Chapter 5 PDF

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA
MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)
DEFINITION: A conductor or group of conductors used either for radiating electromagnetic energy into space or for collecting it from space. Or Is a structure which may be described as a metallic object, often a wire or a collection of wires through specific design capable of converting high frequency current into EM wave and transmit it into free space at light velocity with high power (kW) besides receiving EM wave from free space and convert it into high frequency current at much lower power (mW).
Also known as transducer because it acts as coupling devices between microwave circuits and free space and vice versa.
Electrical energy from the transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by the antenna and radiated into space. On the receiving end, electromagnetic energy is converted into electrical energy by the antenna and fed into the receiver.
Basic operation of transmit and receive antennas.
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space Receiver - collects electromagnetic energy from space
In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and receiver.
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Short wavelength produced by high frequency microwave, allows the usage of highly directive antenna. For long distant signal transmission, the usage of antenna at microwave frequency is more economical. Usage of waveguide is suitable for short
distance signal transmission.

FUNCTIONS OF ANTENNA Transmit energy with high efficiency (kW).
Receive energy as low as mW.
Provide matching between transmitter and free space and between free space
and receiver, thus maximum power transfer is achieve besides preventing the occurrence of reflection.
Figure 1 below, shows the energy transmitted into free space via an open ended /
4 transmission lines. The proportion of wave escaping the system is very small due to : /4
radiation (small portion of EM wave energy escapes from the system)
FIGURE 1
Mismatch exists that is surrounding space as load.
Since the two wires are closed together and in opposite direction (180), therefore it
is apparent that the radiation from one tip will cancelled that from the other.
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TYPES OF MICROWAVE ANTENNA Dielectric lens antenna Printed (patch or microstrip) antenna Phase Array antenna
Horn / aperture antenna Paraboloid / dish antenna Dipole antenna Slotted (leaky-wave) antenna
A) HORN / APERTURE ANTENNA Like parabolic reflectors, you can use HORN RADIATORS to obtain directive radiation at microwave frequencies. Because they do not use resonant elements, horns have the advantage of being useful over a wide frequency band.
The operation of a horn as an RF radiating device is similar to that of an automobile horn radiating sound waves. However, the throat of an automobile horn usually is sized much smaller than the sound wavelengths for which it is used. The throat of the RF radiating horn is sized to be comparable to the wavelength being used. Horn radiators are used with waveguides because they serve both as an impedancematching device and as a directional radiator. Horn radiators may be fed by coaxial and other types of lines.
Horn radiators are constructed in a variety of shapes. The shape of the horn determines the shape of the field pattern. The ratio of the horn length to the size of its mouth determines the beam angle and directivity. In general, the larger the mouth of the horn, the more directive is the field pattern.
Is produced from an open ended waveguide. Horn antenna is used to provide a
gradual flare at the end of the waveguide, thus producing maximum radiation into space with minimum reflection back to the source.
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Because of impedance mismatch, the horn is tapered in one dimension to a
rectangular shape as shown in Figure 4 (a) and (b) thus produces an impedance matching between the waveguide and that of the impedance of free space. Horn tapered / flared in the E or H planes are called sectoral horn. If flared in E and H plane (2 dimensions) it is called a pyramidal horn. A circular waveguide can be matched to free space with conical taper as shown in Figure 4 (d) and is called conical horn antenna.
Higher gain and directivity for longer horn dimension.
Enhance performance when use together with parabolic reflector.
Its narrow beam angle caused increase in antenna gain.
WAVEGUIDE AS A TRANSMITTER
RF energy reaching the open end of
BASIC HORN
ANTENNA
Used to overcome the problem facing
a waveguide will be partly radiated into space and partly reflected back into the waveguide because the end is not well matched to free space so VSWR will result.
Produce a weak and no directional
by an open ended waveguide. (i.e. to avoid mismatch).

Directivity improved and diffraction
reduced.
radiation pattern due to refraction around the open ends.
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Difference type of Antenna horn can be produced based on open ended flaring of
the horn (FIGURE 4).
PLANE
HORN
SECTORAL H
PLANE
HORN
SECTORAL
ANTENNA
ANTENNA
PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA (E & H CONICAL HORN ANTENNA PLANE)
FIGURE 4
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3 TYPES OF HORN ANTENNA:i)
Horn antenna tapered / flared in one dimension only i.e in E-plane or H-plane (known as sectoral horn).
ii) Horn antenna tapered / flared in two dimension i.e in E-plane and H-plane
(known as pyramidal horn).

