173), the Lxico del habla culta de Granada (Salvador: 235-236), and the Lxico del habla culta de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Samper Padilla: 141) all confirm the overwhelming preference for the term pico by educated Madrileos, Granadinos and Grancanarios. In the first study, fifteen Madrileos indicated pico and one piqueta; in the second, 22 Granadinos indicated pico, two espiocha, and one piquete; and in the third, nine Grancanarios indicated pico and one piqueta, among other minority responses. Mexico: In this study, pico was the only term given by about half the respondents, but many others indicated that a talache, talacho or talacha refer to a wide-blade pickax and a pico 57

to a narrow-blade pickax. In the Lxico del habla culta de Mxico (Lope Blanch: 154), sixteen educated Mexico City respondents indicated pico, eleven zapapico and one talacha. How common is zapapico in Mexico and, if it is common, to what type of pickax does it refer? Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras & Nicaragua: For El Salvador, the DS (Romero) defines piocha as Herramienta de albailera para picar la tierra. Se parece al pico pero se diferencia de l en que ste tiene los dos extremos puntiagudos y la piocha slo uno y el otro es como hachuela o azadn. And in this study, many Central American respondents from these four countries confirmed this distinction between piocha (wide-blade pickax) and pico (narrow-blade pickax), while others gave only piocha for both or indicated that the two terms are used interchangeably. Costa Rica: The NDCR defines sacho as [Agr.] Pico, instrumento de trabajo agrcola. In this study, a majority of respondents indicated that sacho and pico are synonyms, but some said a sacho is a wide-blade pickax and a pico a narrow-blade one. Panama: A couple of respondents indicated that a piqueta is a wide-blade pickax and a pico a narrow-blade one, but others said the two were synonyms. Puerto Rico: In this study, most respondents indicated pico or picota as a generic term, but a few said that a picota is a wide-blade pickax and a pico a narrow-blade one. In the Lxico del habla culta de San Juan de Puerto Rico (Lpez Morales: 66), only four respondents answered the question and all four gave pico. Is picota regionally marked within Puerto Rico? Venezuela: The Lxico del habla culta de Caracas (Sedano: 146) confirms the use of pico, the term given by all twelve respondents in that study. Colombia: A majority of respondents in this study gave only pica or pico, but one said that a pica refers to a wide-blade pickax whereas a pico or zapapico refer to a narrow-blade pickax. Is pica used more in some regions of Colombia and pico in others? In the Lxico del habla culta de Santaf de Bogot (Otlora de Fernndez: 278), sixteen respondents indicated pica, seven pico, and one zapapico, among other minority responses. Ecuador: A couple of respondents indicated that zapapico is a wide-blade pickax and pico a narrow-blade one. Peru: In the Lxico del habla culta de Lima (Caravedo: 183), ten educated Limeos indicated pico, and one zapapico. Bolivia: The Lxico del habla culta de La Paz (Mendoza: 162) confirms the use of picota, given by eleven out of twelve respondents, but pico was also quite well represented as it was offered by ten out of twelve respondents with many indicating both pico and picota. In this study, picota was the only term offered by the majority of respondents, with a handful indicating pico (see section A15.2 above), and the fact that many were not educated Bolivians might explain the lower representation of General Spanish pico vis-vis regionally marked picota. Argentina: The Lxico del habla culta de Buenos Aires (Academia Argentina de Letras: 112) and the Lxico del habla culta de Crdoba, Argentina (Toniolo: 165) both confirm the exclusive use of pico as it was the only term given by all dozen or so respondents from both cities.

58

Chile: The DECH confirms the use of picota in the sense of pickax, defining it as Herramienta que se usa para picar la tierra. Consta de un palo en el cual va encajada perpendicularmente una barra de hierro, algo curvada hacia adentro, que remata en puntas aguzadas en un extremo o en ambos... The Lxico del habla culta de Santiago de Chile (Rabanales: 158) also confirms the use of picota: Of the seven respondents in that study who were able to answer the question, all seven gave picota. Among this studys respondents, picota was also the overwhelming choice, and one indicated that pico could not and would not be used in Chile in this sense as this word is taboo. (The DRAE defines pico1 as 18. Chile y C. Rica. pene. Thus the jokes about how in Chile it is not advisable to use phrases such as llegaron a las cinco y pico.) A15.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: pica (D), pico (A or D?), picota (D), piocha (D?), piqueta (C), sacho (A), talache (F), zapapico (A or C?). DRAE definitions: pico, 3. Herramienta de cantero, con dos puntas opuestas aguzadas y enastada en un mango largo de madera, que sirve principalmente para desbastar la piedra. || 4. Instrumento formado por una barra de hierro o acero, de unos 60 cm de largo y 5 de grueso, algo encorvada, aguda por un extremo y con un ojo en el otro para enastarla en un mango de madera. Es muy usado para cavar en tierras duras, remover piedras, etc.; piocha2, (Del fr. pioche, de pic, pico). Constr. Herramienta con una boca cortante, que sirve para desprender los revoques de las paredes y para escafilar los ladrillos; sacho, 3. C. Rica. pico (|| herramienta de cantero); zapapico, (De zapa1, pala, y pico1). pico (|| herramienta de cantero). || 2. pico (|| instrumento para cavar); azadn de peto and azadn de pico, zapapico; piqueta, (Del dim. de pica1). zapapico. Comments: The DRAE defines pico as a stone-chipping tool used by quarry workers or stonemasons with sharp points on each end (sense three), and as a tool that has a blade on only one end (sense four). Senses three and four of pico are the only two that define tools, which means that the DRAEs definition of pico does not include a sense that corresponds to the wideblade pickax. In addition, its definition of piocha indicates that it is a different tool from a pico, one used to chip off mortar from walls and bricks. Perhaps in Spain a piocha is a tool used primarily in masonry, but in much of Central America it is generally a wide-blade pickax commonly used in agriculture. Also, the DRAEs definition of piqueta cross-references the reader to zapapico which, in turn, cross-references the reader to pico without specifying which of the two senses of pico (de cantero or para cavar) the cross-reference refers to, or whether it can refer to either. That is simply too much legwork for the dictionary user to go through who, after chasing down two cross-references, is still not exactly sure what a piqueta is. Lastly, it fails to tell the reader that pico, pica, picota, piocha and talache can be synonyms. The DRAE needs to do a fair amount of work on these trouble spots to fix them and get this job done right.

59

A16

HOE

A16.1 Summary Azadn is more common than azada in most of Spanish America with the exception of the River Plate region and the Antilles. Spain, Cuba, Venezuela, Colombia and possibly Ecuador, Peru and Argentina have more regional terms. Note: Terms other than azada and azadn appear in italics, and Cubas guataca in boldface and italics. Some Spanish speakers use two different base terms to refer to two different types of hoe (see section A16.3 below). A16.2 Terms by Country (c. 12 terms plus variants)
SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

azada (8/13), azadn (5/13), legn (1/13). azadn (16/16), talache (1/16). azadn (15/15). azadn (17/17). azadn (9/9). azadn (6/6). azadn (9/9). azadn (7/9), azada (1/9), coa (1/9). guataca (11/16), azadn (8/16), azada (2/16). azada (14/14), azadn (2/14), legona (1/14). azada (12/14), azadn (2/14). chcora (5/11), escardilla (5/11), azadn (4/11), azada (1/11). azadn (16/16), recatn (1/16), revolcn (1/16), zapn (1/16). azadn (9/10), lampa (1/10). azadn (5/7), azuela (1/7), lampa (1/7). azadn (11/12), azada (1/12), azadilla (1/12). azada (9/9). azada (8/8). azada (13/16), zapa (4/16), zapn (1/16). azadn (8/10), azada (2/10).

A16.3 Details General: To some extent we are mixing, if not apples and oranges here, at least oranges, tangerines and grapefruits, as the above terms can refer to different types of hoes. The two most common types, however, are a narrower-blade hoe used for digging in more compact ground, and a wider- and shorter-bladed one used for digging in softer soil. The blade of the narrow-blade hoe is often longer and slightly curved, whereas the wide-blade hoe generally has a blade that is shorter, wider and flat. In the descriptions of usage that follow, we will call these two types of hoes the narrow-blade hoe and the wide-blade 60

hoe, respectively. Respondents in this study were only shown a picture of a narrowblade hoe and a major question remains largely unresolved: Which Spanish speakers (i.e. the agricultores, labradores and campesinos, etc. from which regions of the Spanishspeaking world) tend to use one base term for the wide-blade hoe and another for the narrow-blade hoe, and which generally use the same base term for both and distinguish between them by applying adjectives or other modifiers to them? Spain: The DRAEs definition of azada and azadn indicate that both terms can refer to both narrow-blade and wide-blade hoes. The DRAE also defines almocafre, escardilla, escardillo and legn as types of hoes, in some cases providing a detailed description, and in some cases not (see section A16.4 below). In this study, most respondents indicated azada and/or azadn, and one gave legn. A few non-Spanish terms were also offered including legoa and eixada (Gallego) and magall (Cataln). See section A16.4 below for the definitions of other related terms such as alcotana, batidera, etc. Mexico: The DEUMex defines azadn as Instrumento de labranza compuesto por una pala de hierro afilada en uno de sus extremos, y que en el opuesto tiene un anillo donde se inserta un mango con el que forma ngulo agudo. Se usa para quitar las malas hierbas y arrimar tierra a las plantas. It defines azada in terms of azadn as Herramienta de labranza semejante al azadn pero de pala ms corta y plana; se usa para barbechar terrenos de poca extensin. In other words, the DEUMex seems to indicate that azadn is the narrow-blade hoe and azada the wide-blade hoe. The DRAE indicates that in Mexico talacho refers to a type of azada (see section A16.4 below). See also the DEUMexs definition of coa in Coa below. In this study, all respondents gave azadn when shown a picture of a narrow-blade hoe, except one who indicated that both azadn and talache are used in this sense. Costa Rica: The NDCR defines paleta as 5. (Zona Noroeste) [Agr.] Azada larga, empleada para desherbar y sembrar. Cuba: Are azadn and guataca synonyms in Cuban Spanish, or do they refer to different types of hoes? If they can be synonyms, are they regionally weighted within Cuba? The DECu defines guataca as Instrumento agrcola formado por un mango de madera largo y fino en uno de cuyos extremos va insertada una lmina rectangular de hierro, con un borde cortante. Se emplea para cavar o remover tierras roturadas o blandas and indicates that azada is used in this same sense in Spain and azadn in both Spain and Cuba. The DRAE, however, states that a guataca is a short azada (see section A16.4 below). In this study, several respondents stated that guataca and azadn are synonyms, but one said the guataca has a wider blade. This is consistent with the DECus description of the guataca being used to cavar o remover tierras roturadas o blandas (emphasis added) since the hoe with the shorter and wider blade is often used for this purpose. One Cuban who said azadn and guataca are synonyms indicated that the former is used more in the Oriente and the latter more in central and western Cuba, but this was not corroborated by others in this study. Dominican Republic: Legona was offered by one respondent in the sense of a small hoe, generally used with one hand, but the majority of Dominicans in this study offered only azada. Azada, however, was often pronounced (and even written) (h)az or (h)as. How common is this abbreviated pronunciation in other regions of the Spanish-speaking world 61

where -ada and -ado can also get reduced to and ao, respectively, in the speech of some educated speakers in informal situations and in that of many uneducated speakers in all situations? The loss of d in the suffix -ado (e.g. cansao < cansado and quedao < quedado), and, to a lesser extent, in words with ada (na < nada) is a general phenomenon in popular and/or relaxed speech, though it is more common, and more socially accepted, in some regions of the Spanish-speaking world than in others. In the case of the Dominican Republic, Lipski states that Intervocalic /d/ regularly falls in all sociolects and in all regions (Lipski 1994: 238). Thus it is possible that for some Dominicans, including educated ones, the full/original azada has become lost and the phonetic change (azada az) has undergone lexicalization. If so, one possible explanation for this is that educated Dominicans, to the extent they hear about hoes at all, hear about them from Dominican campesinos, and what they hear from them is invariably az. If educated Dominicans also read about azadas, this would provide an alternate model for them to follow, but insofar as they do not, the model from below they follow is az. See Sellalotodo in section B2.3 below for another possible example of this lexicalization. Venezuela: Are azadn, chcora and escardilla the same tool or different tools in Venezuela? This is, as they say in Venezuelan Spanish, la pregunta de las sesenta y cuatro mil lochas (the sixty-four thousand dollar question). The evidence seems to suggest, but does not definitively establish, that the escardilla is a local Venezuelan name for the azadn, whereas the chcora is a somewhat different tool, perhaps a type of shovel. The DHAV defines chcora and chcura as rur Implemento de labranza compuesto por un palo largo de madera y una punta de hierro recta, fuerte y cortante que se utiliza para abrir pequeos huecos en la tierra (is it perhaps what in the Antilles is called a coa?), and defines escardilla as Instrumento que sirve para escarbar y limpiar la tierra de hierbas. The DV6 is more specific, defining chcora and chcura as Centr Llan Truj Instrumento de labranza que sirve para abrir hoyos en la tierra. Consiste en una pieza de hierro o de madera en forma de pala estrecha y fuerte; esta pala se prolonga en un cabo de madera al que va fijada, and defines escardilla as Occ Centr Llan Azadn con la lmina de ms o menos 20 centmetros de largo, de forma cuadrangular algo curva. Se usa para remover la tierra y para limpiar las siembras de malas hierbas. Thus the DV seems to indicate that the escardilla is a type of hoe, and that the chcora is a type of shovel, but the exact nature of the latter tool is not entirely clear to me. In this study, a number of respondents indicated that escardilla and azadn are synonyms, one that a chcora is a different type of hoe than an escardilla, and another that escardilla and chcora are synonyms used in different regions of Venezuela. A Google image search of chcora conducted in mid 2005 did not turn up any pictures of this tool, but a text search of escardilla and azadn turned up a number of Venezuelan documents in which the phrases escardilla o azadn or azadn (escardilla) appeared. For example, the following appears in a document entitled, Captulo 6 Proteccin y Sanidad Vegetal, Seccin 2 Combate y Control de Malezas: Es el mtodo de combate de maleza ms antiguo usado por el hombre al hacerse sedentario. Consiste en arrancar las malezas alrededor de las plantas de maz, utilizando las manos o estacas elaboradas con diferentes materiales, o cortarlas con machete, azadn o escardilla. Este mtodo se contina usando por agricultores con menores recursos econmicos y/o tecnolgicos, sobretodo en pequeas unidades de 62

produccin; tambin lo usan productores medianos cuando se imposibilita, tcnica o econmicamente, la utilizacin de maquinaria agrcola o la aplicacin de herbicidas (Rodrguez Tineo; emphasis on azadn and escardilla added). There is also evidence to suggest that chcora may be distinct from escardilla (and, therefore, from azadn) as the following citation illustrates: Cabe destacar, que dentro de la actividad de la entrega formal de los ttulos de tierras en la zona de Valle de La Cruz, se concedieron 7 micro crditos para fines de produccin agrcola, como parte de la ardua labor desempeada por la Corporacin de Desarrollo Agrcola (Cordami), donde tambin se donaron los kits de herramientas a los labradores del campo, contentivos de sus botas, machete, pico, pala, escardilla, lima y chicora [sic], a manera de facilitar los trabajos correspondientes de estos cultivadores (Recorrido por Municipio Pez; emphasis on escardilla and chicora [chcora] added). How do Venezuelan campesinos conceive of and distinguish between their azadones, chcoras and escardillas? Colombia: The NDCol defines recatn as Ant[ioquia] , Cald[as] , Quind[o] , Risar[aldas] , Valle Instrumento formado por un mango largo de madera, con una paleta cortante de hierro en uno de sus extremos, usado para hacer hoyos en la tierra y para sembrar. This same source indicates that barretn is used in this sense in the departments of Boyac, Crdoba, Cundinamarca, el Choc, el Huila, Nario, Norte de Santander and Santander__departments which we note are spread out over much of the country__and that cavador is used in this sense in the Atlantic Coast region. In this study, all respondents indicated azadn, and one each indicated recatn (Antioquia, small hoe), revolcn (el Valle), and zapn (Risaraldas), departments in the western interior part of the country. Ecuador: In this study, azadn was given by the majority of respondents when shown a picture of a hoe, but one serrano said a lampa is a hoe. See information in Lampa below. Argentina: Most Argentines interviewed in this study gave only azada and said they had never heard of a zapa. However, one indicated that the azadas blade and handle form an acute angle, which makes it ideal for digging, whereas the zapas blade and handle form a right angle and is used to break up dirt. Another stated that an azada is a hoe that has a hole in the blade, which makes it useful for mixing mortar, whereas a zapa does not have a hole in the blade. A third said he thought a zapa had a shorter handle than an azada; a fourth that a zapn is a type of hoe used for mixing mortar. Coa: The DEUMex (Mexico) indicates that a coa is similar to an azadn, defining it as Instrumento de labranza parecido al azadn, compuesto por un mango largo de madera unido a una pala de hierro terminada en punta, con uno de sus lados rectos y el otro curvo. The DECu (Cuba), in contrast, defines it as agr Utensilio que sirve para abrir hoyos en la tierra, y que consiste en un palo terminado en punta o engastado en una punta de hierro, a veces en forma de esptula. | 2 hist Palo terminado en punta endurecida al fuego, que usaban para sembrar los indios que poblaban la isla de Cuba. It appears that the Cuban meaning has kept closer to the terms historical roots, which makes sense since the Tanos lived in the Antilles. See also the DRAEs description of the different senses of coa in section 16.4 below. Lampa: Luis Corderos Diccionario Quichua - Quichua Shimiyuc Panca (a bilingual SpanishQuichua and Quichua-Spanish dictionary published in Ecuador) defines lampa as a Quichua word meaning, Azada plana y vertical, de uso comn en algunas provincias de 63