iii) Conical taper / flares uniformly in all direction i.e in circular form.
Eplane, Hplane Horn sectoral antenna and the pyramidal antenna is used to provide matching between rectangular waveguide and free space. Whereas matching between circular waveguide and free space can be achieved by using conical horn.
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SECTORAL ANTENNA
THE E-, H- PLANE & PYRAMIDAL HORN
E- PLANE HORN SECTORAL ANTENNA Radiation pattern exhibits side lobe
H- PLANE HORN SECTORAL ANTENNA Radiation pattern exhibits no side lobe, thus more popular.
PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA Radiation pattern flares in 2 direction i.e in E-plane and H-plane. Therefore improves directivity.
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FACTORS AFFECTING THE GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY OF HORN ANTENNA
Selection of horn frequency depends on aperture area, beam angle and length. Better impedance and small losses - the longer the horn and its open ended. Higher gain and directivity bigger flare-out shape (though it is not as good
parabola antenna).
as
Easy to construct and robust.
DIMENSION OF HORN ANTENNA
SIDE VIEW
END / FRONT VIEW
APEX
WAVEGUIDE APERTURE
H
l
BEAM / FLARING ANGLE W
Whereby; m2 A - area (m2 ); H height (m); W width (m)
A= HxW
Horn length: between 215 from the wavelength of operational the frequency. Beam
angle range for antenna directivity: between 10 - 60 and gain range between: 10 20 dB. = = beam width () ; W = horn width (m)
BEAM WIDTH;
80_ W/
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= wavelength of the operational frequency (m) 4 k A__ 2
GAIN;
G=
G = gain; A = area (m2) k = uniform phase distribution & E.M field amplitude across the aperture (0.5 -0.6)
Small Beam width produce wave front , shallow horn, and flared radiation pattern. Thus, not suitable for long distance transmission.
RADIATION PATTERN OF SECTORAL HORN

The used of horn pyramid helps to improve directivity due to dual flaring. Pyramid and conical horn produce pencil beam radiation pattern, hence better directivity as compared to sectoral horn.
Horn antenna is a non resonant (wide band) device which operates at a very high frequency range (usually at 10 % of the operational frequency). Example; At operating frequency of 10 GHz, the bandwidth is 1 GHz.
b)
PARABOLIC (REFLECTOR / DISH) ANTENNA
It is a big dish like structure made from metal or wire mesh / grid. Mesh hole / 12. Widely used in microwave propagation via free space. Also known as secondary antenna since it depends on primary antenna which acts as a feeder at the focal point (horn antenna or dipole antenna) to enhance the performance quality of the transmitter and the receiver.
A point source, such as an omnidirectional antenna produces a spherical radiation pattern, or spherical wavefront. As the sphere expands, the energy contained in a given
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surface area decreases rapidly. At a relatively short distance from the antenna, the energy level is so small that its reflection from a target would be useless in a radar system.
A solution to this problem is to form the energy into a PLANE wavefront, in a plane wavefront, all of the energy travels in the same direction, thus providing more energy to reflect off of a target. To concentrate the energy even further, a parabolic reflector is used to shape the plane wavefronts energy into a beam of energy. This concentration of energy provides a maximum amount of energy to be reflected off of a target, making detection of the target much more probable.
The basic paraboloid reflector used to produce different beam shapes required by special applications. The basic characteristics of the most commonly used paraboloids are presented as below:
Basic paraboloid reflector
Truncated Paraboloid
Pillbox
TRUNCATED PARABOLOID Since the reflector is parabolic in the horizontal plane, the energy is focused into a narrow beam. With the reflector TRUNCATED (cut) so that it is shortened vertically, the beam spreads out vertically instead of being focused. This fan-shaped beam is used in radar detection applications for the accurate determination of bearing. Since the beam is spread vertically, it will detect aircraft at different altitudes without changing the tilt of
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the antenna. The truncated paraboloid also works well for surface search radar applications to compensate for the pitch and roll of the ship. Truncated paraboloid may be used in target height-finding systems if the reflector is rotated 90. Since the reflector is now parabolic in the vertical plane, the energy is focused vertically into a narrow beam. If the reflector is truncated, or cut, so that it is shortened horizontally, the beam will spread out horizontally instead of being focused. Such a fan-shaped beam is used to accurately determine elevation.
ORANGE-PEEL PARABOLOID
A section of a complete circular paraboloid, often called an ORANGE-PEEL REFLECTOR because of its orange-peel shape. Since the reflector is narrow in the horizontal plane and wide in the vertical plane, it produces a beam that is wide in the horizontal plane and narrow in the vertical plane. In shape, the beam resembles a huge beaver tail. The microwave energy is sent into the parabolic reflector by a horn radiator (not shown) which is fed by a waveguide. The horn radiation pattern covers nearly the entire shape of the reflector, so almost all of the microwave energy strikes the reflector and very little escapes at the sides. Antenna systems which use orange-peel paraboloids are often used in height-finding equipment.
Orange-peel paraboloid
Cylindrical paraboloid
Corner reflector
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CYLINDRICAL PARABOLOID
When a beam of radiated energy that is noticeably wider in one cross-sectional dimension than in another is desired, a cylindrical paraboloidal section which approximates a rectangle can be used. A PARABOLIC CYLINDER has a parabolic cross section in just one dimension which causes the reflector to be directive in one plane only. The cylindrical paraboloid reflector is fed either by a linear array of dipoles, a slit in the side of a waveguide, or by a thin waveguide radiator. It also has a series of focal points forming a straight line rather than a single focal point. Placing the radiator, or radiators, along this focal line produces a directed beam of energy. As the width of the parabolic section is changed, different beam shapes are obtained. You may see this type of antenna system used in search radar systems and in ground control approach (GCA) radar systems.
CORNER REFLECTOR The CORNER-REFLECTOR ANTENNA consists of two flat conducting sheets that meet at an angle to form a corner. The corner reflector is normally driven by a HALFWAVE RADIATOR located on a line which bisects the angle formed by the sheet reflectors.
A microwave source is placed at focal point F. The field leaves this antenna as a spherical wavefront. As each part of the wavefront reaches the reflecting surface, it is phase-shifted 180 degrees. Each part is then sent outward at an angle that results in all parts of the field traveling in parallel paths. Because of the special shape of a parabolic surface, all paths from F to the reflector and back to line XY are the same length. Therefore, when the parts of the field are reflected from the parabolic surface, they travel to line XY in the same amount of time.
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Parabolic reflector radiation.
X
TO FREE SPACE
A B C D
WAVE FRONT
A` B` FOCAL POINT C` D E`
FROM FREE SPACE
Y PLANE WAVE
A point-radiation source is placed at the focal point F. The field leaves this antenna with a spherical wavefront. As each part of the wavefront moving toward the reflector reaches the reflecting surface, it is shifted 180 degrees in phase and sent outward at angles that cause all parts of the field to travel in parallel paths. Because of the shape of a parabolic surface, all paths from F to the reflector and back to line XY are the same length. Therefore, all parts of the field arrive at line XY at the same time after reflection. A parasitic array to direct the radiated field back to the reflector, or a feed horn pointed at the paraboloid is used to make the beam sharper and to concentrates the majority of the power in the beam.
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The radiation pattern of the paraboloid contains a major lobe, which is directed along the axis of the paraboloid and several minor lobes. Very narrow beams are possible with this type of reflector.
PARABOLIC RADIATION PATTERN
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AS TRANSMITTER The wave at the focus point will be directed to the main reflector and will be reflected parallel to the parabola axis. Thus the wave will travel at the same time and phase at A`E` (XY) line and the plane wave produce will be transmitted to the free space.
AS RECEIVER The plane wave received which is parallel to the parabola axis will be reflected by the main reflector to the focus point. This characteristic makes the parabola antenna to possess high gain and a confined beam width.
C) SLOTTED (LEAKY-WAVE) ANTENNA Can be fabricated from a length of a waveguide. They are simple to fabricate, have low-loss (high efficiency) and radiate linear polarization with low cross-polarization.
Slotted antenna arrays used with waveguides are a popular antenna in navigation, radar and other high-frequency systems. These antennas are often used in aircraft applications because they can be made to conform to the surface on which they are mounted. The slots are typically thin (< 0.1 ) and 0.5 (at the center frequency of operation).
The slots on the waveguide will assumed to have a narrow width. Increasing the width increases the bandwidth (recall that a fatter antenna often has an increased bandwidth); the expense of a larger width is a higher degree of cross-polarization. The Fractional Bandwidth for thin slots can be as low as 3-5%; wide slots can have a FBW on the order of 75%.
An example of a slotted waveguide array is shown in Figure 1 (dimensions given by length a and width b)
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Figure 1: Basic Geometry of a Slotted Waveguide Antenna
As in the cavity-backed slot antenna, each slot could be independently fed with a voltage source across the slot. This would be very difficult to construct especially for large arrays. The waveguide is used as the transmission line to feed the elements.
The position, shape and orientation of the slots will determine how (or if) they radiate. In addition, the shape of the waveguide and frequency of operation will play a major role.
EXAMPLE; The dominant TE10 mode will be assumed to exist within the waveguide. Radiation occurs when the currents must "go around" the slots in order to continue on their desired direction. As an example, consider a narrow slot in the center of the waveguide, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Waveguide with a Thin Slot Centered about its Width.
In this case, the z-component of the current will not be disturbed, because the slot is thin and the z-current would not need to travel around the slot.
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Hence, the x-component of the current will be responsible for the radiation. However, at this location (x=a/2), the x-component of the current density is zero - i.e. no current and therefore no radiation. As a result, slots can not be placed in the center of the waveguide as shown in Figure 2.
If the slots are displaced from the centerline as shown in Figure 1, the x-directed current will not be zero and will need to travel around the slot. Hence, radiation will occur.
Note: the distance from the edge will determine the magnitude of the current. As a result, the power that the slot radiates can be altered by moving the slots closer or farther from the edge. In this manner, a phased array can be designed with varying excitation to each element.
If the slot is oriented as shown in Figure 3, the slot will disturb the z-component of the current density. This slot will then radiate. If this slot is displaced away from the center line, the amount of power that it radiates can be adjusted.
Figure 3: Horizontal Slot in a Waveguide
If the slot is rotated at an angle about the centerline as shown in Figure 4, it will radiate. The power it radiates will be a function of the angle (phi) that it is rotated - specifically given by sin2. Note that the z-component of the current is still responsible for radiation in this case. The x-component is disturbed; however the currents will have opposite magnitudes on either side of the centerline and will thus tend to cancel out the radiation.
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Figure 4: Rotated Slot Antenna in a Waveguide
The most common slotted waveguide resembles that shown in Figure 5:
Figure 5: Geometry of the Most Common Slotted Waveguide Antenna