la Sierra Ecuatoriana. The HEDE (Ecuador) also defines lampa as Cierta clase de azada... However, in an extended discussion of the terms azada, azadn, lampa and lampn, the HEDE seems to describe the lampa as a shovel and azada as a hoe. The DB (Bolivia) defines lampa rather ambiguously as Azada, pala as does the DECH (Chile), which defines it as lab. [laboral] Azada o pala usada principalmente por mineros y campesinos... The DRAE also indicates that lampa is used in the sense of azada in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru (see section A16.4 below), while the HEDE and the DECH seem to indicate that lampa can mean shovel (pala). In this study, azadn was given by almost all respondents from Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile when shown a picture of a narrow-blade hoe, and most Ecuadoran and Peruvian respondents said that a lampa is a shovel (pala), not a hoe, and that lampa and pala are synonyms. Ecuadorans and Peruvians also stated that lampa is more commonly used to refer to a shovel than pala, especially in popular speech. In the case of Ecuador, this was directly confirmed by several Costeo obreros all of whom responded lampa when asked the name of the tool (shovel) they were using, and acknowledged pala only with a fair amount of coaxing; one Ecuadoran from the Sierra, however, indicated that a lampa is a hoe. Are there regional preferences within Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile with regard to the meaning of lampa? Who uses it in the sense of shovel and who in the sense of hoe, or can the term refer to tools that could be considered a cross between a shovel and a hoe? Ver y or para creer. A16.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: azada (A), azadn (A), chcora (A?), guataca (A?), zapa (A?). DRAE definitions: azada, (Del lat. vulg. *ascita, de asca, azuela, especie de hacha). Instrumento que consiste en una lmina o pala cuadrangular de hierro, ordinariamente de 20 a 25 cm de lado, cortante uno de estos y provisto el opuesto de un anillo donde encaja y se sujeta el astil o mango, formando con la pala un ngulo un tanto agudo. Sirve para cavar tierras roturadas o blandas, remover el estircol, amasar la cal para mortero, etc. || 2. azadn (|| instrumento que se distingue de la azada por la pala, algo curva y ms larga que ancha); azadn, (Del aum. de azada). Instrumento que se distingue de la azada en que la pala, cuadrangular, es algo curva y ms larga que ancha. || 2. azada (|| instrumento de pala cuadrangular, ordinariamente de 20 a 25 cm de lado); azuela, (Del lat. *ascila, dim. de asca). Herramienta de carpintero que sirve para desbastar, compuesta de una plancha de hierro acerada y cortante, de diez a doce centmetros de anchura, y un mango corto de madera que forma recodo; alcotana, (De alcotn, por su forma). Herramienta de albailera, que termina por uno de sus extremos en forma de azuela y por el otro en forma de hacha, y que tiene en medio un anillo en que entra y se asegura un mango de madera, como de medio metro de largo. Hay algunas con boca de piqueta, en vez de corte; batidera, Instrumento parecido al azadn, de astil muy largo, que se emplea para batir o mezclar la cal con la arena y el agua al hacer argamasa; chcora, Ven. Instrumento de labranza para cavar la tierra, que consiste en una pieza estrecha de hierro, en forma de pala, con uno de los cabos afilados y el otro con una cavidad para adaptarlo y fijarlo a un mango largo de madera; coa, (Voz tana). Ant. [Antillas] Palo aguzado que los indios tanos usaban en la labranza para abrir hoyos en los conucos. || 2. Cuba, Hond., Mx. y Pan. Especie de palo usado 64

para la labranza. || 3. Ven. chcora; escardilla, (Del dim. de escarda, azadilla). almocafre || 2. And. [Andaluca] Azadilla de boca estrecha y mango corto, menor que el escardillo; almocafre, (Quiz del r. hisp. *abu kff, y este del r. cls. ab kaff, el de la mano). Instrumento que sirve para escardar y limpiar la tierra de malas hierbas, y para trasplantar plantas pequeas; azadilla, (Del dim. de azada). almocafre; escardillo, Azada pequea para escardar; guataca, Cuba. Azada corta que se usa para limpiar de hierba las tierras; lampa, (Del aim. [aimara] lampa). Bol., Chile, Ecuad. y Per. azada; legn, (Del lat. ligo, -nis, azadn). Especie de azadn; sacho, (Del lat. sarclum). Instrumento de hierro pequeo y manejable, en forma de azadn, que sirve para sachar; sachar, Escardar la tierra sembrada para quitar las malas hierbas, a fin de que prosperen ms las plantas tiles; talacho, Mx. Especie de azada; zapa1, Especie de pala herrada de la mitad abajo, con un corte acerado, que usan los zapadores o gastadores; zapador, (De zapar). Militar perteneciente o encuadrado en unidades bsicas del arma de ingenieros; gastador, 3. En los presidios, hombre que va condenado a los trabajos pblicos. Ir condenado en calidad de gastador. || 4. Mil. Soldado que se aplicaba a los trabajos de abrir trincheras y otros semejantes, o bien a franquear el paso en las marchas, para lo cual llevan palas, hachas y picos. Comments: The DRAEs definitions of azada and azadn are somewhat contradictory. Sense two of azada reads azadn and indicates that this tool is distinguished from the azada in that the blade is somewhat curved and longer than it is wide; sense one of azadn likewise indicates that the azadn is a tool that is distinguished from the azada. Yet sense two of azada is azadn and sense two of azadn is azada. In other words, although there are two tools that can be distinguished from each other, the two terms, according to the definitions, can not, as both terms can refer to both tools. The DRAEs handling of these two terms also completely glosses over the dialectal differences. More useful and accurate would be to select either azada or azadn and give it two descriptions, one sense describing the wide-blade hoe and the other defining the narrow-blade one. It should then define the other word in terms of the first. Selecting azada for primary coverage, its definition could read (using essentially the DRAEs own wording), Instrumento que consiste en una lmina o pala cuadrangular de hierro, ordinariamente de 20 a 25 centmetros de lado, cortante uno de stos y provisto el opuesto de un anillo donde encaja y se sujeta el astil o mango, formando con la pala un ngulo un tanto agudo. Sirve para cavar tierras roturadas o blandas, remover el estircol, amasar la cal para mortero, etc. || 2. Instrumento parecido a ste pero con la pala algo curva y ms larga que ancha. Sirve para cavar tierras ms duras y para quitar las malas hierbas. If the same base term is used for narrowblade and wide-blade hoes, a statement could then be added such as U. [Usado] en ambos sentidos principalmente en Arg., Esp., Par., P. Rico, R. Dom. y Ur. Azadn could then be defined as azada (|| dos instrumentos). U. en ambos sentidos principalmente en Am. Cent., Bol., Chi., Col., Cu., Ec., Esp., Mx. y Per. If applicable, the DRAE editors could also specify the regions of Spain where each term is more prevalent. (However, the DRAE has a disconcerting tendency to give detailed information about regional differences between provinces in Spain, but gloss over regional differences between countries in Spanish America.) Then the remaining more regional terms, such as almocafre, chcora, guataca, etc. could be defined in terms of azada, with any differences in the tool and appropriate regional specifications indicated. Finally, the DRAE editors should make up their minds whether they want to abbreviate the word centimeter as cm or spell it out as centmetro and apply the policy consistently throughout the 65

dictionary (see the definitions of azada and azuela above for an inconsistency in this regard). We note that in the definition of alcotana above meter is spelled out as metro, that cm does not appear in the DRAEs list of abreviaturas y signos empleados (pp. LIV), and that m is already spoken for (masculino pp. LVI).

A17

DRILL BIT

A17.1 Summary Broca is the General Spanish term for standard drill bits, but mecha is more commonly used in the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina, and barrena in Cuba and Puerto Rico. Note: Terms other than broca appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. A17.2 Terms by Country (4 terms plus variants)
SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

broca (12/14), barrena (2/14). broca (16/16). broca (12/12). broca (13/13). broca (8/8). broca (12/12). broca (11/11). broca (9/9). barrena (9/15), broca (5/15), barreno (2/15). mecha (14/18), barrena (3/18), barreno (3/18). barrena (15/15). mecha (12/12). broca (14/14). broca (9/9). broca (11/11). broca (11/11). mecha (6/7), broca (2/7). mecha (9/9). mecha (17/18), broca (7/18). broca (14/15), mecha (7/15).

A17.3 Details General: The items in question are the bits sold in hardware stores to drill holes in wood, metal, masonry, or other materials; different types of bits are used for different materials. (Not targeted in this study were large bits or devices for drilling holes in the ground such as 66

those used in the mining or oil industries, which the DRAE indicates are generally called barrenos; see section A17.4 below.) In many countries where General Spanish broca is not the most commonly used word in everyday language for standard drill bits, there is some evidence to suggest that broca may be a more technical term. Cuba: Barrena was the only term given by the majority of respondents, but two indicated that broca is a more technical term for drill bit than barrena. Ecuador: The HEDE defines barreno as Herramienta de carpintero para taladrar madera. //2. Herramienta de mecnicos para taladrar. In this study, however, all respondents gave only broca in the sense of drill bit. Argentina & Uruguay: The DEArg (Argentina) confirms the use of mecha, defining it as Varilla de acero, terminada en punta y con filo helicoidal, que se adapta al taladro o a instrumentos similares, para perforar madera, hierro, cemento, etc. and indicates that broca is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. The DEArgs definition does not indicate that broca is used in this sense in Argentina, yet over a third of the respondents in this study stated that broca is also used in Argentina, albeit not as often as mecha. The definition of mecha in the NDU (Uruguay) is almost identical to that of the DEArg. Chile: The DECH confirms the use of mecha, defining it as 2. lab. [laboral] Broca; rosca, espiga o barreno de un taladro... In this study, a majority of respondents indicated broca, but some also said that mecha is the more popular or low-class term (depending on ones outlook), and broca a fancier or more proper term. A17.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: barrena (C or D?), barreno (C?), broca (A), mecha (D). DRAE definitions: barrena, (De or. inc.; cf. lat. veruina). Instrumento de acero con una rosca en espiral en su punta y una manija en el extremo opuesto, que sirve para taladrar o hacer agujeros en madera, metal, piedra u otro cuerpo duro. Hay otras sin manija, que se usan con berbiqu; barreno, (De barrena). barrena (|| Instrumento de acero para taladrar o hacer agujeros). U. comnmente para significar la de mayor tamao; broca, 2. Barrena de boca cnica que se usa con las mquinas de taladrar; berbiqu, (Del fr. vilebrequin, y este del neerl. wimmelkjin). Manubrio semicircular o en forma de doble codo, que puede girar alrededor de un puo ajustado en una de sus extremidades, y tener sujeta en la otra la espiga de cualquier herramienta propia para taladrar. Questions/Comments: The DRAE should define broca from scratch without reference to barrena using the DEArgs definition of mecha as a model (see Argentina & Uruguay in section A17.3 above). If anything, barrena should be defined in terms of broca since the latter is the General Spanish term for a standard drill bit. The DRAEs definition of barrena also fails to mention dialectal differences, and that of mecha does not include a sense corresponding to drill bit. As of this writing, in the early 21st century, how valid is the distinction the DRAE makes between barrena (bit with a handle or without one and used with a berbiqu) and broca (bit used with a drill)? Clearly, it does not accurately describe usage in Cuba and Puerto Rico, countries in which barrena means broca (standard drill bit used with a drill). Yet even in Spain it would appear that the distinction may soon be more historical than current. In the United States, 18volt-battery cordless drills are commonly used in construction, in addition to standard drills with 67

a power cord, and one can only wonder how much longer the berbiqu will continue to be used in the Spanish-speaking world. (In English this device is called a brace, though it is more common for people to refer to the set as a brace-and-bit.)

B B1 B1.1

MATERIALS, DEVICES AND MISCELLANEOUS PLYWOOD Summary

Madera contrachapada is the only term that could be considered General Spanish since it appears to be used, to some extent, throughout the Spanish-speaking world. Plywood, or variants of this term, are common in about half the Spanish-speaking world, primarily in the northern half of Spanish America. Other more regionally marked terms include trplex, triplay, madera contraenchapada and madera terciada. Note: Terms other than madera contrachapada appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. B1.2
SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY

Terms by Country (c. 15 terms plus variants) contrachapado (5/11), madera contrachapada (3/11), laminado (2/11), madera laminada (2/11). triplay (16/17), madera contrachapada (1/17). plywood (12/12). plywood (10/10). plywood (9/9). plywood (11/11). plywood (13/13). plywood (11/13), madera laminada (2/13), madera contrachapada (1/13). plywood (15/19), madera contrachapada (4/19), madera laminada (2/19), panel (1/19). plywood (11/11). plywood (12/15), panel (5/15), madera laminada (1/15). contraenchapado (13/16), madera contraenchapada (3/16). trplex (15/18), madera trplex (3/18). plywood (8/14), trplex (5/14), madera trplex (3/14), contrachapado (2/14), contraenchapado (2/14), madera contrachapada (2/14). triplay (18/20), plywood (4/20), madera enchapada (1/20), madera laminada (1/20). venesta (9/10), plywood (1/10). madera terciada (7/8), plancha terciada (1/8). madera compensada (5/8), compensado (4/8).

68

ARGENTINA CHILE

madera terciada (12/15),

madera contrachapada (1/15), multilaminado (1/15), sandwich de terciada (1/15), terciada (1/15), terciado (1/15). madera terciada (9/12), madera enchapada (3/12), contrachapada (1/12), enchapado (1/12), terciado (1/12).

B1.3

Details

Contraenchapado: The DHAV (Venezuela) does not confirm the use of contraenchapado in the sense of plywood, defining it as Mueble o tabla hecho con algn material ms o menos resistente y recubierto con una capa delgada de madera. Madera terciada: Many respondents from Argentina and Paraguay said that madera terciada refers to plywood, but others described madera terciada as a thin panel that has only one layer, or a panel that has a veneer surface (like the DHAVs description of contraenchapado above). Perhaps it can refer to all three. Plywood: The use of plywood in northern Spanish America is confirmed by a number of lexicographical sources. The DECu (Cuba) defines plywood as Conglomerado de madera formado por varias placas delgadas encoladas and indicates that the word is pronounced aproximadamente [pligu], [pliu] o [pligud]; no Peninsular Spanish equivalent is provided. The NDCR (Costa Rica) defines plywood as (pronunciado plibud) Lmina de madera contrachapada. And the DUEN (Nicaragua), though it does not define plywood, does include in an appendix entitled Siglas y acrnimos actuales ms usuales the acronym PLYNIC, which is glossed as Plywood de Nicaragua, S.A. In this study, the term plywood was offered with a variety of pronunciations and spellings including playwood, playwud, playgu, playwu, pleiwood, pleiwud, pleibud and pleiwu, sometimes with an accent mark on the a or e in the first syllable, and occasionally with an accent on the u in the second syllable (e.g. pleiw). All of these spellings are attempts to render graphically what is being pronounced, or efforts to carry over into Spanish elements from the English word plywood, or some combination of the two. Triplay: The DEUMex indicates that triplay refers specifically to three-ply plywood, and defines this term as Madera laminada en tres hojas, flexible y resistente, que se usa en construccin o para forrar ciertos muebles. While triplay no doubt derives from English three-ply (plywood), in this study many Mexican and Peruvian respondents stated that they use triplay generically to refer to any plywood, whether three-ply, five-ply, sevenply, etc. Respondents also gave a variety of spellings including triply, triplay, triplai, tripley and triplei. Regardless of how it is spelled, the word is pronounced in one of two basic ways: [tri-PLAI] or [tri-PLEI]. One Peruvian indicated that triplay is used more by lay people and plywood more by professionals in the construction industry. Trplex: Trplex, and its variant madera trplex, were found to be used in Colombia and Ecuador. Trplex is also pronounced, and sometimes spelled triples or triple. In Ecuador, trplex and madera trplex seem to be more common in the Sierra and plywood more so in the Costa, but many Ecuadorans from both regions are familiar with both sets of terms. Related terms: See particle board panels in Appendix for information on other types of panels used in construction.

69

B1.4

Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: compensado (F), contrachapado (C), contraenchapado (F), madera compensada (F), madera contrachapada (C), madera contraenchapada (F), madera laminada (F), madera terciada (F), madera trplex (F), panel (D), plywood (F), triplay (F), trplex (D), venesta (F). DRAE definitions: contrachapado, adj. Dicho de un tablero: Formado por varias capas finas de madera encoladas de modo que sus fibras queden entrecruzadas. U. t. c. s. m. [Usado tambin como sustantivo masculino]; contrachapeado, contrachapado. U. t. c. s. m. Comments: The DRAE has basically limited itself to describing Peninsular Spanish usage and has left out most Spanish American words for plywood. It is not clear whether the reason for this is ignorance of Spanish American usage on the part of its editors or, perhaps more likely, the fact that they find Anglicisms such as plywood and triplay too distasteful to include in a dictionary whose motto used to be fijar, limpiar y dar esplendor. The latter explanation, however, does not account for the omission of terms such as madera compensada, madera contraenchapada and madera terciada that are just as castizo as madera contrachapada.

B2 B2.1

TAR Summary

Alquitrn and brea are General Spanish terms that can refer to tar and that seem to compete in most parts of the Spanish-speaking world, but the evidence in this study suggests the two are not heard everywhere with equal frequency. Asfalto and petrleo, though used less often than brea and alquitrn in the sense of tar, may also be General Spanish usages. Regionally marked terms include chapopote and/or chapapote__in Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba and parts of Spain__and bleque in Paraguay and perhaps in Argentina and Uruguay as well. Note: Terms other than alquitrn, brea, asfalto and petrleo appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. B2.2 Terms by Country (c. 9 terms plus variants) alquitrn (14/17), brea (5/17), chapapote (2/17), piche (2/17). chapopote (12/13), chapapote (1/13). chapopote (12/12). alquitrn (5/11), asfalto (4/11), brea (4/11), chapopote (2/11). brea (5/6), asfalto (1/6). alquitrn (11/11), asfalto (2/11), brea (1/11). brea (6/9), alquitrn (5/9), asfalto (4/9), petrleo (2/9). brea (6/10), alquitrn (5/10), asfalto (1/10). chapapote (10/15), alquitrn (2/15), asfalto (2/15), chapopote (2/15), asfaltil (1/15), brea (1/15). 70

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA

DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

petrleo (7/13), brea (5/13), sellalotodo (3/13), alquitrn (2/13). brea (19/20), asfalto (2/20). asfalto (9/12), alquitrn (3/12), brea (3/12). brea (12/16), alquitrn (4/16), asfalto (2/16). brea (8/8), asfalto (1/8). brea (11/13), alquitrn (2/13), asfalto (1/13). alquitrn (14/15), brea (3/15). bleque (10/10), asfalto (4/10), brea (2/10), alquitrn (1/10). alquitrn (6/8), brea (2/8). alquitrn (10/14), brea (9/14), bleque (4/14), asfalto (2/14). alquitrn (14/15), brea (4/15), asfalto (1/15).

B2.3

Details

General: The item described to respondents in lay terms was black tar: Una sustancia negra y pegajosa que, mezclada con gravilla o piedritas, se usa para pavimentar calles y carreteras. When respondents gave asfalto, which happened not infrequently, I would then say something like S, pero qu nombre le da usted a la materia base, sin las piedritas? Some, especially Venezuelans, would still say asfalto, whereas most would then say brea, alquitrn or a more regional term. More surveys need to be done with people who are clear on the difference. Asfalto: Although asfalto was offered by a number of respondents in the sense of tar and is defined by the DRAE in this sense, it appears most Spanish speakers make a distinction between the base material (alquitrn, brea, or a regional term for tar), and the compound made of tar and gravel (asfalto = asphalt). Note, however, that a majority of Venezuelan respondents indicated asfalto when asked to name the base material. Bleque: The DEArg (Argentina) and the NDU (Uruguay) both define bleque as Sustancia viscosa y pegajosa, de color oscuro, que se obtiene por destilacin de madera y hulla and indicate that alquitrn is used in this same sense in Spain (and in Argentina and Uruguay). The Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos e Indigenismos (Mornigo) defines bleque as (Del ingls black.) Arg., Par. y Uru. Preparado de alquitrn. In this study, two Argentines indicated that bleque is an older term that is no longer used as often as alquitrn or brea, but one stated that bleque refers to a heavy, more viscous tar (alquitrn pesado or brea pesada) than alquitrn or brea. Chapapote: The DECu (Cuba) defines chapapote as Asfalto espeso con que se pavimentan calles y carreteras and the DHAV (Venezuela) defines it as Sustancia derivada del petrleo que solidificada se aplica sobre el suelo de las carreteras para formar el pavimento. In this study, chapapote was offered in the sense of tar by a majority of Cubans, by a couple of Spaniards from Galicia (Gallegos), and by one Mexican from Quintana Roo (in the Yucatn). Several Cubans, who indicated chapapote is the most commonly used term for tar, stated that brea and alquitrn are technical terms not frequently used in everyday language. Chapopote: In this study, chapopote was indicated for tar by a majority of Mexicans and Guatemalans, and by a minority of Salvadorans. However, the DEUMexs definitions of 71

chapopote and brea indicate that the two may be distinct in Mexican usage. Chapopote is defined in this source as Sustancia negra, pesada y espesa que forma parte del petrleo; se encuentra en distintos lugares, particularmente en el mar, y se utiliza para asfaltar caminos, impermeabilizar techos y paredes, etctera. Brea, in contrast, is defined as 1 Substancia viscosa de color rojo oscuro que se obtiene por destilacin del alquitrn de ciertas maderas, del carbn mineral y de otras materias de origen orgnico; es insoluble en agua and 2 Mezcla de esta sustancia con pez, sebo y aceite que se usa para calafatear los barcos y hacerlos impermeables. (It is not clear why the DEUMex sometimes spells the Spanish word for substance sustancia and sometimes substancia even within the definition of the same word!) Mene: Mene is defined in the DHAV (Venezuela) as 1 coloq Petrleo. /2 coloq Asfalto, but in the DRAE as Ven. Manantial natural de petrleo. How common are these three uses in Venezuela? Piche: Piche was offered by two respondents from Galicia, Spain and probably derives from English pitch (pez, alquitrn). Sellalotodo: Sellalotodo was given by a few respondents from the Dominican Republic in the sense of a type of liquid tar used as a sealant, but was pronounced sellalot. See Dominican Republic in section A16.3 above for information on the elision of intervocalic /d/ and its potential for lexicalization. Technical terms: Technical terms for tar provided by a small number of respondents from different countries include emulsin asfltica, pintura asfltica and membrana asfltica. What are the technical distinctions between them? B2.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: alquitrn (A), asfalto (A), bleque (F), brea (D), chapapote (B), chapopote (B), petrleo (D), sellalotodo (F). DRAE definitions: alquitrn, (Del r. hisp. alqitrn o alqatrn). Producto obtenido de la destilacin de maderas resinosas, carbones, petrleo, pizarras y otros materiales vegetales y minerales. Es lquido, viscoso, de color oscuro y fuerte olor, y tiene distintas aplicaciones industriales; alquitrn de petrleo, El [alquitrn] obtenido por destilacin del petrleo. Se usa como impermeabilizante y como asfalto artificial; asfalto, (Del lat. asphaltus, y este del gr. ...). Sustancia de color negro que constituye la fraccin ms pesada del petrleo crudo. Se encuentra a veces en grandes depsitos naturales, como en el lago Asfaltites o mar Muerto, lo que se llam betn de Judea. Se utiliza mezclado con arena o gravilla para pavimentar caminos y como revestimiento impermeable de muros y tejados; betn de judea and betn judaico, asfalto; brea, Sustancia viscosa de color rojo oscuro que se obtiene haciendo destilar al fuego la madera de varios rboles de la clase de las Conferas. Se emplea en medicina como pectoral y antisptico; chapapote, (De or. nahua o caribe). Asfalto ms o menos espeso que se halla en Mxico, las Antillas y Venezuela. || 2. Cantb. y Gal. [Cantabria y Galicia] alquitrn. || 3. coloq. Ven. Sustancia viscosa de cualquier tipo extendida por el suelo; chapopote, (Del nahua chapopotli). Mx. chapapote (|| asfalto); pez elstica, Mineral semejante al asfalto, pero menos duro y bastante elstico.

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Comments: The DRAE makes a distinction between brea (a dark red substance derived from wood) and alquitrn (a dark substance derived from wood, coal, petroleum and other mineral or vegetable matter), a distinction that does not appear to be made by most Spanish speakers who use either brea or alquitrn for black tar. What the DRAE fails to capture is that, in the everyday usage of the different regions, terms such as alquitrn, brea, chapapote, chapopote and bleque can refer to the same thing. Alquitrn, alquitrn de petrleo and brea should be given full descriptions, and the remaining terms should be cross-referenced to them.

B3 B3.1

SAWHORSE Summary

Burro is the most commonly used term in about twelve countries and caballete in seven. In Spanish America, the dividing line or isogloss seems to lie somewhere between Lima and Guayaquil. In Ecuador and points north of Ecuador, burro is more common. From Peru to the south, caballete is more common. Banco is also used in the sense of sawhorse in many parts of the Spanish-speaking world. Note: Terms other than burro, caballete and banco (and variants of these) appear in italics; Costa Ricas burra appears in boldface and italics. B3.2
SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY

Terms by Country (c. 8 terms plus variants) caballete (11/16), borriqueta (2/16), burro (2/16), banco (1/16), burra (1/16), caballo (1/16), pato (1/16). burro (16/21), banco (7/21), caball(it)o (4/21). burro (14/18), burrito (2/18), caballo (2/18), banco (1/18). burro (9/15), banco (6/15), burrito (3/15), banquito (2/15), burro de trabajo (1/15), sentadera (1/15). burro (9/10), banco (1/10). burro (11/13), burra (3/13). burra (9/12), burro (3/12), banco de carpintera (1/12). burro (8/10), burro de mesa (1/10), caballete (1/10), caballo (1/10). burro (11/14), caballete (4/14), banco (3/14). burro (10/14), banco (8/14). burro (9/15), caball(it)o (de trabajo) (4/15), banco (de soporte) (2/15), caballete (1/15). burro (11/13), banco (1/13), caballete (1/13), caballo (1/13). burro (12/14), banco para carpintera (1/14), burriquete (1/14), caballete (1/14). burro (10/12), caballete (3/12), banco (1/12). caballete (12/15), burro (2/15), caballito (2/15), banco (1/15). caballete (13/14), caballito (1/14). caballete (7/7). 73

URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

caballete (9/9). caballete (17/17). caballete (13/13), banco (de trabajo) (2/13), burro (1/13), caballo (1/13).

B3.3

Details

General: The image respondents were shown and asked to identify was a standard, flat-top carpenters sawhorse with no board or panel on top, like the one on the left-hand side in Figure B3 in Illustrations. The sawhorse on the right in Figure B3 is for sawing logs and this was not shown to respondents. If the burro-caballete isogloss lies somewhere between Guayaquil and Lima, what theories can explain this? Banco: Many respondents from different countries gave banco, banco de carpintera or banco with other modifiers when asked to identify a carpenter sawhorse (see General above), and perhaps it can be argued that people who use banco in the sense of sawhorse are in fact confusing the sawhorse itself with the work bench that is created when a board or panel is placed on top of two sawhorses. However, such confusion__if, indeed, we want to call it that__appears to be rather widespread, even among people who work with sawhorses, and therefore the use of banco to refer to a sawhorse should probably be recognized as commonplace even if technically incorrect. Spain: The DRAEs definitions of asnilla, borrico, borriquete, burro, caballete and, possibly, palomilla include descriptions that appear to refer to different types of sawhorses (see section B3.4 below). In this study, the majority of respondents gave caballete and a couple offered borriqueta and burro. Mexico: The use of burro in this sense is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as II 3 Armazn, generalmente de madera con dos pares de patas abiertas, que se usa para sostener alguna cosa: Con dos burros y una tabla pusieron una mesa en el patio. Costa Rica: The NDCR confirms the use of burra, defining it as 4. Aparato de madera o de metal que consta de dos sostenes en forma de A, unidos en su vrtice por un larguero, el cual se usa para apoyar o sostener objetos. Venezuela: The use of burro is confirmed by the DV, which defines it as Soporte de cuatro patas, de madera o hierro, con slo un listn o barra encima. Colombia: Burro was given by the majority of respondents from diverse regions, but burriquete was offered by one from the Atlantic Coast and caballete by one from Antioquia. B3.4 Real Academia Regional Review DRAE grades: banco (D?), burra (A or B?), burro (A or D?), caballete (A), caballo (A or D?). DRAE definitions: asnilla, (Del dim. de asna). Sostn formado con un madero horizontal apoyado en cuatro tornapuntas arriostradas que sirven de pies; borrico, (Del lat. burricus, buricus, caballejo). 2. Armazn compuesta de tres maderos que, unidos y cruzndose en ngulos agudos hacia su parte superior, forman una especie de trpode que sirve a los carpinteros para apoyar en ella la madera que labran; borriquete, borrico (|| de carpintero); burro, 2. Armazn compuesta de dos brazos que forman ngulo y un travesao que se puede 74

colocar a diferentes alturas por medio de clavijas. Sirve para sujetar y tener en alto una de las cabezas del madero que se ha de aserrar, haciendo descansar la otra en el suelo; burra, 5. C. Rica. burro (|| armazn para sujetar un madero que se asierra); caballete, (Del dim. de caballo). 4. asnilla (|| sostn porttil); caballo, 4. burro (|| armazn para sujetar un madero que se asierra); palomilla, 9. Armazn de tres piezas en forma de tringulo rectngulo, [sic] que sirve para sostener tablas, estantes u otras cosas. Questions/Comments: The DRAE defines asnilla and caballete with one description (a four-legged sawhorse), borrico and borriquete with another (what appears to be a type of threelegged sawhorse), and burro, burra and caballo with a third (what appears to be a type of twolegged sawhorse used for cutting wood such that one end of the wood is placed in the sawhorse and the other end rests on the ground). Do Spaniards who work with different types of sawhorses generally use these different names to refer to these types? These distinctions may correctly describe Peninsular Spanish technical usage, but fail to paint an accurate picture of Spanish American usage in which, for example, burro and caballete can be synonyms but are regionally weighted terms: speakers tend to prefer one term over the other depending on geographic region.

B4 B4.1

FORM (for pouring concrete) Summary

Encofrado is the General Spanish term, but in a number of countries other words such as cimbra, encajonado, encajuelado, forma, formaleta or tablero, etc. are used more often than encofrado. Note: Terms other than encofrado appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. B4.2 Terms by Country (c. 14 terms plus variants) encofrado (9/11), molde (2/11). cimbra (11/25), forma (9/25), encajonado (5/25), cajn (3/25), dala (3/25), rmex (2/25), molde (2/25), caja (1/25), entarimado (1/25). formaleta (9/14), forma (2/14), cajn (1/14), encajuelado (1/14), molde (1/14). molde (7/14), encajonado (3/14), moldura (3/14), forma (2/14), formaleta (2/14), cajn (1/14). encofrado (4/8), encajuelado (3/8), forma (2/8), formaleta (2/8). formaleta (12/12). formaleta (10/11), molde (1/11). formaleta (6/7), encofrado (1/7). encofrado (11/13), molde (1/13), forma (1/13). molde(n) (8/13), cana(s)to (3/13), cana(s)ta (2/13), cajn (1/13), encofrado (1/13), marco (1/13). molde (8/10), formaleta (2/10), cajn (1/10). encofrado (12/12). 75

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA

COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

formaleta (9/11), encofrado (1/11), molde (1/11). encofrado (12/15), tablero (6/15). encofrado (9/9). encofrado (5/6), encajonado (1/6). encofrado (5/5). encofrado (4/4). encofrado (10/14), molde (3/14), encajonado (1/14). molde (3/7), encofrado (2/7), moldaje (1/7), forma (1/7).

B4.3

Details

General: In the technical language of each country, how (if at all) are different base terms applied to different types of forms? These include forms for foundations, forms for sidewalks and other slabs, forms for columns, and suspended forms such as those used to build an upper floor of a building. Mexico: The DEUMex describes cimbra as Armazn o molde de madera, de fierro u otros materiales sobre el que se lleva a cabo el colado de concreto o cemento de un techo o una bveda y que se retira una vez que ha fraguado y endurecido. This indicates that in Mexico cimbra is a type of form used to build an upper storey of a building, a vault, or some other suspended structure, rather than to build a foundation. (The DRAE, in contrast, defines cimbra as a centering; see section B4.4 below.) The DEUMex also defines the verb cimbrar as Colocar las cimbras en una construccin... That encofrado is not listed as an entry in this dictionary also lends credence to the notion that it is not part of el espaol usual en Mxico and yet, if cimbra is only used in the restricted sense of a suspended form, what terms in Mexico are applied to the form used for a foundation and/or other forms that fall outside of the restrictions outlined in the DEUMexs definition of cimbra? In this study, some respondents indicated that cimbra refers only to raised forms (up in the air, like that described in the DEUMexs definition), but others said cimbra can refer to any form used for pouring concrete. The use of forma in the general sense of form was also given by a nontrivial percentage of respondents. It should be noted, however, that most Mexicans queried on this topic (and on all topics in this study) were Mexicans living in the United States either temporarily or semi-permanently. Given its similarity to English form, is forma a term commonly used in this sense in Mexico, or is it only used by Mexicans living in the United States who have been influenced by the English word form? Since many generations of Mexicans have worked in the construction industry in the United States, some of whom returned to Mexico, I suspect it is common in Mexico as well. We note that another meaning of the word forma, which also resembles English form in form and in meaning, is defined by the DEUMex as 9 Hoja de papel impresa con las instrucciones que deben seguirse y los datos que se requieren para efectuar algn trmite. This suggests that forma in the sense of form to fill out (in other words, more or less equivalent to formulario) is not an Anglicism that only uneducated Mexicans living in the United States use, as some have alleged, but is part of mainstream Mexican Spanish, though its use is no doubt criticized by some Mexicans. It is possible that the use of forma, in the sense of a form for pouring 76

concrete is also part of Mexican Spanish, either general or regional, and is not limited to the language of Mexicans living in the United States. If so, is its use in Mexico due to the influence of English form, is it the result of a narrowing of a more general sense of forma (molde en que se vaca y forma algo), or a combination of the two factors? The Nuevo Diccionario de Americanismos e Indigenismos (Mornigo) defines dala as Mx. Viga de cemento armado, encajada en una pared, a lo largo, para darle mayor resistencia. Were the three Mexicans who gave dala in the sense of form confused (or misunderstood by me), or is dala used by some Mexicans in the sense of form? Costa Rica: The NDCR confirms the use of formaleta, defining it as [Alb.] Armazn de madera que sirve de molde para construir una viga o cualquier cosa de cemento and defines formaletear as tr. Hacer formaletas. Panama: Panameismos (Isaza Caldern) also confirms the use of formaleta, defining it as Molde de diversas formas y tamaos dentro del cual se vaca el hormign. Dominican Republic: Many respondents in this study said molden rather than molde, though in reality the pronunciation was often somewhere between molden and moiden. The moide and moiden pronunciations were given mostly, but not exclusively, by respondents from the Cibao. Is the addition of a word-final n to molde, and to other words ending in unstressed e, common in other Spanish-speaking countries? Compare the use of naiden (nadie) that is common in parts of rural Mexico (and perhaps elsewhere). In the case of naiden, there is metathesis of d and i to form naide__which is a popular form of nadie in many parts of the Spanish-speaking world (Lipski 1994: 148)__and, in addition, an n is added to the unstressed word-final vowel e, just as in the case of molden/moiden (< molde). The addition of this [n] in the Dominican Republic may also be a case of hypercorrection since phrase-final and word-final /n/ is sometimes elided in this country (Lipski 1994: 238). The neutralization of syllable-final liquids /l/ and /r/ in favor of /l/ (whereby words such as alma and arma both sound like alma) is widespread in the Dominican Republic and elsewhere in the Hispanic Antilles (Lipski 1994: 231-232, 239, 332-333), and, at the vernacular level, the vocalization of these liquids (such that alma and arma both sound like aima, or somewhere in between alma and aima) is common in most of the northern half of the Dominican Republic (Lipski 1994: 239). Dominicans themselves sometimes refer to the pronunciation of words like aima (alma) and mujei (mujer) as hablar con la i. In the case of cana(s)to and cana(s)ta, several respondents pronounced these words with no aspiration (or [s]) that I could perceive, but the presence of /s/ may have been marked by a compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel. Research needs to be done to determine the extent to which the aspiration or elision of s in canasto and canasta may have become lexicalized giving canato and canata (perhaps pronounced canaato and canaata), respectively. For information on these issues and a discussion of the possible causes of the vocalization of liquid consonants in the Dominican Republic (including theories on a possible African, Haitian, Canary Island and/or Murcian origin), see Nuevas perspectivas sobre el espaol afrodominicano (Lipski 2004c). Puerto Rico: The majority of respondents indicated molde, but one said a formaleta is a form used for pouring a sidewalk and a molde one for a buildings foundation.