The front end (the open face at the y=0 in the x-z plane) is where the antenna is fed. The far end is usually shorted (enclosed in metal). The waveguide may be excited by a short dipole (as seen on the cavity-backed slot antenna) page, or by another waveguide.
The waveguide itself acts as a transmission line, and the slots in the waveguide can be viewed as parallel (shunt) admittances.
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Figure 6: Slotted Waveguide Antenna Fed by a Coaxial Feed.
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Shunt load
Longitudinal slot in broad face
Series load
Center inclined slot in broad face
Series load
Transverse slot in broad face
Shunt load
Inclined slot in narrow face
The end of the waveguide is terminated in a pyramid terminator to avoid line reflections. The radiating field pattern depends on the spacing of the slots (phase relationship) and their orientation with reference to the waveguide.
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A slot cut in the wall of the waveguide, transverse to the direction of the interior boundary currents (due to the interior EM wave) will couple the EM energy from inside the wave guide to a radiant free-space wave. The length of slot is cut to be a resonant one-half (/2) wavelength.
D)
DIPOLE ANTENNAS
TWO TYPES OF DIPOLE ANTENNAS: Half-wave (/2) dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna) Quarter-wave ( /4) vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)
It is the simplest practical antenna. It is very short wavelength of wire over which the current distribution can be assumed to be uniform.
This result for a free space short-dipole and the radiation pattern (polar diagram) in the vertical plane is a figure of 8 and a circular in a horizontal plane. The electric field, is directional in the vertical plane but is omnidirectional on the horizontal plane.
3 Vertical plane Horizontal plane dl 2 1 max
The dipole antenna is the simplest antenna, despite of not being used practically in applications, it is used to test antenna labs (so it is considered the reference antenna), a
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dipole antenna consists of 2 wires (/4 for its length) , the two wires are separated by a gap and their terminals are connected to the transmitter or the receiver.
/4
This type of dipoles is called half wave length dipole as the total length is / 2
+ /4
Dipole geometry
Dipole configuration
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RADIATION PATTERN
The dipole is an electric field antenna, means that the magnetic field is zero at the near field. The radiation pattern is like a donut cake with the maximum perpendicular to the dipole, and a null along it. The polarization is along the dipole.
The 3D plot of the radiation pattern of a dipole antenna.
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The radiation pattern for the Electric field for a folded dipole antenna
The radiation pattern of the dipole, all the field is electric as shown
The radiation pattern of the dipole, the magnetic field equals zero No radiation pattern for
the magnetic field. This means that a dipole is an electric field antenna.
When the length of the dipole exceeds lambda the radiation pattern takes a new shape due to the appearance of the grating lobes where the major lobes divides into multiple lobes .
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E) DIELECTRIC (LENS) ANTENNAS Lenses play a similar role to that of reflectors in reflector antennas: they collimate divergent energy. Used at the higher microwave frequencies (often preferred to reflectors at frequencies > 100 GHz) and are useful in mm microwave region.
LENS ANTENNA converts spherically radiated microwave energy into a plane wave (in a given direction) by using a point source (open end of the waveguide) with a COLLIMATING LENS. A collimating lens forces all radial segments of the spherical wavefront into parallel paths. The point source can be regarded as a gun which shoots the microwave energy toward the lens. The point source is often a horn radiator or a simple dipole antenna. (Lens refraction, parabolic reflector reflection)
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BASIC PRINCIPLE PLANE WAVE LENS LENS COLLIMATED RAY POINT O SOURCE A B C A` B` C`
Spherical wavefront changed to plane wavefront through dielectric lens. DIELECTRIC LENS ANTENNA LENS ANTENNA AS WAVE COLLIMATOR
The velocity of EM wave through a dielectric material is less than that in free space. The section of spherical EM wave that travels through the center (the greatest thickness) of the dielectric material will travel most slowly compared to both end.
The velocities of the spherical wave entering the lens will be controlled and the curved wavefront will become a plane wavefront with constant phase in front of the dielectric antenna (refraction based on Snells law).
Are constructed from polystyrene, teflon or any denser dielectric material to produce large diffraction although its size and weight is small. The material use will cause the wave to attenuate greatly (losses and absorption of signal - greatest attenuation at center thickest lens).
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To avoid this situation, zoned and stepped dielectric antennas are used so that the optical path can be divided into paths differing by integral multiples of a wavelength from one zone to another.
BASIC DIELECTRIC LENS
STEPPED DIELECTRIC LENS
ZONED DIELECTRIC LENS
Basic dielectric lens requires a specific wavelength due to its thickness. Hence its usage is not practical as compared to the stepped or zoned dielectric lens antenna which has different path for different wavelength.
The stepped or zoned dielectric lens antenna is used to reduce the lens thickness and to decrease the curvature of the spherical wave.
F)
PRINTED (MICROSTRIP OR PATCH) ANTENNA
A patch antenna is a narrowband, wide-beam antenna.
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Fabricated by etching the antenna element pattern in metal trace bonded to an insulating dielectric substrate, such as a printed circuit board, with a continuous metal layer bonded to the opposite side of the substrate which forms a ground plane. Common microstrip antenna shapes are square, rectangular, circular and elliptical, but any continuous shape is possible. Some patch antennas do not use a dielectric substrate and instead made of a metal patch mounted above a ground plane using dielectric spacers; the resulting structure is less rugged but has a wider bandwidth. Because such antennas have a very low profile, are mechanically rugged and can be shaped to conform to the curving skin of a vehicle, they are often mounted on the exterior of aircraft and spacecraft, or are incorporated into mobile radio communications devices. A microstrip antenna consists of:
The patch (radiating element) may be circular, rectangular or any other shape.
TYPES OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS: Open Circuit Microstrip Short Circuit Microstrip
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The patch is totally isolated from the ground plane. Higher efficiency than short circuit microstrip antennas. Side length of the patch is g / 2.
The patch is connected to the ground Have only one radiating edge. Side length is g / 4
ADVANTAGES
High accuracy in manufacturing, the design is executed by Photo etching. Easy to integrate with other devices. An array of microstrip antennas can be used to form a pattern that is difficult to synthesize using a single element. We can obtain high directivity using microstrip arrays. Have a main radiating edge, this makes it useful for mobile Phones to avoid radiation inside the device. Small sized applicable for handheld portable communication. Smart antennas when combined with phase shifters.
DISADVANTAGES
Narrow band width (1%) , while mobiles need ( 8% ). Low efficiency, especially for short circuited microstrip antenna. Some feeding techniques like aperture and proximity coupling are difficult to fabricate. An array suffers presence of feed network decreasing efficiency; also microstrip antennas are relatively expensive.
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MICROSTRIP VS REFLECTORS Microstrip Antennas Preferred applications. Lower efficiency. Suffers low efficiency caused by feed network for arrays. Smart antennas, uses electronic for low Reflector Antennas directivity Performed for high directivity
applications as the effect of blockage is less. Higher efficiency. Suffers blockage caused by fixation Struts. Uses mechanical scanning. Less accuracy, sometimes parabolic surfaces are rough. Uses other antenna (dipole, monopole, apertures, etc) as a feed.
scanning when combined with phase shifters. More accurate manufacturing by photo etching. Feeding is by coupling or coax feed lines.
G)
PHASED ARRAY ANTENNA
Is an array of antennas in which the relative phases of the respective signals feeding the antennas are varied in such a way that the effective radiation pattern of the array is reinforced in a desired direction and suppressed in undesired directions.
Phased array transmission is use to enhance transmission of radio waves in one direction. A phased array antenna is composed of lots of radiating elements each with a phase shifter. Beams are formed by shifting the phase of the signal emitted from each radiating element, to provide constructive/destructive interference so as to steer the beams in the desired direction. Areas of the antenna matrix can act as separate antennas. This allows many antenna beam patterns to be individually controlled at the same time. A large, phase-steered
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antenna system could be used to control the positions of many aircraft as at larger airport. In the figure 1 (left) both radiating elements are fed with the same phase. The signal is amplified by constructive interference in the main direction. The beam sharpness is improved by the destructive interference
Phased patch array Figure 1: Left : two antenna elements, fed with the same phase, Right: two antenna elements, fed with different phase shift
In the figure 1 (right), the signal is emitted by the lower radiating element with a phase shift of 22 degrees earlier than of the upper radiating element. Because of this the main direction of the emitted sum-signal is moved upwards. (Note: Radiating elements have been used without reflector in the figure. Therefore the back lobe of the shown antenna diagrams is just as large as the main lobe.) The main beam always points in the direction of the increasing phase shift. If the signal to be radiated is delivered through an electronic phase shifter giving a continuous phase shift, the beam direction will be electronically adjustable. However, this cannot be extended unlimitedly. The highest value, which can be achieved for the Field of View (FOV) of a phased array antenna, is 120 (60 left and 60 right). With the sine theorem the necessary phase moving can be calculated.
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Advantages