77

Colombia: The NDCol defines formaleta as Molde para hacer tapias, adobes, ladrillos o tejas. | Armazn metlico o de madera que sostiene el peso de un arco o de otra construccin, en tanto sta no se halla en condiciones de sostenerse a s misma; cimbra is offered as the Peninsular Spanish equivalent for sense two. Thus this source states that formaleta can refer to a form or mold for making bricks, tiles, etc. (sense one) and to a centering or frame that holds up an arch or other suspended structure while it is being built (sense two). In this study, however, a majority of respondents indicated that formaleta can refer to a form for pouring concrete. Ecuador: The term tablero was offered by Ecuadoran masons from the Costa all of whom indicated tablero and encofrado are synonyms and that the former is used more often than the latter. Is tablero also used in the Sierra in the sense of form? Argentina: The majority of respondents indicated encofrado, a few molde, and one said molde is the form by itself and encofrado or molde encofrado is the form once it is filled with concrete. Related concept: The DECu defines zapata as En un edificio, parte subterrnea que sirve de soporte a la construccin and indicates that cimiento is an equivalent used in Spain and Cuba. In this study, Dominicans and Puerto Ricans also confirmed the use of zapata in the sense of foundation. B4.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: cimbra (D), dala (D), encajonado (D), encajuelado (F), encofrado (A), forma (D), formaleta (B), molde (D), tablero (D). DRAE definitions: encofrado, (Del part. de encofrar). Molde formado con tableros o chapas de metal, en el que se vaca el hormign hasta que fragua, y que se desmonta despus; cimbra, (De or. inc.; cf. cat. cndria). 2. Constr. Armazn que sostiene el peso de un arco o de otra construccin, destinada a salvar un vano, en tanto no est en condiciones de sostenerse por s misma; dala, (Del fr. dalle, y este del neerl. daal, tubo). Mar. Canal de tablas por donde sala a la mar el agua que achicaba la bomba; forma, 3. Molde en que se vaca y forma algo; formaleta, (Del cat. formalet, arco de medio punto). Armazn que sostiene un arco. || 2. C. Rica. Armazn de madera con que se construye una viga o cualquier pieza de cemento; molde, (Del cat. ant. motle). Pieza o conjunto de piezas acopladas en que se hace en hueco la forma que en slido quiere darse a la materia fundida, fluida o blanda, que en l se vaca, como un metal, la cera, etc.; zapata, 8. Cuba. Zcalo de fbrica en que se apoya una pared o tabique. Questions/Comments: Formaleta and the other commonly used regional synonyms (such as cimbra, forma, encajonado, encajuelado, molde and tablero) should be cross-referenced to General Spanish encofrado. We also note that the DRAEs definitions of cimbra (sense two) and formaleta (sense one) are very similar to each other and correspond to what in English is called a centering (defined by the AHD as A temporary, usually wooden framework on which an arch, vault, or dome is supported during construction). Can cimbra and formaleta be synonyms in Peninsular Spanish usage? If so, they should be cross-referenced.

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B5 B5.1

WASHER (metal washers for screws and bolts) Summary

Arandela is the most commonly used word for metal washers (used with screws and bolts) in over half the Spanish-speaking world and can be considered the General Spanish term. Guacha, and its variants, are used in five countries, and Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile have unique usages not common in any other country. Note: Terms other than arandela appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. The item addressed in this section is the metal washer used with screws and bolts, not the rubber or plastic washer used in plumbing. See washers in Appendix for some limited information on the regional variation in the names for the latter type. B5.2 Terms by Country (c. 8 terms plus variants) arandela (15/15). rondana (19/23), arandela (3/23), guacha (1/23), guasa (1/23). guasha (7/14), roldana (5/14), rondana (2/14), arandela (1/14), guacha (1/14). guacha (12/15), arandela (4/15), guasha (1/15). guacha (13/13). arandela (12/12). arandela (13/13), guacha (1/13). guacha (9/13), arandela (6/13), guasha (2/13). arandela (17/17). arandela (14/14). arandela (18/18). arandela (15/15). arandela (22/22), guasa (1/22). anillo (10/22), arandela (10/22), rodela (10/22). guacha (16/21), arandela (5/21), anillo (3/21), guasha (1/21). bolanda/volanda (11/14), arandela (4/14). arandela (6/6). arandela (12/12). arandela (20/20). golilla (18/18).

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

B5.3

Details

General: The modifiers plano and de presin get added to the base terms for metal washers when one wants to refer specifically to flat washers (arandela plana, guacha plana, etc.) vs. spring washers or cut washers (arandela de presin, guacha de presin, etc.). The terms guacha, guasha and guasa are also sometimes written with initial hu (e.g. huacha) or, less often, with an etymological w (wacha), but in section B5.2 above they are spelled 79

with initial gu because this appears to be the most common spelling and for the sake of uniformity. In the case of loan words (prstamos) and also with popular and vulgar language, Spanish continues to grapple with the issue of how the phoneme /g/ when followed by a semi-vowel [u] should be represented graphically, whether by gu, hu or (less often) w. Although this ambivalence occasionally crops up in word-internal positions__aguate-ahuate, aguautle-ahuautle and gegenche-huehuenche are examples__it is especially frequent word-initially, as the following pairs of terms illustrate: gisqui-whisky, gucala-hucala, guaco-huaco, guachar-huachar, guajehuaje, guarache-huarache, guaso-huaso, gevada-huevada, gevn-huevn, gevonadahuevonada, gisquil-huisquil, gilln-huilln, gilo-huilo, gipil-huipil, giro-huiro and gero-huero. With the exception of huaso, and the g spellings in the words deriving from huevo, all of the preceding terms are listed with both variants in the DRAE. In the case of some of these pairs, one spelling is generally preferred over the otherMexican gero (blond) is rarely spelled huerowhile in that of gisqui-whisky, Hispanized or Castilianized gisqui may be preferred in Spain and etymological (English) whisky or whiskey in Spanish America. The g spelling is also used to represent cases in which the phonemes /g/ and /b/ when followed by the semi-vowel [u] and (generally) /e/ get neutralized in favor of /g/, especially, though not exclusively, in popular language. This is reflected in a number of nonstandard spellings used to depict uneducated speech such as agelo (< abuelo), geno (< bueno), gelta (< vuelta) and gey (< buey). See El espaol que se habla en el Salvador y su importancia para la dialectologa hispanoamericana (Lipski 2000) for a detailed description of this neutralization and a discussion of its phonological causes. Spain: The DRAE defines rondana without regional specification as more or less a synonym of arandela (see section B5.4 below), but in this study respondents offered only arandela. In Spain, how common is rondana in the sense defined by the DRAE and, how is it distinguished from arandela? Mexico: The use of rondana in the sense of metal washer is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as Pequea pieza circular y delgada, como un disco, generalmente de metal con un agujero en el centro, que se utiliza para que haya un ajuste perfecto entre una tuerca y un tornillo. Interestingly enough, the DEUMex defines arandela somewhat differently as Pieza metlica en forma de disco con una perforacin en el centro, que se utiliza para impedir el roce entre dos piezas de una mquina, para afianzar o apretar algo, como un tornillo, para impedir filtraciones de lquidos entres dos piezas, etctera. In this study, the majority of Mexican respondents indicated that rondana is the only term commonly used in the sense of metal washer. The DEUMex indicates that rondanas are used para que haya un ajuste perfecto entre una tuerca y un tornillo but, as anyone who has used metal washers knows, they serve other purposes as well, such as to distribute the pressure of a bolts head or nut over a larger surface area and thus prevent them from digging into and damaging the surface of the material that is being bolted down. Guatemala: Why did English washer get Hispanized to guacha with a ch sound in most Spanish-speaking countries that have taken the loan word from English (El Salvador, Honduras, Panama, Peru), but in Guatemala guasha seems to be the most common pronunciation? Is it because the sh sound is common in Quich and other indigenous 80

languages of Guatemala, and therefore Guatemalans, unlike most Spanish speakers, had no trouble maintaining the sh sound of English washer since it was already part of their phonetic repertoire? If so, is guasha also used in some regions of Peru (such as the Highlands) that also have a substrate language with an sh sound, Quechua? If not, why not? See Panama below. El Salvador: The DS confirms the use of guacha, which is defined as (lx. mec. [lxico de mecnicos]) Arandela o especie de empaque que se pone entre la cabeza de un tornillo y la pieza en la cual se mete. Sirve para que zoque mejor el tornillo. We note that the DRAE defines the verb zocar as Guat., Hond. y Nic. apretar (|| oprimir), but it would appear that zocar is also used this way in El Salvador. Panama: The use of guacha is confirmed by the DTP (Higuero Morales), which defines huacha as Arandela. Proviene del trmino ingls washer and guacha as Ver huacha. In this study, two respondents gave the pronunciation guasha, but indicated they would spell the word guacha. This is consistent with the fact that some Panamanians pronounce the affricate ch as a fricative sh sound, especially word-internal intervocalic chs (Lipski 1994: 299). In other words, some Panamanians would say guasha, but write the word with a ch just as they would say mushasho but would write muchacho. In Guatemala, in contrast, many people say and write the word guasha. More research needs to be done concerning this point. See Guatemala above. Colombia: All of the respondents in this study indicated arandela as the term for metal washers in general, except for one, a building engineer, who stated that arandela is the flat or regular washer and guasa de presin the cut washer. See, however, the NDCols definitions of guasa and empaque under washers in Appendix. Ecuador: Rodela is more common in the Sierra and anillo more so in the Costa. Arandela is used in both regions, but is less popular than rodela and anillo in their respective regions. (Both anillo and rodela could be considered majority regionalisms in their respective regions, Costa Ecuatoriana and Sierra Ecuatoriana, respectively.) Bolivia: Is the proper spelling volanda or bolanda? In this study, eight out of eleven Bolivians indicated they believed bolanda was the correct spelling while three preferred volanda, which is certainly not enough data to draw conclusions about prevailing usage. However, from an etymological standpoint, volanda is probably the correct spelling since the word most likely has the same origin as volandera, which the DRAE defines as (Del lat. volandus, part. fut. pas. de volre, volar)... 5. Rodaja de hierro que se coloca como suplemento en los extremos del eje del carro para sujetar las ruedas. If a majority of educated Bolivians believe the word is spelled bolanda, but based on etymology the word should be spelled volanda, should we say the majority is wrong and try to change their practice by including only the word volanda in dictionaries and teaching only this spelling to students, or should we go with prevailing usage and admit bolanda? Or should both variants be listed in dictionaries and the matter explained in a usage note? Like many language-planning issues, this is a philosophical as well as a linguistic question. Chile: The DECH confirms the use of golilla and indicates that arandela is less commonly used in the sense of metal washer. It defines golilla as Anilla, volandera, estornija o arandela plana y sin hilo que se emplea para ajustar un perno o una tuerca y evitar que deterioren

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la superficie del material al que va adherida... Ms usual que los sins. [sinnimos] acadmicos. B5.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: anillo (D), arandela (A), bolanda (F), golilla (A), guacha (F), guasa (D), guasha (F), huacha (F), rodela (D), roldana (A), rondana (C), volanda (F). DRAE definitions: arandela1, (Del fr. rondelle). Pieza generalmente circular, fina y perforada, que se usa para mantener apretados una tuerca o un tornillo, asegurar el cierre hermtico de una junta o evitar el roce entre dos piezas; rondana, Rodaja de plomo o cuero engrasado, agujereada en el centro, que se utiliza para asiento de tuercas y cabezas de tornillos; golilla, Chile. rondana; roldana, 2. Guat. rondana. Comments: The DRAE does not cross-reference rondana to arandela and defines the two somewhat differently when, in fact, they can be synonyms. It also cross-references golilla and roldana to rondana instead of to General Spanish arandela. With the exception of golilla and roldana, the DRAE provides no information on the terms regional distributions.

B6 B6.1

BEARING (ball bearing, roller bearing, etc.) Summary

Rodamiento and cojinete can be considered General Spanish terms for ball bearing__rodamiento more so than cojinete__but most countries have a more regional term that in everyday language is used more often than either of these two. Balero is used in Mexico and El Salvador, balinera in Colombia and several Central American countries, caja de bola(s) in the Antilles, and rulemn or rulimn in a number of South American countries. Costa Rica, Venezuela and Peru have unique usages not found elsewhere. Note: Terms other than rodamiento and cojinete appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. B6.2 Terms by Country (c. 10 terms plus variants) rodamiento (9/10), cojinete (3/10). balero (14/17), rodamiento (2/17), rulimn (2/17), balinera (1/17). cojinete (8/10), balinera (1/10), rulemn (1/10). balero (13/13). balinera (12/12). balinera (13/13). rol (11/12), balinera (2/12), cojinete de rodamiento (1/12). balinera (13/13). caja de bola(s) (19/20), cojinete (3/20), rodamiento (2/20). caja de bola(s) (20/20), roberi (5/20). 82

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caja de bola(s) (16/17), cojinete (1/17), rodamiento (1/17). rolinera (14/16), cojinete (1/16), rodamiento (1/16), rulinera (1/16). balinera (22/24), rodamiento (4/24). rulimn (20/21), rodamiento (5/21). rodaje (17/21), rodamiento (2/21), rulimn (2/21). rodamiento (14/15), rulimn (1/15). rulemn (7/11), rleman (4/11), cojinete (2/11). rulemn (12/12), rodamiento (1/12). rulemn (18/20), rodamiento (3/20), bolillero (2/20), cojinete (2/20). rodamiento (18/18), cojinete (1/18).

(2/20), rleman

B6.3

Details

General: The item tested on respondents was the ball bearing, the most common type of bearing. However, a few indicated that the base terms they offered for ball bearings are also used, perhaps with modifiers, to refer to other types of bearings as well. Research needs to be done to determine how other types of bearings such as roller bearings or needle bearings are called in different regions, whether by the same base term as those listed in section B6.2 above, possibly with a different modifier, or by another term. For example, if a caja de bolas is a ball bearing in the Antilles, would a roller bearing there be a caja de rodillos, a caja de bolas de rodillos, a caja de bolas con rodillos, or perhaps some other term that is not derived from caja de bolas? Other terms such as balero and balinera that derive from a word for ball (bala and baln, respectively) pose similar questions, though the DEUMexs definition of balero seems to resolve the matter in the case of Mexico (see Mexico below). In the case of General Spanish rodamiento, which specific term for ball bearing is more common or preferred (and where), rodamiento de bolas or rodamiento a bolas? Mexico: The use of balero in the sense of ball bearing is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as (Mec) Rodamiento con el que se protege de la friccin un eje o una flecha que rota; est formado por cierta cantidad de balines colocados entre dos pistas circulares y concntricas. The definition goes on to describe two other types of bearings, baleros de agujas (needle bearings) and baleros de rodillos (roller bearings). The fact that neither rodamiento, nor cojinete is listed as a separate entry in the DEUMex also suggests that balero is really the only term for this item that is part of el espaol usual en Mxico. El Salvador: The DS defines balero as (lx. mec.) Cojinete o pieza en que se apoya un eje para girar. 2. Bolitas de acero que en forma de anillo ayudan al movimiento circular de una pieza. 3. Rodo. Although sense three of the definition is not very clear, by rodo the author of the DS appears to be referring to rodillo, which the DRAE defines as 4. Pieza de metal, cilndrica y giratoria, que forma parte de diversos mecanismos. In this study, all respondents offered balero for the ball bearing, but several indicated that balinera refers to the circular part of the device that is inside the bearing.

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Nicaragua: The DUEN confirms the use of balinera, defining it as Dispositivo formado por dos cilindros metlicos entre los cuales se coloca una corona de bolas que sirven para el rodamiento. Cuba: The DECu confirms the use of caja de bolas, defining it as Cojinete formado por dos cilindros concntricos entre los cuales se intercala una corona de bolas que pueden girar libremente en cualquier maquinaria. Dominican Republic: All respondents offered caja de bola(s), though in this survey it was more often pronounced caja de bola (this was also true for Cuba and Puerto Rico). However, a handful of Dominicans also gave roberi and, of these, a couple said it was a roller bearing, and one (each) said it was a ball bearing with smaller balls, a more technical (shop-talk) synonym of caja de bola, or the part of the ball bearing that turns. However roberi is used, English ball bearing appears to be its origin. Colombia: The NDCol confirms the use of balinera, defining it as Dispositivo mecnico, consistente en una corona de bolas de acero contenidas entre dos anillos, fijo el uno a un eje y el otro a una rueda and indicates that cojinete and rodamiento de bolas are the Peninsular Spanish equivalents. Paraguay, Uruguay & Argentina: The DEArg (Argentina) defines rulemn, with the alternate pronunciation of rleman, as Pieza que cumple las funciones de cojinete, formada por aros metlicos concntricos entre los que se intercala una corona de bolillas de acero, que gira libremente and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is rodamiento de bolas. In other words, it indicates that a rulemn or rleman is specifically a ball bearing (as opposed to other types of bearings such as roller bearings). The definition of rulemn in the NDU (Uruguay) is almost identical to the DEArgs definition of this term. How common is the pronunciation of this term with the stress on the first syllable (rleman) as compared to the stress on the third syllable (rulemn) in each of the three countries? See Rulimn vs. Rulemn/Rleman below. The DEArg also defines buje as Pieza en la que se apoya y gira el eje de una maquinaria, and indicates that it is synonymous with cojinete de una pieza, which is used in Argentina and Spain, but the DRAE lists buje as a General Spanish term (see section B6.4 below). Rulimn vs. Rulemn/Rleman: Why did the spelling with an i of rulimn evolve in Ecuador (and perhaps in Peru and Bolivia as well) when the spelling with an e (rulemn or perhaps rleman) is used in the River Plate region? We note that rulemn is closer in spelling to its French etymon, roulement; that French roulement has a secondary stress on the first syllable; and that in rapid speech Spanish rulemn sounds just like rulimn. One possible explanation for the spelling preferences in different Spanish-speaking countries is that rulemn took root in Argentina and Uruguay (and by extension in Paraguay) because more people in Buenos Aires and Montevideo were familiar with French and, when Hispanizing the word, they kept the e thus partially retaining the French spelling. In Ecuador, on the other hand, the word entered Spanish primarily through word of mouth and was simply written as heard, rulimn, without paying attention to the French spelling. The fact that rulemn can be pronounced rleman in River Plate Spanish also supports the notion of a stronger French influence there. See Paraguay, Uruguay & Argentina above.

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Related terms: What are all the terms for the balls of ball bearings, such as balines, municiones, bolitas, chibolitas, etc., and how, if at all, are they regionally distributed? B6.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: balero (F), balinera (B), caja de bolas (F), cojinete (A or D?), rodaje (D), rodamiento (A), rol (D), roberi (F), rolinera (F), rulemn (A), rulimn (F). DRAE definitions: rodamiento, Mec. Cojinete formado por dos cilindros concntricos, entre los que se intercala una corona de bolas o rodillos que pueden girar libremente; cojinete, 5. Mec. Pieza o conjunto de piezas en que se apoya y gira el eje de un mecanismo; balero de rodamiento, Mx. Rodamiento a bolas; balinera, (De baln). Nic. rodamiento; buje, (Del lat. buxis, caja). cojinete (|| pieza en que se apoya y gira un eje); rulemn, (Del fr. roulement). Arg., Par. y Ur. rodamiento. Comments: With respect to this item, the DRAE has described usage fairly accurately in about half the Spanish-speaking world, most notably Spain, the Southern Cone and possibly Mexico (it should, however, define balero more generally, without the qualifier de rodamiento), but the DRAE is pretty much in the dark with regard to usage in the rest of the Spanish-speaking world.

B7 B7.1

STEAMROLLER Summary

Aplanadora is the General Spanish term commonly used in all of Spanish America with the possible exception of the Dominican Republic. Spain has a unique term not common elsewhere. Note: Terms other than aplanadora appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. B7.2 Terms by Country (c. 9 terms plus variants) apisonadora (9/10), aplanadora (1/10). aplanadora (13/14), plancha (2/14), compactadora (1/14). aplanadora (9/10), apalmazador (1/10), rolo (1/10). aplanadora (7/7). aplanadora (6/8), aplanador (1/8), compactadora (1/8). aplanadora (9/10), planadora (2/10). aplanadora (12/13), planadora (1/13). aplanadora (7/7), rodillo (1/7). aplanadora (10/12), cilindro (aplanador) (4/12), planadora (1/12). rodillo (13/14), aplanadora (2/14), planadora (1/14). aplanadora (14/21), rolo (6/21), cilindro (4/21), aplanador (1/21), (1/21). 85

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planadora

VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

aplanadora (6/8), compactador (1/8), rodillo compactador (1/8). aplanadora (13/16), compactador(a) (2/16), cilindradora (1/16), motoniveladora (1/16). aplanadora (8/11), rodillo (5/11), planadora (1/11). aplanadora (8/11), rodillo (3/11), compactadora (1/11). aplanadora (9/10), compactadora (1/10). aplanadora (5/7), compactador (1/7), rodillo (1/7). aplanadora (6/6). aplanadora (14/14). aplanadora (10/12), bicicleta del alcalde (1/12), compactadora (1/12), rodillo (1/12).

B7.3

Details

Compactador(a): The terms compactadora or compactador were offered by a handful of respondents from different countries in the sense of steamroller. However, many other respondents indicated that a compactador(a) is not a steamroller but a vibrating machine (also called a vibradora, according to some) that is used to further compact the ground after the steamroller has gone over the terrain. A Google image search of compactadora conducted in mid 2005 turned up mostly pictures of machinery other than steamrollers, though at least one was of a machine that looked similar to a steamroller but appeared to have grooves in the wheels. Is the use of compactador(a) in the sense of steamroller prevailing usage in some circles? This question needs to be researched. Mexico: In this study, all respondents gave aplanadora and a couple also indicated that plancha was used in this sense. The DEUMex, however, lists only plancha, which is defined as 3 Mquina provista de un gran rodillo metlico, muy pesado, que se hace pasar sobre la tierra de una calle, un terreno, etc., para aplanarla y darle firmeza; aplanadora and does not list aplanadora as a separate entry. The fact that aplanadora is not an entry in the DEUMex is somewhat odd since it is not a dictionary solely of Mexican regionalisms but a general dictionary written from the Mexican perspective, and since aplanadora, in the sense of steamroller, seems to be more mainstream Mexican usage than plancha. How common is the use of plancha as compared to aplanadora in the sense of steamroller in Mexico? Guatemala: Although the majority of respondents indicated aplanadora, one gave apalmazador, and we note that the DRAE defines the verb apelmazar as (De pelmazo). 2. tr. El Salv., Hond. y Nic. apisonar. Where else in Central America (and perhaps elsewhere) might apelmazador(a) and/or apalmazador(a) be used in the sense of steamroller? El Salvador: The DS confirms the use of aplanadora, defining it as Mquina con rodillos pesados, usada en la construccin de calles para alisar y compactar el suelo. Nicaragua: The DUEN also confirms the use of aplanadora, defining it as Mquina de gran peso que se usa en la pavimentacin o reparacin de carreteras y calles. Costa Rica: Aplanadora was offered by the majority of respondents in this study. However, the NDCR does not list aplanadora and defines planadora as Vehculo que con un cilindro de hierro en la parte delantera sirve para aplanar las calles. Perhaps this is because the author does not consider aplanadora to be especially regional or Costa Rican. How common is planadora vis--vis aplanadora in Costa Rica? 86

Cuba: The DECu confirms the use of both aplanadora and cilindro, defining them as Mquina provista de rodillos grandes y pesados, que se emplea para apisonar y alisar calles, caminos y terrenos and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is apisonadora. Venezuela: The DHAV confirms the use of aplanadora, defining it as Mquina con ruedas a modo de rodillos grandes y pesados, usada en la construccin y reparacin de vas pblicas. Colombia: The NDCol defines cilindradora as Mquina locomvil, con ruedas a modo de rodillos grandes y pesados, usada en la construccin y reparacin de vas pblicas, and defines aplanadora almost identically. The DRAE also confirms the use of cilindradora in Colombia (see section B7.4 below). In this study, however, only one Colombian was found who acknowledged the use of cilindradora in the sense of steamroller, and he indicated it was an old term that is no longer common in his country. A Google search of the terms cilindradora and pavimento, however, produced several texts, not all from Colombia, in which the former term appears with the meaning of steamroller. For example, the following quotation is from the technical specifications of a public works project: A lo largo de andenes, muros, cabezotes, sardineles y otros lugares inaccesibles a la cilindradora, la mezcla se compactar cuidadosamente mediante el uso de pisones de mano calientes o compactadores mecnicos que apliquen una compresin equivalente (Alcalda Mayor de Cartagena de Indias; emphasis on cilindradora added). Interestingly enough, a very similar quotation was found in what may be a Mexican Internet document authored by an Argentine called Pavimentos which states: En las zonas inaccesibles para la cilindradora se obtendr la compactacin de la mezcla mediante compactadores porttiles mecnicos adecuados (Liberatore). The question remains as to how frequent the use of cilindradora is in the sense of steamroller (or some other type of compacting roller machine) in Colombia and beyond. Ecuador: The HEDE confirms the use of aplanadora, defining it as Rodillo, mquina movida por motor que lleva un pesado rodillo para compactar o aplanar el suelo destinado a calle, plaza, carretera, pista, etc.; apisonadora. The HEDE does not define rodillo, but the preceding definition seems to confirm the data from this study, which indicate that rodillo is used in Ecuador in the sense of steamroller. Argentina & Uruguay: The DEArg (Argentina) and the NDU (Uruguay) both confirm the use of aplanadora, which they define as Mquina con traccin propia, provista de rodillos grandes y pesados, que se emplea para apisonar y alisar calles, caminos y terrenos en general and indicate that apisonadora is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. One Argentine respondent indicated that rodillo macizo refers to one of the heavy wheels of the aplanadora. Chile: The DECH confirms the use of aplanadora, defining it as Apisonadora; mquina locomvil armada sobre rodillos grandes y pesados que se utiliza para apisonar y aplanar calles, caminos y terrenos... Sin. [sinnimo] bicicleta del alcalde, 1a acep. No es usual el sin. acadmico (i.e. apisonadora is not common in Chile), and it defines bicicleta del alcalde as fest. [festivo] fam. [familiar] Aplanadora... In this study, one respondent also indicated that bicicleta del alcalde is used as a humorous and colloquial equivalent of aplanadora.

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B7.4

Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: apisonadora (C), aplanadora (A), cilindro (B), planadora (B), rodillo (D), rolo (D). DRAE definitions: apisonadora, Mquina automvil que rueda sobre unos cilindros muy pesados, y que se emplea para allanar y apretar caminos y pavimentos; aplanadora, Am. apisonadora (|| mquina); cilindradora, Col. apisonadora (|| mquina); cilindro, 8. Cuba. apisonadora (|| mquina); planadora, C. Rica. apisonadora (|| mquina); rodillo, 2. Cilindro muy pesado de piedra o de hierro, que se hace rodar para allanar y apretar la tierra o para consolidar el firme de las carreteras; rodo, Cilindro muy pesado para allanar el suelo. Questions/Comments: The DRAE states accurately that aplanadora is used in Spanish America, but needs to fine-tune the definitions and/or regional specifications of some of the other terms so that the dictionary user is provided correct information about where terms such as rodillo and planadora are commonly used in the sense of steamroller. Apisonadora would be an excellent candidate to receive the Esp. (Espaa) regional specification, a designation which appears in the DRAEs list of abbreviations but needs to be used much more liberally. The phrase sobre unos cilindros muy pesados that appears in the DRAEs definition of apisonadora does not accurately describe those steamrollers that have just one of these cilindros or rodillos in the front end of the machinery and have rubber tires (or some other locomotion device) in the rear end. The definitions of aplanadora in the DEArg (provista de rodillos grandes y pesados), the DHAV (con ruedas a modo de rodillos grandes y pesados) and the DECH (armada sobre rodillos grandes y pesados) suffer from the same limitation. See Figure B7 in Illustrations and the DEUMexs, the NDCRs and the HEDEs definitions of plancha, planadora and aplanadora in section B7.3 above to confirm this.

B8 B8.1

SCREW ANCHOR Summary

Tarugo appears to be the most commonly used term, followed by taco. Note: Terms other than tarugo and taco appear in italics, and majority regionalisms in boldface and italics. B8.2 Terms by Country (c. 14 terms plus variants) taco (6/11), tarugo (2/11), expansin (1/11), tojino (1/11), tugino (1/11). taquete (10/10). tarugo (6/7), taquete (1/7). ancla (6/6). taco fcher (4/4). espiche (5/8), expansor (1/8), taco de expansin (1/8), tarugo (1/8). espnder/expnder (9/10), tarugo (1/10). 88

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taco (9/10), anclaje de plstico (1/10), casquillo (1/10). expansin (5/7), taco (2/7). tarugo (10/10). expansin (12/12). rampl (12/16), ramplug (2/16), rampln (2/16), ramplex (1/16), ramplux (1/16). chazo (12/12). taco fsher/taco fcher (7/8), tarugo (3/8), taco (1/8). tarugo (9/10), taco (1/10). rampl (5/9), tarugo (3/9), ramplug (1/9). tarugo (5/5). taco fsher (6/7), taco (de fijacin) (2/7), tarugo (1/7). tarugo (15/15), taco fsher (5/15), fsher (1/15). tarugo (9/9).

B8.3

Details

Ancla(je): The word anclaje (anclaje plstico, anclaje metlico, etc.) appears to be a technical General Spanish term for this item, as it appears in web sites from different Spanishspeaking countries. See, for example, Hilti Espaola S.A. (Spain), Boletn de Aclaraciones No. 0164-2 Licitacin Pblica Internacional... (Honduras) and Durlock (Argentina) in References. Is the use of anclaje and ancla (see EL SALVADOR in section B8.2 above) in the sense of screw anchor a calque of English (screw) anchor, or does it represent a parallel development that is unrelated to the evolution of the meaning of anchor in English? Chazo: The NDCol (Colombia) defines chazo as Pedazo o taco de madera que se introduce en una pared para fijar algo en l. Although chazo no doubt still has this meaning, the term now also refers to the factory-made plastic screw anchor. Some Colombians, including college-educated ones, believe this word is spelled chaso. Rampl or ramplug: The DHAV (Venezuela) confirms the use of ramplug, defining it as Pieza, generalmente de plstico, que se empotra en una pared para sujetar clavos o tornillos. In this study, the majority of Venezuelans indicated that rampl was both the spoken and written form of the word, but one stated that the term should be written ramplug but is generally pronounced as if written rampl. The origin of rampl and ramplug, also used in Bolivia, may be English raw plug or raw plug anchor. (See, for example, Er Maracucho Rajao... Conozca sobre la Real Academia del Habla Maracucha. Vocablos de uso comun en Maracaibo y zonas circunvecinas and Mara Julia Brunettes Diccionario de Construccin, among other Internet sources.) Taco fsher, taco fcher, etc: These terms most likely derive from a brand name (Fisher?). The Honduran respondents (only four) pronounced the word as if spelled taco fcher; the Argentines and Uruguayans taco fsher; and the Ecuadorans were mixed, some pronouncing it with an affricate ch and some with a fricative sh sound. A few Ecuadorans and Hondurans left out or elided the r of fsher/fcher, but in all cases, the stress was on the first syllable, [FI-cher], [FI-che], [FI-sher] or [FI-she]. How should this word be spelled? Fcher and fsher are possibilities, but Hispanizing the word into River Plate 89

Spanish could also yield fyer or fller since y and ll (which correspond to a single phoneme in most of the Spanish-speaking world including the River Plate region) are pronounced there like the g in English beige, or as an sh sound. Taquete: The use of taquete in Mexico in the sense of screw anchor is confirmed by the DEUMex, which defines it as Pedazo cilndrico y pequeo de madera, plstico o metal, que se encaja en un hueco hecho para tal efecto en una pared para luego fijar a l clavos, tornillos, etc. de los que se han de colgar o fijar objetos pesados... Tarugo, however, is defined in the DEUMex as a different object, made exclusively of wood, in which screws are not inserted: 2 Pedazo de madera corto y grueso que sirve como pieza de sostn o refuerzo en obras de carpintera... B8.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: ancla (D), chazo (D), espiche (D), expnder (F), expansin (D), rampl (F), taco (A or C?), taco fsher (F), taquete (F), tarugo (D). DRAE definitions: chazo2, nudillo (|| zoquete de madera); nudillo, 3. Arq. Zoquete o pedazo corto y grueso de madera, que se empotra en la fbrica para clavar en l algo; como las vigas de techo, marcos de ventana, etc.; espiche, (Etim. disc.). 2. Estaca pequea que sirve para cerrar un agujero, como las que se colocan en las cubas para que no salga el lquido o en los botes para que no se aneguen; taco, 14. coloq. Trozo de madera o de plstico, de forma ms o menos alargada, que se empotra en la pared para introducir en l clavos o tornillos con el fin de sostener algn objeto; tarugo, Trozo de madera o pan, generalmente grueso y corto. || 5. El Salv. y Nic. Pedazo de madera, trapo u otro material que sirve para tapar un agujero. Comment: The DRAE lists older, more traditional senses of chazo, espiche, taco and tarugo (such as wooden plugs) that can be viewed as antecedents of the modern screw anchor, but it needs to update its definitions of these and other terms so that this modern sense is also covered.