Disadvantages
high gain width los side lobes Ability to permit the beam to jump from one target to the next in a few microseconds
the coverage is limited to a 120 degree sector in azimuth and elevation
Ability to provide an agile beam under computer control
deformation of the beam while the deflection
arbitrarily modes of surveillance and tracking
low frequency agility very complex structure (processor, phase shifters)
free eligible Dwell Time multifunction operation by emitting several beams simultaneously
still high costs
Fault of single components reduces the capability and beam sharpness, but the system remains operational
CONCLUSION: Beamforming antenna systems improve wireless network performance increase system capacity improve signal quality suppress interference and noise save power
Beamforming antennas improve infrastructure networks performance. They may improve ad hoc networks performance. New MAC protocol standards are needed.
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Vector antennas may replace spatial arrays to further improve beamforming performance
. The relative amplitudes of and constructive and destructive interference effects among the signals radiated by the individual antennas determine the effective radiation pattern of the array. A phased array may be used to point a fixed radiation pattern, or to scan rapidly in azimuth or elevation.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PHASED ARRAYS There are two main types of beamformers: time domain beamformers frequency domain beamformers
A graduated attenuation window is sometimes applied across the face of the array to improve side-lobe suppression performance, in addition to the phase shift.
TIME DOMAIN BEAMFORMER Works by introducing time delays. The basic operation is called "delay and sum". It delays the incoming signal from each array element by a certain amount of time, and then adds them together. The most common kind of time domain beam former is serpentine waveguide.
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Active phase array uses individual delay lines that are switched on and off. Yttrium iron garnet phase shifters vary the phase delay using the strength of a magnetic field.
FREQUENCY DOMAIN BEAMFORMERS TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF FREQUENCY DOMAIN BEAMFORMERS: 1) Separates the different frequency components that are present in the received signal into multiple frequency bins (using either an DFT or a filterbank). When different delay and sum beamformers are applied to each frequency bin, the result is that the main lobe simultaneously points in multiple different directions at each of the different frequencies. This can be an advantage for communication links, and is used with the SPS-48 radar.
2) Makes use of Spatial Frequency. Discrete samples are taken from each of the individual array elements. The samples are processes using a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). The DFT introduces multiple different discrete phase shifts during processing. The outputs of the DFT are individual channels that correspond with evenly spaced beams formed simultaneously. A 1 dimensional DFT produces a fan of different beams. A 2 dimensional DFT produces beams with a pineapple configuration.
These techniques are used to create two kinds of phase array.