B9 B9.1

TIRE REPAIR SHOP Summary

Most Spanish-speaking countries have a regional name for (generally small) shops that fix and/or retread tires. Note: Regional words appear in italics and where they are the majority terms, in boldface and italics. B9.2 Terms by Country (c. 11 terms plus variants) no specific regional term (6/6). vulcanizadora (13/15), talachera (7/15), vulka (2/15). pinchazo (10/11), reencauchadora (1/11). 90

SPAIN MEXICO GUATEMALA

EL SALVADOR HONDURAS NICARAGUA COSTA RICA PANAMA CUBA DOMIN. REP. PUERTO RICO VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA PARAGUAY URUGUAY ARGENTINA CHILE

llantera (6/8), llantera (2/8). llantera (9/9). vulcanizadora (9/9). no specific regional term (5/8), llantera (2/8), reencauchadora (1/8). no specific regional term (4/6), llantero (1/6), reencauchadora (1/6). ponchera (6/6). gomera (9/15), gomero (8/15), gomera (3/15). gomera (6/7), no specific regional term (1/7). cauchera (11/11). montallantas (4/7), vulcanizadora (3/7), reencauchadora (1/7). vulcanizadora (10/10). vulcanizadora (4/7), llantera (3/7), reencauchadora (1/7). llantera (8/8), gomera (2/8), parchadora (1/8). gomera (5/5). gomera (5/5), recauchutadora (1/5). gomera (9/9). vulcanizacin (9/9).

B9.3

Details

General: The terms presented in section B9.2 above were the ones offered with the meaning of a tire shop that is generally a small family-owned business. Larger garages or factories where tires are retreaded are often called reencauchadoras, recauchadoras or recauchutadoras, depending on which base verb (reencauchar, recauchar or recauchutar) is used; see retread in Appendix for limited information on the distribution of these verbs, and the DRAEs definition of reencauchadora in section B9.4 below. However, a handful of respondents, a minority in each case (see section B9.2 above), indicated that the terms reencauchadora or recauchutadora are used in the sense of the small tire repair shops. In Spain, Costa Rica and Panama, a majority of respondents gave no specific (short) name for this type of shop, but some gave longer descriptive names such as taller de reparacin de llantas, taller de neumticos y recauchutados, etc. In a number of Spanish-speaking countries where llantera is not commonly used in the sense of a small tire repair shop, this term is used to refer to larger businesses that sell and install tires, rims, hubcaps, etc. and do balancing and alignment of tires but do not necessarily fix flats. Spain: Do these types of shops exist in Spain and, if so, how common are they and what are they called? It is noteworthy that the DRAE does not indicate a compact Peninsular Spanish equivalent of llantera, nor does it provide one for sense two of gomera (see section B9.4 below). Also suggesting a lack of a Peninsular Spanish equivalent is the fact that neither the DECu nor the NDCol provides one for the Cuban and Colombian names for this item (see Cuba and Colombia below). However, the DEArg indicates that taller de vulcanizacin is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent of Argentine gomera (see Argentina & Uruguay below).

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Mexico: Half a dozen respondents said that vulcanizadora and talachera both refer to tire repair shops, and a couple also indicated that vulka, spelled with a k, is the short form for vulcanizadora. Many other Mexicans, however, stated that a talachera is a more rudimentary shop that only fixes flats but does not do retreading, whereas a vulcanizadora is a larger, higher-tech operation that also does retreading. Still others said a talachera is a shop that does any type of minor car repairs, or even minor repairs of any sort, and that the expression hacer talacha can mean fixing flats or doing general repairs. The following examples, provided by respondents in this study, suggest that hacer talacha and talachar can refer to work in general: Ayer estuve en la talacha hasta las 12 de la noche. Adnde van? A talachar (a trabajar). The DEUMex does not list talacha, talachera, talachar or talache (see section A15 - pick/pickax above). Guatemala: The Guatemalan use of pinchazo in the sense of tire repair shop is an example of metonymy in which a word for (tire) puncture has come to be used to refer to something associated with tire punctures, namely, the shop that fixes them. This usage is confirmed by the following citations from Guatemalan Internet documents, although the fact that pinchazo appears in quotation marks in the first example may suggest that some Guatemalans are not entirely comfortable with it: A pocos pasos, entre ambas edificaciones hay un pinchazo, uno de estos hospitales de llantas que abundan en caminos y calles del pas (Hernndez), and Como tambin se tiene alguna pequea industria, un taller de herrera en el cual se ocupa el seor, o pone un pinchazo cerca del paso de la carretera, se pone una venta de helados, de aguas, entonces hay no solo actividades agrcolas pecuarias en la comunidad campesina, tambin se incursiona en actividades comerciales y servicios... (Galicia; emphasis on pinchazo added). Cuba: The DECu defines ponchera as Taller en el que se arreglan los ponches de los neumticos and defines ponche as 2 Pequeo orificio en un neumtico, causado generalmente por un objeto punzante, que produce prdida de aire. It indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent of Cuban Spanish ponche (sense two) is pinchazo, but provides no Peninsular Spanish equivalent for ponchera which (like the data in this study) suggests that there may not be one. The DECu also defines vulcanizadora and recapadora as Taller en que se vulcanizan/recapan los neumticos. Dominican Republic: The majority of respondents in this study said that both gomera and gomero can refer to a tire repair shop, and that gomero could also refer to the man who fixes tires. A few indicated that gomera refers to a tire repair shop, but others said this was a place that sells tires but does not repair them. Venezuela: The DHAV confirms the use of cauchera, defining it as Establecimiento dedicado al expendio, montaje y reparacin de cauchos and defines caucho as Neumtico que se coloca en las ruedas de los vehculos automotores y de otros, como por ej. una bicicleta. The DV does not define cauchera in the sense of tire repair shop, but does define cauchero as 2. Persona que cambia y repara neumticos. Colombia: The NDCol defines montallantas as Lugar donde se arreglan y montan los neumticos de los vehculos and indicates that vulcanizadora is used in this same sense in the departments of Cauca, Nario and el Valle (southwestern Colombia), and that llantera is used in the Atlantic Coast region.

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Ecuador: The HEME defines llantera as Fbrica de llantas o neumticos. // Establecimiento en el que se reparan llantas y tubos neumticos. cf. vulcanizadora, but since vulcanizadora is not listed as an entry in this dictionary, it is not clear where, or in what definition, the reader is being directed to make this comparison. Peru: One respondent indicated that a llantera is a smaller, more primitive tire repair shop than a vulcanizadora. Uruguay & Argentina: The DEArg (Argentina) and the NDU (Uruguay) confirm the use of gomera, which they define as Taller de venta, reparacin y vulcanizacin de neumticos para vehculos automotores and the former indicates that taller de vulcanizacin is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. Chile: The DECH defines vulcanizacin as 2. fig. [figurado] Establecimiento donde se vulcaniza: Una vulcanizacin y nueve restaurantes... but it is not clear from this definition whether these establishments retread tires, fix flats or do both, or what is meant by the abbreviation fig. Perhaps the DECH writers mean that the use of vulcanizacin to refer to one of these shops is figurative insofar as such shops do not actually vulcanize rubber but just fix tires. In other words, the regional meaning of vulcanizacin may be another example of a type of metonymy in which the name of a process, vulcanization, is applied to another related meaning, fixing and retreading tires. See Guatemala above. Related terms: A number of the terms for tire repair shops derive from words that are regional or have regional meanings (ponche, talacha or vulcanizar), while others derive from a word for tire that is regionally weighted (llanta, goma or caucho). The terms used for tire puncture/flat tire, such as pinchazo, pinchadura and ponche, also appear to be regionally distributed and/or used differently in different countries. For information on the regional distribution of the words for tire, see Car terminology in the Spanish -speaking world (Moskowitz: 338). United States English: Small low-tech tire repair shops, like those found in Latin America, are not common in the United States, and therefore there is no United States English equivalent other than tire repair shop or some other descriptive term. B9.4 Real Academia Regional Review

DRAE grades: cauchera (D), gomera (D), gomera (A), llantera (B), llantera (D), montallantas (F), pinchazo (D), ponchera (D), talachera (F), vulcanizacin (D), vulcanizadora (F). DRAE definitions: gomera, Arg., Bol., Par. y Ur. Lugar de venta o reparacin de neumticos; llantera2, Ecuad. Fbrica de llantas (|| neumticos). 2. Hond. Establecimiento que se dedica a arreglar pinchazos de las llantas (|| neumticos); reencauchadora, . Andes [rea de los Andes], El Salv., Guat. y Hond. Instalacin industrial para recauchutar llantas o cubiertas de automviles, camiones, etc.; vulcanizar, 2. tr. Cuba y Nic. Reparar neumticos. Comment: The DRAE is almost entirely in the dark on usage as it relates to tire repair shops. Is this because the phenomenon is not common in Spain?

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APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL TOPICS The following is a small selection of miscellaneous Spanish lexical dialectology topics relating to carpentry, masonry, plumbing, heating, electrical, auto mechanics, and other trades in which tools, construction, repairs and maintenance play a role. The issues have not been thoroughly examined in this study (either through field research or by reviewing existing literature), and are presented merely to call attention to their existence as possible dialectal and/or lexicographical topics that await in-depth investigation. Note: A country followed by a question mark means that in this study only one or two respondents from that country gave a particular response. auto body shop / body shop. What are the names in Spanish for shops (garages) that fix the body of a vehicle, especially after it has been in an accident? They often do car painting and detailing as well. Only a handful of respondents were queried on this topic, but their responses varied: latera and hojalatera (Mexico), latonera (Venezuela), taller de carrocera and chapera (Argentina), taller de chapa y pintura (Uruguay), taller de enderezado y pintura (Costa Rica), taller de latonera y pintura (Colombia). The DHAV confirms the use of latonera in Venezuela, defining it as 2 Taller donde se repara la carrocera de los vehculos automotores. balance / balancing. The NDCR (Costa Rica) defines balancear as tr. [Aut.] Ajustar las ruedas de un vehculo para que giren correctamente whereas the DRAE provides only a general definition of balancear: tr. Igualar o poner en equilibrio, contrapesar. A cursory survey of Spanish Americans suggests that balanceo is widely used in Spanish America in the sense of balancing in phrases such as alineacin y balanceo (balancing and alignment), whereas a Spaniard indicated that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent would be alineacin y equilibrado. However, the question remains as to who says balanceo, who says equilibrado, and who uses other phrases. Other issues include whether or not some Spanish Americans say alineamiento instead of alineacin for alignment and whether some say balanceo y alineacin instead of alineacin y balanceo. bars. What terms are used in Spanish for a flat bar (sometimes called a wonder bar) and a nail puller (often called a cats paw)? A flat bar is a type of wrecking bar with a claw used for prying and pulling nails that has a flat shaft. The advantage a flat bar has over a crowbar or regular wrecking bar, which has a round or hexagonal shaft, is that the former does less damage to the wood or other surface in which the nail is lodged when extracting the nail from it; the flatbars disadvantage is that it is not as strong as a crowbar. A nail puller or cats paw is a bar in which the claw is tapered and at a right angle to the shaft. One uses it with a hammer to extract imbedded nails and it damages the wood. For information on crowbars/wrecking bars, see section A10 above. blocks (for building). The DEUMex defines tabique as Cualquier pieza de caras rectangulares hecha de arcilla cocida que se usa como material de construccin: una pared de tabiques. Tabique is one of the most popular building materials used in Mexico among those who are not affluent. What are all the regional names in Spanish for all of the different types of cement or clay building blocks in all of the different regions? 94

bolt. The DEArg defines buln as Tornillo grande, con tuerca fuerte y resistente and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is perno. What other terms are used for bolt other than tornillo and perno, and what are their distributions? brakes, shocks, mufflers (and various other regional Anglicisms that refer to car parts). The DS (El Salvador) defines chocausol, chocacsol and chocansol as (lx. mec. [lxico de mecnicos]) Amortiguador. Del ingls shock absorber. What other regional Anglicisms, such as las brecas and los breques (los frenos), and el mofle or la mufla, etc. (el silenciador), are used and where? break down. The DRAE defines encangrejar as prnl. coloq. Cuba. Dicho de un mecanismo, de un motor, etc.: Dejar de funcionar and this is confirmed by the DECu, which defines the verb as coloq Dejar de funcionar un vehculo automotor: un vehculo automotor se encangreja. | 2 coloq Presentar deficiencias en su funcionamiento un sistema, un mecanismo o un motor: algo se encangreja. The DECu indicates that cancanear and encasquillarse are also used colloquially in Cuba in sense two (algo cancanea, algo se encasquilla). ceiling. Are cielo raso (or cielorraso) and the less technical and more ambiguous techo used universally in the sense of ceiling? In Ecuador, the term tumbado is used in this sense. Where else is tumbado used, and what other regional terms exist? Techo raso, plafond or plafn? What else and where? cement or concrete. The DRAE defines concreto2 as (Del ingl. concrete.) Am. hormign (|| mezcla de piedras, cemento y arena), which suggests that concreto is not commonly used with this meaning in Peninsular Spanish. The sense Am. hormign (|| mezcla de piedras, cemento y arena) should probably also be added to the definition of cemento, which in many varieties of Latin American Spanish can, like cement in English, refer to the powder used to make concrete, the powder plus the water and sand, etc. that is the concrete or mortar used in masonry, and this mixture once it has hardened. The DRAE also defines mazacote with no regional specification as hormign (|| mezcla compuesta de piedras, cemento y arena). Where is this term commonly used? The DUEN (Nicaragua) defines caliche as Pasta de cemento con que se juntan los ladrillos de un piso o pared. Is this term used elsewhere in this sense? It would be interesting to determine, throughout the Spanish-speaking world, the relative frequencies of concreto, hormign, cemento and mazacote in the sense of concrete, and mezcla, mortero and argamasa in the sense of mortar. In English, mortar often refers to concrete to which lime or a latex-based substance has been added so that it will have greater bonding properties. Mortar is used for patching, pointing and binding bricks, blocks, stones, etc.; concrete (usually reinforced concrete = hormign armado or concreto armado) is for pouring forms. cement/plaster (verbs). The DRAE defines the following verbs that could mean to cement or plaster, some with regional specifications, some without: enlucir (with no regional specification), tr. Poner una capa de yeso o mezcla a las paredes, techos o fachadas de los edificios; enrasar, 2. tr. Arq. Hacer que quede plana y lisa la superficie de una obra. Enrasar una pared, un piso, un techo; fratasar, (De or. inc.). tr. Igualar con el frats la superficie de un muro enfoscado o jaharrado, a fin de dejarlo liso, sin hoyos ni asperezas; fratachar and fletachar, tr. Ur. fratasar; frisar2, (Del lat. *frictire, 95

frotar). 2. tr. Ven. En albailera, dar a una pared friso (|| capa de mezcla con cemento); tarrajear, Per. Enlucir con cemento. What other regional verbs are out there, and what do they mean? Which are (regional) synonyms? cement mixer. The DECu (Cuba) defines concretera as Mquina para hacer concreto and indicates that hormigonera is used in this sense in Spain and Cuba. In this study, the following terms were offered by persons from the following countries: batidora (de cemento/de concreto) (Costa Rica, Panama), concretera (El Salvador, Panama?, Cuba, Ecuador), hormigonera (Spain, Uruguay, Argentina), ligadora (de cemento/de concreto) (Dominican Republic), mezcladora (de cemento, de concreto, and/or de hormign) (all of Spanish America), mixiadora (Honduras), revolvedora (de cemento/de concreto) (Mexico), tolvo de mezclado (Colombia?), trompo, trompo mezclador and/or trompo de concreto (Cuba, Venezuela, Colombia, Chile). What are the frequencies of each term in each country? cement mixing truck or ready mix truck. In this study, many of the same terms found to be used in the sense of cement mixer were also offered for a cement mixing truck. The following were given for a cement mixing truck by respondents from the following countries (some are popular terms, some are more official-sounding technical terms), but research needs to be done to determine what all the terms are and which are most common in each country: camin de cemento/camin de concreto (Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia), camin concretera (Cuba?), camin concretero (Colombia, Peru, Chile), camin de hormign (Spain), camin hormigonera (Spain, Bolivia, Chile), camin hormigonero (Argentina, Chile), camin mezclador (de cemento, de concreto, de hormign) (Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Paraguay, Chile), camin mezcladora (de cemento, de concreto, de hormign) (Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Peru), camin trompo (Chile), cementera (Venezuela?), concretera (El Salvador, Panama, Cuba, Puerto Rico), concretero (Peru), chimbo (Honduras, popular), chompipa (Costa Rica, popular), hormigonera (Spain, Bolivia, Uruguay, Argentina), ligadora (de cemento) (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico), mezclador(a) (de cemento, de concreto, de hormign) (Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador), mxer (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru), revolvedora (de cemento, de concreto) (Mexico), troc de cemento or truck de cemento (Puerto Rico), troca de cemento (Mexico?), troque de cemento (Mexico?). chisel (for cutting metal). The DRAE defines cortafro as Cincel fuerte para cortar hierro fro a golpes de martillo and defines cortafierro as Arg., Par. y Ur. cortafro. drafting table. The DRAE defines restirador as Mx. Mesa o tablero para estirar el papel en que se dibuja and the DEUMex defines it as Mesa alta, de superficie amplia y generalmente inclinada, o capaz de inclinarse en diversos ngulos, que utilizan los dibujantes y arquitectos para colocar el papel sobre el que trabajan. What other terms do Spanish speakers other than Mexicans use to refer to a drafting table? Mesa de dibujo? The DRAE defines tablero as 8. Mesa grande de trabajo, como la del delineante o el sastre. extension cord. The DECu (Cuba) defines extensin as Cable que se conecta al cable de un aparato elctrico para cubrir la distancia hasta el enchufe and indicates that alargador is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. The DRAE defines extensin as 8. Cuba y Mx. 96