Dynamic - an array of variable phase shifters are used to move the beam Fixed - the beam position is stationary with respect to the array face and the whole antenna is moved
There are two further sub-categories that modify the kind of dynamic array or fixed array.

Active - amplifiers or processors in each phase shifter element Passive - large central amplifier with attenuating phase shifters
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Dynamic Phased Array Each array element incorporates an adjustable phase shifter that is collectively used to move the beam with respect to the array face. Dynamic phase array require no physical movement to aim the beam. The beam is moved electronically. This can produce antenna motion fast enough to use a small pencil-beam to simultaneously track multiple targets while searching for new targets using just one radar set (track while search). As an example, an antenna with a 2 degree beam with a pulse rate of 1 kHz will require approximately 16 seconds to cover an entire a hemisphere consisting of 16,000 pointing positions. This configuration provides 6 opportunities to detect a Mach 3 vehicle over a range of 100 km (62 mi), which is suitable for military applications. The position of mechanically steered antennas can be predicted, which can be used to create electronic countermeasures that interfere with radar operation. The flexibility resulting from phase array operation allows beams to be aimed at random locations, which eliminates this vulnerability. This is also desirable for military applications.
Fixed Phase Array Fixed phase array antennas are typically used to create an antenna with a more desirable form factor than the conventional parabolic reflector or cassegrain reflector. Fixed phased array radar incorporate fixed phase shifters. This kind of phase array is physically moved during the track and scan process. There are two configurations.

Multiple frequencies with a delay-line Multiple adjacent beams
The SPS-48 radar uses multiple transmit frequencies with a serpentine delay line along the left side of the array to produce vertical fan of stacked beams. Each frequency experiences a different phase shift as it propagates down the serpentine delay line, which forms different beams. A filter bank is used to split apart the individual receive beams. The antenna is mechanically rotated. Semi-active radar homing uses monopulse radar that relies on a fixed phase array to produce multiple adjacent beams that measure angle errors. This form factor is suitable for gimbals mounting in missile seekers.
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Active Phase Array Active phase arrays elements incorporate transmit amplification with phase shift in each antenna element (or group of elements). Each element also includes receive preamplification. The phase shifter setting is the same for transmit and receive. Active phase array do not require phase reset after the end of the transmit pulse, which is compatible with Doppler radar and Pulse-Doppler radar.
Passive Phase Array Passive phase arrays typically use large amplifiers that produce all of the microwave transmit signal for the antenna. Phase shifters typically consist of waveguide elements that contain phase shifters controlled by magnetic field, voltage gradient, or equivalent technology. The phase shift process used with passive phase array typically puts the receive beam and transmit beam into caddy-corner quadrants. The sign of the phase shift must be inverted after the transmit pulse is finished and before the receive period begins to place the receive beam into the same location as the transmit beam. That requires a phase impulse that degrades sub-clutter visibility performance on Doppler radar and Pulse-Doppler radar. As an example, Yttrium iron garnet phase shifters must be changed after transmit pulse quench and before receiver processing starts to align transmit and receive beams. That impulse introduces FM noise that degrades clutter performance.
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MICROWAVE FEEDER SYSTEM (DRIVER ELEMENT) TPYES OF FEEDER a) Omnidirectional b) Cassegrain c) Gregorian d) Horn feed Parabolic antennas are also classified by the type of feed, that is, how the radio waves are supplied to the antenna. The primary antenna is placed at the parabolic focus point. The reason is to produce better transmission and reception. (enhance directivity and gain) The primary antenna has to be used together with the reflector to avoid the flaring of the radiation pattern which contributes to the reduction of the directivity. The microwave feeder is used to overcome this problem.
DIPOLE FEEDER
MAIN REFLECTOR
SPHERICAL REFLECTOR TO DIRECT WAVE TO THE MAIN REFLECTOR
PRIMARY FEED DIPOLE AT FOCUS
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AXIAL OR FRONT FEED This is the most common type of feed, with the feed antenna located in front of the dish at the focus, on the beam axis. A disadvantage of this type is that the feed and its supports block some of the beam, which limits the aperture efficiency to only 55 - 60%.
OFF-AXIS OR OFFSET FEED The reflector is an asymmetrical segment of a paraboloid, so the focus, and the feed antenna, is located to one side of the dish. The purpose of this design is to move the feed structure out of the beam path, so it doesn't block the beam. It is widely used in home satellite television dishes, which are small enough that the feed structure would otherwise block a significant percentage of the signal. Offset feed is also used in multiple reflector designs such as the Cassegrain and Gregorian.
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CASSEGRAIN FEED The feed is located on or behind the dish, and radiates forward, illuminating a convex hyperboloidal secondary reflector at the focus of the dish.
The radio waves from the feed reflect back off the secondary reflector to the dish, which forms the outgoing beam.
The advantage of this configuration is that the feed, with its waveguides and "front end" electronics does not have to be suspended in front of the dish, so it is used for antennas
38/47
with complicated or bulky feeds, such as large satellite communication antennas and radio telescopes. Aperture efficiency is on the order of 65 - 70%.
Focus points for the secondary and primary reflectors will meet at the same point. Radiation from the horn antenna will be reflected by the secondary reflector and transmitted to the primary reflector to collimate the radiation.
GREGORIAN FEED Similar to the Cassegrain design except that the secondary reflector is concave, (ellipsoidal) in shape.
Aperture efficiency over 70% can be achieved.
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HORN FEED
It is widely used as a primary feeder, because of the flaring directivity pattern, thus preventing refraction.
MAIN REFLECTOR PRIMARY FEED HORN
WAVEGUIDE/TRANSMISSION LINE
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ANTENNA
RADIATION PATTERN
Radiation pattern refers to the performance of the antenna for example when it is mounted far away from objects such as buildings or mountain (earth) by which reflecting signal might affect the shape of the pattern.
40/47
Figures below show the 3-dimensional models (polar graph/diagram) of field strength or power density measurements made at a fixed distance from an antenna in a given plane.
The maximum radiation is in the direction RELATIVE RADIATION PATTERN of 90 from the reference point of the or P is plotted with respect to the radiation pattern (radiation reference point.
absolute
pattern is plotted in the form of or P)
RELATIVE RADIATION PATTERN in dB RELATIVE RADIATION PATTERN FOR is in the direction of 45 from the OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA.
reference point. The power density is -3 (Transmits power equally in all direction dB relative to the power density in the thus producing a circular or spherical direction of the maximum radiation. radiation pattern)
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BEAMWIDTH (BEAM / FLARED ANGLE)
It is the angle subtended by the points at which the radiation power falls to the half of its maximum power. In other words, the field strength has fallen to 1/2 (70.7 %) of its maximum voltage or the angle measured between the -3dB (half power) points on the major lobe of an antennas radiation pattern.
ANTENNA GAIN
It is defined as the ratio of power per unit area received from the antenna at a point in space to the power received from an isotropic antenna at the same point in space.
The capability of a directive antenna to concentrate power in a given direction is the capability to direct radio frequency energy into a given region and not in all direction.
For transmitting antenna, it refers to how far is the concentration of transmission power in a given direction.
For receiving antenna, it refers to how far it receives the best signal in a given direction rather than in all direction.
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CHARACTERISTIC OF PARABOLOID ANTENNA To convert the spherical waveform produced at a focus point to the plane wave. All the energy received from the free space which is the same as the parabolic axis (Rx) will be reflected to the focus point. ADVANTAGES The gain can be increased DISADVANTAGES Difficult to install with high accuracy.
whenever needed. Operational frequency limited to the Can be operated at any frequency in the microwave zone. types of dish used.
Simple Installation.
GAIN
GAIN;
G=
4A 2
Where; G = gain; A = area of parabolic dish (m2); = wavelength of operational frequency (m)
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If the area of the dish, A A = d2 4
Where; A = area of parabolic dish (m2); d = diameter of dish opening (m)
Beamwidth =
115 d
= antenna beamwidth or angle between half power points () = wavelength (m) d = diameter of dish opening (m)
EXAMPLE 1. Calculate the gain and the half-wave (/2) antenna angle of a parabolic antenna operating at a frequency of 1 GHz. The dish diameter is 2.5 m. GdB = 10 log G = 10 log 685 = 28.4 dB. 4 A 2 Antenna beam widh, =
2
= Vc / f = 3 x 108 / 1 x 109 = 0.3 m. GAIN; G =
= 4 ( d2 ) 2 4 = 4 x 3.14 ( 3.14 x 2.5 ) 0.32 4 = 685 .
115 d
= 115 x 0.3 2.5 = 13.8 .
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TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Basic operation of transmit and receive antennas.