alargador (|| pieza que sirve para alargar). Several Argentines indicated that in Argentina prolongador is used in this sense. Which terms are generally applied to an extension cord in which countries? fire extinguisher. The DECu defines extinguidor and extinguidor de incendios as Aparato de forma cilndrica, que contiene en su interior una sustancia que evita la combustin y que se emplea para combatir incendios and indicates that extintor (de incendios) is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent and is also considered the official term in Cuba as well. The DEArg defines extinguidor (de incendios) and matafuego in identical terms. float (of a tank, e.g. of the toilet). The DECu defines flotante as Dispositivo que sirve para detener la entrada de un lquido en un depsito cuando ste alcanza su altura mxima and indicates that flotador is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. This information is also confirmed in the DRAEs definitions of flotador and flotante. But looking at the question globally, who says flotante, who says flotador, and who says something else? furnace / heater / boiler (heating systems of a house or building). The DRAE defines caldera as 2. Recipiente metlico dotado de una fuente de calor, donde se calienta el agua que circula por los tubos y radiadores de la calefaccin de un edificio. Calentador appears to be a General Spanish term that could refer to a heater or a furnace, but many Mexicans in the United States use the word calentn in this sense (a taboo word in some countries). Is this term also used in Mexico in this sense? The DEUMex defines only calentador in a way that could refer to furnace, heater or radiator: 3 Aparato domstico, fijo o porttil, que calienta la temperatura ambiental; generalmente funciona por electricidad o gas; radiador. gear. The DRAE defines engrane as Mx. En una mquina, rueda dentada and the DEUMex defines it as Rueda dentada que sirve para transmitir un movimiento de rotacin a otra rueda semejante con la que se ajusta, como en el mecanismo de los relojes. It seems the engrane in Mexico is part of the engranaje. hardware store (or type of hardware store). The DEUMex defines tlapalera as Tienda en la que se venden utensilios para electricidad, albailera, plomera, carpintera y para otros oficios semejantes; ferretera: Compr la pintura en la tlapalera de la esquina, Mi hermano trabaja en una tlapalera. The DRAE defines tlapalera as (Del nahua tlapalli, lquido de fuego, y -era). Mx. Tienda de pintura, donde tambin se venden materiales elctricos y herramientas. Research needs to be done to determine how, if at all, Mexican usage distinguishes between the terms ferretera and tlapalera. What other countries have another way of saying hardware store? hinge. The DRAE defines bisagra as (De or. inc.). Herraje de dos piezas unidas o combinadas que, con un eje comn y sujetas una a un sostn fijo y otra a la puerta o tapa, permiten el giro de estas and defines gozne as (De gonce). Herraje articulado con que se fijan las hojas de las puertas y ventanas al quicial para que, al abrirlas o cerrarlas, giren sobre aquel. || 2. Bisagra metlica o pernio. Although both bisagra and gozne are listed as General Spanish terms in the DRAE, albeit with slightly different definitions, the issue is whether, in everyday language, both terms are used everywhere with more or less equal frequency in the sense of hinge, or whether there are semantic distinctions or regional preferences between them.

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hot water heater. The DEArg defines termotanque as Artefacto de gas, con un termostato, que permite calentar varios litros de agua y mantenerla a una determinada temperatura para, mediante caeras, distribuirla en una vivienda and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is calentador. The DEArg also defines calefn as Aparato de gas o electricidad, que sirve para calentar el agua que se distribuye por caeras a la cocina o al bao de una casa and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalents are calentador and termo. The DRAE defines calefn as Arg., Bol., Par. y Ur. Aparato a travs de cuyo serpentn circula el agua que se calienta para uso generalmente domstico. hub (of a wheel). The DEArg (Argentina) and the NDU (Uruguay) define maza as Centro de la rueda de un vehculo and indicate that cubo is used in this sense in Spain as well as in Argentina and Uruguay. intercom. The DEArg defines conmutador as Aparato que, en oficinas, hoteles, etc., sirve para poner en comunicacin las distintas dependencias entre s o con la red general and indicates that centralita is the Peninsular Spanish equivalent. The DECu indicates that centralilla and pizarra are the Cuban Spanish equivalents and defines them in very similar terms. jackhammer. The AHD (United States) defines jackhammer as A hand-held machine for drilling rock and breaking up pavement or concrete, operated by compressed air. In this study, a number of terms were offered by large numbers of Spanish speakers from countries that pertain to at least two noncontiguous geographic regions (such as the Antilles, the Andes, Mexico, Spain, etc.). Given their fairly broad distribution and the fact that they sound fairly official and technical rather than quaint or regional, there is reason to believe the following terms/usages may be part of General Spanish: martillador de aire, martillo de aire, martillo de aire comprimido, martillo hidrulico, martillo neumtico, martillo perforador, perforadora, perforadora neumtica, taladro hidrulico, taladro mecnico, taladro neumtico. Some respondents, a minority, believe the term neumtico (as in martillo neumtico, taladro neumtico, etc.) should be spelled with an initial p, pneumtico, but the majority indicated neumtico. In contrast to the first group of terms for jackhammer listed above, some of the following may be regional and/or popular terms, as they were offered by a much smaller number of Spanish speakers who came from far fewer countries: chicharra (Nicaragua, Costa Rica), chipijama / chipihamer / chipihamel (Cuba, Puerto Rico; from English chipping hammer), demoledor de piso hidrulico (Puerto Rico), guagua (Chile), martillo de calle (Chile), martillo demoledor (Spain), martillo de taladrar (Cuba), martillo piln (Spain), martillo rompepavimentos (Spain), muleta (Honduras), perforador (Paraguay), perforador neumtico (El Salvador), rompepavimentos (Peru), rotohammer ([rotojmer] El Salvador), taladradora (Spain), taladro de aire (Spain), taladro de demolicin (Panama), yakama (Panama, from English jackhammer). None of the above terms, neither the more general nor the more regional ones, is listed in the DRAE with the meaning in question. Does the fact that the jackhammer is not defined in the DRAE under any of the terms listed above constitute an unacceptable lexicographical lacuna, or is this absence justified since the terms are compounds whose meaning is more or less the sum of their constituent parts? The argument that some of these terms are deducible and therefore superfluous may not hold up to scrutiny since to say that a martillo neumtico is 98

simply a special type of martillo (a compressed-air martillo) is not that much more persuasive than saying a jackhammer is a special type of hammer. Neither a martillo neumtico nor a jackhammer is really a type of hammer at all, and therefore, one can not assume that the dictionary user will be able to deduce the meaning of the compound terms from their component parts. lot. The NDCol defines lote as Cada una de las partes en que se divide un terreno destinado a la edificacin and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalents are parcela and solar and that the latter term is also used in the Atlantic Coast region of Colombia. However, the DRAE defines lote in this sense without any regional designation. How frequent is the use of lote, parcela and solar in the different varieties of Spanish, and how do their meanings vary? machete. Regional names for (different kinds of) machetes include catana (Northeast Argentina, according to the DEArg), and coln, cuma and paila (Nicaragua, according to the DUEN). There are undoubtedly dozens of regional Spanish names for different kinds of machete, but what are they, what types of machetes do they refer to, and where are they used? meter (gas meter, electric power meter, etc.). The DRAE defines medidor as 3. Am. Contador de agua, gas o energa elctrica and the DEArg defines medidor as Dispositivo que sirve para medir el consumo de gas, luz o agua en una vivienda and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is contador. The DECu indicates that contador and metro contador are used in this sense in Cuba as well as reloj in the case of the electric meter. nipple. The NDCR (Costa Rica) defines niple as Tubo que sirve para unir dos tubos and the AHD (United States) defines nipple as 3b. A pipe coupling threaded on both ends. Where else is niple (and variants such as niplo, neplo, etc.) used, and where are more castizo terms used such as tubo de conexin or boquilla de conexin, etc. (electrical) outlet. The DRAE defines tomacorriente as Am. En instalaciones elctricas, dispositivo donde se inserta la clavija and toma as 6. Lugar por donde se deriva una corriente de fluido o electricidad. It seems many Spanish Americans use tomacorrientes (with an s at the end) in this sense and it appears that Spanish speakers on both sides of the Atlantic use enchufe to refer to both the plug and the outlet. (electrical) plug. The DRAE defines enchufe as 5. Electr. Dispositivo formado por dos piezas que se encajan una en otra cuando se quiere establecer una conexin elctrica. The DECu defines enchufle as Dispositivo que conecta un aparato elctrico a una red elctrica and indictes that enchufe is used in Spain and Cuba in this same sense. Where else is enchufle commonly used in the sense of plug, and how is its use socially stratified in different regions? particle board panels. What are the different names for particle board panel (often called particle board)? This is a construction material made of ground up wood that is not as strong or as expensive as plywood (see section B1 above). The terms madera prensada, madera triturada, madera aglomerada, aglomerado and conglomerado were all offered by Spanish speakers from diverse regions and may be General Spanish usages. Some Argentines indicated that madera enchapada refers to a particle board that has a highquality wood veneer surface; others said this is madera terciada (see section B1 above). Chileans offered cholgun in the sense of particle board, which is defined in the DECH as Madera prensada de pino insigne que se fabrica en forma de planchas, molindola en 99

mquinas especiales y mezclndola con resinas... Procede del topnimo Cholgun, localidad del depto. de Yungay en uble, que es donde principalmente se fabrica. The DRAE defines cholgun as Chile. Madera prensada de pino, en forma de planchas. One Argentine, a building engineer, stated that in Argentina fibrofcil, also called guillermina, refers to a type of panel made with saw dust, whereas aglomerado refers to a particle board panel made of virutas (wood shavings or chips). What semantic differences exist between the above terms, and which are most common in which countries? panels (other types). What are the names of other types of panels used in construction? The DEArg (Argentina) defines machimbre as Pieza de madera alargada y de poco grosor, con una ranura a lo largo de uno de sus lados y una lengeta a lo largo del otro, para ser ensamblada con piezas similares. Respondents from several other Spanish American countries also described machimbre in the sense of tongue-and-groove boards or panels. One Argentine stated that durlock refers to sheetrock. pliers. What terms are used in Spanish for groove joint pliers or tongue and groove pliers (also called Channellock pliers, pump pliers or water pump pliers), and where? These are adjustable, noncutting pliers in which the grippers are curved and offset to one side. They generally have more adjustment than regular joint pliers or slip -joint pliers, but can be used for many of the same types of tasks (see Figures A6 and A6' in Illustrations and section A6 above). This topic was not researched extensively but a few respondents offered pico (de) loro, alicate(s) pico (de) loro and pinza(s) pico (de) loro in this sense. What are linesman pliers called in Spanish? These are nonadjustable, cutting pliers (see Figure A6" in Illustrations). A website that shows images and indicates technical names in Spanish for a selection of different types of pliers is www.jvm.es/jvali-cates. Among the pliers and related tools shown are different types of needlenose type pliers (such as alicates punta redonda, alicates boca plana, alicates cigea recto, alicates cigea curvo), cutting pliers (such as alicates corte lateral, alicates corte frontal, alicates corte sueco), wire-strippers (pelacables), locking pliers (mordazas de presin)__in United States English generally called by the most popular brand name vise-grips__and bolt-cutters (cizallas; these are not pliers at all but are used to cut padlocks and other metal bars). However, given that this website is from Spain, one must wonder to what extent these terms are universal and to what degree they primarily represent Peninsular Spanish usage. For information on needlenose pliers, see section A7 above. power plant (and other types of industrial plants). The DECu defines planta elctrica as Establecimiento industrial destinado a la produccin de energa elctrica mediante la transformacin de otros tipos de energa and indicates that central elctrica is used in this same sense in both Spain and Cuba. The DEArg indicates that usina elctrica is the Argentine equivalent; its definition is identical to the DECus definition of planta elctrica. The DRAE defines usina as (Del fr. usine). Arg., Bol., Chile, Col., Par. y Ur. Instalacin industrial importante, en especial la destinada a produccin de gas, energa elctrica, agua potable, etc. The DEUMex defines planta as IV Instalacin en la que se produce energa o se fabrican ciertos productos: una planta de luz, planta textil, planta petroqumica. However, perhaps planta elctrica is not as regional as the DECu seems to suggest, given that the DRAE defines planta as 10. Fbrica central de energa, 100

instalacin industrial. In any case, the question remains as to which terms are most commonly used for power plants (and other types of industrial plants) in which countries. retread (verb). With regard to the retreading of tires, the NDCol (Colombia) defines reencauchar as Recubrir con una solucin de caucho las llantas de un vehculo para evitar su desgaste and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is recauchutar, and that vulcanizar is used in both Spain and Colombia in this sense. The DECu (Cuba), however, defines vulcanizar and recapar as Cubrir con caucho la parte exterior de un neumtico and indicates the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is recauchutar. And the DUEN (Nicaragua) defines vulcanizar as tr. Reparar neumticos. This is confirmed by the DRAE, which defines vulcanizar as tr. Combinar azufre con goma elstica para que esta conserve su elasticidad en fro y en caliente and 2. tr. Cuba y Nic. Reparar neumticos. In other words, the DRAE indicates that in General Spanish vulcanizar refers to the rubber manufacturing process but not to repairing or retreading of tires. The DRAE also states that reencauchar is used in Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Peru and Venezuela in the sense of recauchutar, which it defines with no regional specification as Volver a cubrir de caucho una llanta o cubierta desgastada. The DRAE also lists recauchar in this sense with no regional specification. The DUEN (Nicaragua) defines rencauchar as recubrir de caucho la llanta gastada. No doubt this alternate way of spelling reencauchar is not uncommon given that reencauchar and rencauchar sound identical in rapid, and perhaps even in normal speech (i.e. not spelling bee speech). We note that the DRAE no longer places an accent mark on demonstrative pronouns (like esta in the definition of vulcanizar above, para que esta conserve su elasticidad) unless there is a risk of amphibology, that is, ambiguity. However, many educated Spanish speakers disapprove (or are unaware) of this reform, continue to use accent marks on demonstrative pronouns such as sta and ste, and correct and/or criticize those who do not. saw. For information on hacksaws, see section A5 above. In this study, numerous respondents from all twenty Spanish-speaking countries indicated that serrucho refers to the standard manual wood saw, consisting of a broad, usually tapered blade, no frame, and a handle at one end. However, finer distinctions such as a cross-cut saw (used to cut against the grain of the wood) or a rip saw (for cutting parallel to the grain) were not researched, nor were other types of manual wood saws such as a backsaw (A saw that is reinforced by a metal band along its back edge AHD; it is often used with a miter box for making precise cuts), a coping saw (A light handsaw with a slender blade stretched across a U-shaped frame, used for cutting designs in wood AHD), a buck saw (handsaw with a blade stretched across a frame for cutting branches or logs), or a two-man saw (large handsaw with a handle at each end for cutting logs). Would a backsaw be a sierra de lomo or a serrucho de lomo, or some other term? The DRAE defines a serrn as Sierra larga con un mango o manija en cada extremo (two-man saw). Research also needs to be done to determine the regional distributions and different meanings of the verbs aserrar, aserruchar, serrar and serruchar. Serruchar also has an important regional meaning, which the DRAE defines as 2. Ecuad., El Salv., Hond., Pan., Per, P. Rico. y Ur. Trabajar secretamente en contra del prestigio o posicin de alguien. I know this usage to be very common in Ecuador, having lived there, but could 101

it be common in Uruguay and not in Argentina (it has been confirmed to me by Argentines), in Puerto Rico and not the Dominican Republic, in El Salvador, Honduras and Panama, but in none of the other Central American countries? Cuesta creerlo. sawdust. Is aserrn the predominant term in most if not all of Spanish America and serrn the most common one in Spain, or is the situation more complicated than that? The Hispanic Antilles may be an exception to this rule for in the Lxico del habla culta de San Juan de Puerto Rico (Lpez Morales: 158), serrn and aserrn were each given by five out of twelve respondents. septic tank and cesspool. The DRAE defines pozo negro as El que para depsito de aguas inmundas se hace junto a las casas, cuando no hay alcantarillas and defines pozo ciego as Arg. pozo negro. The NDU indicates that pozo ciego is used in this sense in Uruguay as well. Which terms are most common in each country? See wastewater below. shovel (or type of shovel). The NDCol defines garlancha as Cund[inamarca], Huila, Tol[ima] Variedad de pala pequea, usada especialm. en albailera. shower hose, shower head and shower. The DEArg defines duchador as Dispositivo de metal o de plstico, de forma alargada, que tiene en un extremo una flor1 y que, mediante una manguera o tubo flexible, se conecta con una canilla o caera y sirve para ducharse dirigiendo manualmente la salida de agua and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is ducha de telfono. Since we are discussing showers, shower heads and shower hoses, we also note that the DEUMex defines regadera as 1 Utensilio provisto de multitud de perforaciones que se coloca en la punta de un tubo de agua corriente para que sta salga a presin y en varios chorros, particularmente el que se pone a cierta altura en un bao y sirve para baarse: darse un bao de regadera, ponerle una regadera al fregadero and 2 Lugar del bao, generalmente aislado por una cortina, donde se coloca este utensilio y donde uno se baa: meterse a la regadera, Sufri un accidente en la regadera. Is regadera used in preference to ducha in the sense of shower elsewhere in the Spanish-speaking world, besides Mexico? skylight. The DRAE defines claraboya as (Del fr. claire-voie, y este del lat. clara via). Ventana abierta en el techo o en la parte alta de las paredes and tragaluz as Ventana abierta en un techo o en la parte superior de una pared, generalmente con derrame hacia adentro. Neither term is listed with any regional specification or cross-referencing, and yet the two definitions are tantalizingly close; claraboyas obviously also have derrame hacia adentro. What semantic distinctions do Spanish speakers make between them__we note Antonio Buero Vallejos play was called El tragaluz, not La claraboya__and are the terms used more in some regions than in others? spare parts, spare tires, etc. The DEUMex defines refaccin as Pieza que sirve para sustituir a otra semejante en una mquina; pieza de repuesto: refacciones automotrices, falta de refacciones, llanta de refaccin; the DRAE indicates that refaccin is also used in Honduras in this same sense of recambio or repuesto. Is refaccin used elsewhere in this sense? The DEArg defines refaccin as Accin de arreglar o componer algo viejo o deteriorado, especialmente una casa o un edificio and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is restauracin. However, refaccin is really a repair and is not synonymous with restauracin. The DRAE defines refaccin, with no regional specification, as 2. Compostura o reparacin de lo estropeado, which leads one to 102

believe that this usage may be universal rather than regional. Is it general, as the DRAE seems to indicate, or is it regional, as Haensch and Werner claim? switchman. The DECu defines cambiava as Empleado que se ocupa de los cambios de aguja en las vas de ferrocarril and indicates that guardagujas is the Peninsular Spanish term. The DRAE, in turn, defines cambiava as (De cambiar y va). Col., Cuba y Mx. guardagujas. The DEArg defines cambista and guardahilos as Empleado ferroviario, que recorre los rieles y hace los cambios necesarios para que el tren pueda cambiar de va and indicates that cambiador, cambiava and guardagujas are used in Spain, and that guardagujas, guardahilos and cambista are used in Argentina. It would be interesting to know which term, guardagujas or cambiava, is more common in Mexico, especially since there is a well known short story called El Guardagujas by the Mexican writer Juan Jos Arreola. (Because it is not a costumbrista story, even if cambiava were more common in Mexico than guardagujas, it makes sense that Arreola would have opted for the General Spanish term.) Looking at the issue from a pan-Hispanic perspective, what are the relative frequencies of all of the different terms used in the sense of switchman in all of the different Spanish-speaking countries? tape measure. To what extent are cinta mtrica, metro and/or centmetro General Spanish terms for tape measure? Which terms refer to which type of tape measures in which countries (e.g. the kind carpenters use vs. ones used by tailors and seamstresses)? The DRAE lists gincha as (Voz quechua) Bol. cinta mtrica. What other terms are out there? thread (of a screw or bolt). Rosca is the General Spanish term, but hilo is defined in the DECH as fig. Borde en espiral que sirve para encajar y desencajar un tornillo, perno, tuerca, caera, etc... tool. Herramienta is the General Spanish term for tool, but the DRAE defines fierro as 3. C. Rica. herramienta (|| instrumento de trabajo). Yet there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that this usage is common in other Spanish-speaking countries (besides Costa Rica) such as Ecuador, Peru and Chile. Where else is fierro used in this sense? walls (stone walls, brick walls, masonry walls) and fences. The DRAE defines barda2 with no regional specification as (De or. inc.) Seto, vallado o tapia que circunda una propiedad but the DEUMex defines barda as Muro de piedra, adobe, ladrillo, etc. que sirve para separar un terreno o una construccin de otros y para protegerlos o aislarlos. Is the latter usage distinctly Mexican, or is it found elsewhere, and if so, with what frequency in different regions? There is evidence to suggest that the use of barda in this sense is much more common in Mexico than in other countries where people would just call this type of wall a muro, a pared, or perhaps a tapia, a tapial or a verja. The lxico del habla culta studies address the issue of wall in item 1125, and those of fence and metal fence in items 1427 and 1126, respectively. Nonetheless, more research needs to be done to determine how different Spanish speakers use and interpret terms such as cerca, cercado, cerco, enrejado, medianera, reja, tapia, tapial, valla, vallado and verja. washers (e.g. rubber or plastic washers used in plumbing). The DRAE defines junta as 7. Pieza de cartn, camo, caucho u otra materia compresible, que se coloca en la unin de dos tubos u otras partes de un aparato o mquina, para impedir el escape del cuerpo fluido que contienen and zapatilla as 4. Pieza de cuero, goma, etc., que sirve para mantener hermticamente adheridas dos partes diferentes que estn en comunicacin, como 103

caeras, depsitos, etc. The DRAE also defines empaque as 3. Col., C. Rica y Hond. zapatilla (|| pieza para mantener hermticamente adheridas dos partes diferentes). The NDCol defines guasa as Pequea pieza en forma de disco de metal o de goma, con un orificio en el medio, que se utiliza, p. ej., como zapatilla de una llave o grifo and indicates that it is a synonym of what in Spain and Colombia is called arandela (?). The NDCol also defines empaque as Anillo de cuero, goma u otra materia compresible que se coloca en la juntura de dos piezas, p. ej. en los grifos y caeras, para evitar que escapen los fluidos and indicates that it is a synonym of what in Spain is called a junta. With regard to washers used in plumbing, initial evidence from this study suggests that empaque may be used in much of Spanish America, junta and zapatilla in Spain, zapatilla in the Antilles, and cuerito in Argentina. For information on metal washers (used with screws and bolts), see section B5 above. waste water. The DRAE defines agua residual as La que procede de viviendas, poblaciones o zonas industriales y arrastra suciedad y detritos. U. m. en pl. [Usado ms en plural] and defines aguas negras as aguas residuales. The DRAE also defines aguas albaales as Cuba. aguas residuales and aguas servidas as Arg., Per y Ur. aguas residuales. It appears that the term aguas servidas is used in many more countries than just these three, but which terms are used with which frequencies in which countries? See septic tank above. winch. The NDCol defines hinche and ginche as Mquina de varios tipos, consistente fundamentalmente en un cilindro en el cual se arrolla un cable, soga o cadena para elevar o mover pesos and indicates that cabrestante is used in this same sense in Spain and Colombia. The DRAE defines guinche (with no diresis or umlaut on the u) as Arg., Bol., Cuba y Ur. gra (|| mquina para levantar y trasladar cargas). If the initial sound of the Spanish word which derives from English winch is labial like the sound of the w in English weather or labial and palatal similar to the sound of the gw in English Gwen, then a diresis on the u seems to be necessary on the spelling with a g (ginche), but superfluous on the spelling with an h, since hinche would be pronounced the same as huinche. If the initial sound is velar (like the g in English gift), then guinche is the logical spelling. See section B5.3, General, above for a discussion of spelling issues involving gu/g vs. hu. wrench A - flat wrenches or rigid wrenches. Like crescent wrenches (see section A8 above), flat wrenches are used to turn nuts and bolts, but unlike crescent wrenches, flat wrenches do not adjust and, as a result, are generally sold in an entire set. Three common types of flat wrenches are the open-end wrench (one having fixed open jaws), the closed wrench, box wrench or box-end wrench (one with enclosed heads inside of which are gripping angles), and the combination wrench or combo wrench (one with a box end and an open end on opposite sides of the same wrench, with both ends usually the same size; see Figure A8' in Illustrations). Combo wrenches are actually the most common type of flat wrench. The open-end wrench seems to correspond to what the DRAE calls a llave de tuerca, which it defines as Herramienta en forma de horquilla, que sirve para apretar o aflojar las tuercas en los tornillos. In this study, the following terms were offered by respondents from the following countries for open -end wrenches: llave abierta (Honduras?, Panama, Cuba?, Dominican Republic), llave boca 104

fija (Colombia, Paraguay?), llave de boca (Panama?, Colombia?, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Uruguay?, Argentina), llave de cola (Guatemala), llave de perno (Bolivia), llave de punta (Chile), llave de tuerca(s) or llave tuerca (Costa Rica, Cuba?, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Ecuador?, Uruguay, Chile), llave espaola (Cuba, Dominican Republic?), llave fija (Spain, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama?, Puerto Rico, Venezuela?, Colombia, Bolivia?, Paraguay?, Uruguay, Argentina), and llave para tuercas (Colombia). The following terms were offered for closed wrenches: llave (de) corona (Honduras, Costa Rica, Ecuador), llave de estrella (Colombia?), llave de estras (Puerto Rico?), and llave estriada (Argentina?). And for combination wrenches respondents offered llave mixta, llave combinada and llave de combinacin; research needs to be done to determine if any of the latter three terms are regionally weighted. wrench B - lug wrench or tire wrench. The NDCol (Colombia) defines cruceta as Herramienta en forma de cruz, usada para ajustar las tuercas que aseguran las ruedas de los automviles and indicates that the Peninsular Spanish equivalent is llave de ruedas. The DEArg defines llave en cruz as Herramienta de metal, en forma de cruz, que se emplea para sacar y ajustar los tornillos de las ruedas de un automvil o vehculo de carga. The Diccionario de Guatemaltequismos (Morales Pellecer) defines llave de chuchos as herramienta que se usa para aflojar o apretar los chuchos (V.) de las llantas and defines chucho as tuerca de los tornillos que sujetan las ruedas de un carro. The NDCR (Costa Rica) defines llave de rana as Llave en forma de cruz con abultamientos en cada extremo por donde se ajustan las tuercas de las ruedas de los automviles. And the DHAV (Venezuela) defines llave de cruz as Herramienta de metal formada por dos barras de hierro o acero cruzadas entre s con una pieza en cada uno de sus extremos especial para tuercas, que se utiliza principalmente para cambiar las ruedas de los automviles. In this study, llave (de) cruz was also offered by some Hondurans and Nicaraguans in this sense. What are the equivalents of tire wrench or lug wrench in the other Spanish-speaking countries? wrench C (other types of wrenches). The DEArg defines llave California as Herramienta de hierro o acero, con muescas y agujeros, que se usa en el campo para estirar el alambre y ajustar tornillos and one Argentine in this study indicated that a llave cocodrilo is a Vshaped flat wrench with grippers (like those on a jar-opener) that is used on ships to adjust large nuts and lugs. Other types of wrenches that were not researched at all in this study include allen wrenches, chain wrenches, locking wrenches, ratchet wrenches, socket wrenches and torque wrenches. A description of each of these can be found at www.acehard-ware.com.

NOTES 1. From Abstract. I would like to express my appreciation to Lucrecia Hug, Clary Loisel and Sharlee Merner Bradley for editing earlier drafts and making valuable suggestions, as well as to Virginia Navarro for going out of her way to put me in contact with informants/respondents for this study. I would also like to thank all those who generously gave of their time to answer questions on usage. In addition to the works that appear in References below, information on 105

items in other domains or semantic fields whose names in Spanish vary by region is found in the following works by Andre Moskowitz: Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: wild kingdom. Proceedings of the 45th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, October 13-16, 2004. Marian S. Greenfield, comp. American Translators Association, 2004. 169228. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: back to basics. Proceedings of the 44th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A., November 5-8, 2003. Scott Brennan, comp. American Translators Association, 2003. 287-343. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: la ciudad y los fueros. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A., November 6-9, 2002. Scott Brennan, comp. American Translators Association, 2002. 353-399. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: folks. Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A., October 31November 3, 2001. Thomas L. West III, comp. American Translators Association, 2001. 268-301. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: kids stuff. Proceedings of the 41st Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A., September 20-23, 2000. Thomas L. West III, comp. American Translators Association, 2000. 328-366. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: food and drink. Proceedings of the 40th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., November 3-6, 1999. Ann G. Macfarlane, comp. American Translators Association, 1999. 275-308. Topics in Spanish lexical dialectology: the home. Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, U.S.A., November 4-8, 1998. Ann G. Macfarlane, comp. American Translators Association, 1998. 221-253. Fruit and vegetable terminology in the Spanish-speaking world: regional variation. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, San Francisco, California, U.S.A., November 5-9, 1997. Muriel M. Jrme-OKeeffe, comp. American Translators Association, 1997. 233-261. Clothing terminology in the Spanish-speaking world: regional variation. Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Colorado Springs, Colorado, U.S.A., October 30-November 3, 1996. Muriel M. Jrme-OKeeffe, comp. American Translators Association, 1996. 287-308. Car terminology in the Spanish-speaking world. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A., November 8-12, 1995. Peter W. Krawutschke, comp. American Translators Association, 1995. 331-340. Contribucin al estudio del espaol ecuatoriano. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Department of Romance Languages and Literatures, University of Florida. Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A. 1995. 106

A box of office supplies: dialectological fun. The Georgetown Journal of Languages & Linguistics. Vol 1.3. Ed. Richard J. OBrien, S.J. 1990. 315-344. 2. From Introduction (Section 0). Spanish speakers have not been extensively surveyed in this study regarding the names for the claw of a hammer, but preliminary information suggests that the term for this item may also vary. Investigation needs to be done to determine who says la ua del martillo, who says la oreja del martillo, who says la pata de cabra del martillo, and who uses other terms. 3. From Introduction (Section 0). The term electrical is defined in the American Heritage Dictionary (Pickett), the Encarta Websters Dictionary (Soukhanov), and the New Oxford American Dictionary (McKean) with various adjectival senses relating to electricity, but in none of these sources is it defined as a noun with the meaning of electrical system, wiring and other electrical work or electrical department. While one may certainly object to the use of electrical as a noun on the grounds that the suffix -al is adjectival, I believe this is a gap in English-language lexicography that needs to be filled since electrical can be a noun as the following examples illustrate: The inspection will cover all major elements of the home including the grounds, the exterior, the electrical, the plumbing, the heating and air, the structural components, the foundation and/or basement, the interior trim, flooring, kitchen/appliances, bathrooms, and much more... (Safe and Sound Home Inspections, Inc.; emphasis on electrical added), and The Ferrari management went in and completely gutted the assembly lines, staging and work areas. They tore it all out the electrical, the plumbing, the works... (Mandarano; emphasis on electrical added). Electrical in these examples appears to be an ellipsis of electrical system, but grammatically the word is functioning as a noun just like plumbing, heating, air, and foundation. Similarly, if you go into a hardware store and ask an employee where you can find, say, wire nuts, he or she may very well give you an answer such as Thats over in electrical. All the way down the aisle, then make a... In this case, electrical is an ellipsis of electrical department. The process by which adjectives get converted into nouns is quite common and productive in English. Consider such ubiquitous examples as e-mail (an email message) and voice-mail (a voice-mail message). Who among us can say with a straight face that he or she has never heard phrases like, She left me a voice-mail? And in the future, I suspect there will probably be fewer and fewer of us who can say we have never used such phrases in our own speech and even writing. A more recent example of this linguistic process now frequently used by computer people (who in the United States seem to be an increasingly large percentage of the population) is the use of the noun work-around in the sense of a strategy or technique used to work around some problem or difficulty. Here, work-around is an ellipsis of work-around strategy, work-around technique, etc. 4. From Introduction (Section 0.2). The Home Depot was a large chain home-improvement store in the United States at the end of the second millennium A.D. and the beginning of the third offering a broad selection of products and low prices, though sometimes limited advice or guidance from its personnel on where to find things or what was required for the job. The Home Depot epitomized one-stop shopping in that customers who did not have a truck could rent one at the store by the hour in order to haul away their building materials. And for those contractors or 107

homeowners in need of inexpensive day labor, Home Depot stores in many states had the added allure of allowing guys, immigrants, without whom the construction industry (among others) would literally grind to a halt, to hang out in their parking lot in the hopes of being hired. 5. From Section A13.3, Ecuador. It is somewhat odd that the HEDE (Crdova Malo), in its definition of bailejo, should refer to Norte as a region of Ecuador as it is more typical to speak of two separate zones, the Costa Norte and the Sierra Norte, which geographically, culturally and phonologically have little in common. There may not be complete agreement, however, on how the regions of Ecuador are to be defined. For example, El Gran Libro de la Cocina Ecuatoriana (Rojas: 4, 28, 92, 112, 144, 160, 176, 189) divides the country into eight regions consisting of the following provinces: Costa Norte (Esmeraldas and Manab), Costa Sur (Guayas, los Ros and el Oro), Sierra Norte (el Carchi and Imbabura), Sierra Central (Pichincha, Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Chimborazo and Bolvar), Austro (Caar and Azuay), Sierra Sur (Loja), Oriente (Zamora Chinchipe, Morona Santiago, Pastaza and Napo) and the Galpagos. Lipski (1994: 247249), however, viewing Ecuador from the point of view of phonology, distributes the provinces into the following six regions: Coastal Region (Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ros, Manab), Extreme North-Central (el Carchi), Central Highlands (from Imbabura to Chimborazo), Caar and Azuay (that is, Rojas Austro), Loja (Rojas Sierra Sur), and the Amazonian Region (what Ecuadorans call el Oriente). Aside from omitting the coastal province of el Oro, which does not greatly affect the overall division, the main difference is that Lipskis Sierra Central includes Imbabura, since the speech of this province shares some phonological traits with that of Quito and points farther south, whereas for Rojas this province is part of the Sierra Norte. With regard to the Oriente, we also note that the Amazonian province of Napo was recently divided into three new provinces: Napo, Orellana and Sucumbos. 6. From Section A16.3, Venezuela. According to the list of abbreviations on pages LXXV-LXXVI of the Diccionario de Venezolanismos (Tejera), Centr refers to the Centro or Regin Central, consisting of the Distrito Federal, i.e. Caracas, and the states of Miranda, Aragua and Carabobo, Llan refers to the (Venezuelan) Llanos, consisting of the states of Cojedes, Portuguesa, Barinas, Apure, Gurico and the western part of the state of Anzotegui, Truj refers to the state of Trujillo, and Occ refers to the Regin Occidental, consisting of the states of Zulia, Yaracuy, Falcn and Lara.

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