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

distance signal transmission.

Receive energy as low as mW.

Mismatch exists that is surrounding space as load.

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Because of impedance mismatch, the horn is tapered in one dimension to a

Enhance performance when use together with parabolic reflector.

Its narrow beam angle caused increase in antenna gain.

Used to overcome the problem facing

by an open ended waveguide. (i.e. to avoid mismatch).

radiation pattern due to refraction around the open ends.

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA (E & H CONICAL HORN ANTENNA PLANE)

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

3 TYPES OF HORN ANTENNA:i)

(known as pyramidal horn).

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SECTORAL ANTENNA

THE E-, H- PLANE & PYRAMIDAL HORN

E- PLANE HORN SECTORAL ANTENNA Radiation pattern exhibits side lobe

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

FACTORS AFFECTING THE GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY OF HORN ANTENNA

Easy to construct and robust.

DIMENSION OF HORN ANTENNA

END / FRONT VIEW

BEAM / FLARING ANGLE W

Whereby; m2 A - area (m2 ); H height (m); W width (m)

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

= wavelength of the operational frequency (m) 4 k A__ 2

RADIATION PATTERN OF SECTORAL HORN

PARABOLIC (REFLECTOR / DISH) ANTENNA

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Basic paraboloid reflector

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Parabolic reflector radiation.

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

PARABOLIC RADIATION PATTERN

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Figure 1: Basic Geometry of a Slotted Waveguide Antenna

Figure 2: Waveguide with a Thin Slot Centered about its Width.

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Figure 3: Horizontal Slot in a Waveguide