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Bosch's Cripples and Drawings by His Imitators Author(s): Erwin Pokorny Source: Master Drawings, Vol. 41, No.

3, Early Netherlandish Drawings (Autumn, 2003), pp. 293-304 Published by: Master Drawings Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1554624 Accessed: 24/10/2009 14:45
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Bosch's

Cripples by
His

and Imitators

Drawings

ErwinPokorny

In the art of the late Middle Ages, the inclusion of


crippled beggars generally signified an appeal to Christian compassion.They can be found in pictorial cycles on the Seven Acts of Mercy or in devotional images in the company of compassionate saints.Yet these malformed figures generally failed to arouse sympathy in contemporaryviewers, but rather evoked the widespread fear of deformity,poverty,and disease. The prevailing notion that spiritual qualities left their mark on the physical self, that an ugly body housed an equally unsavory soul, stamped the typology of the beggar as surely as did the notion that physical handicaps were either one's own fault or God's punishment for living a dissolute life. The change in the image of the beggar over the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries resultedmainly from social and economic changes, the negative effects of which were wars,and epidemics. multiplied by naturalcatastrophes, overwhelmed charitable institutions and conBeggars stituted an affrontto the rising middle class with their perceived idleness,unruliness,and deceitful ways.Antibeggar sentiment began to be expressed in literature as early as around 1400,' but only with the spread of A particularlyinfluprinting did it become universal.2 ential example is the chapter in Sebastian Brant's (Shipof Fools)of 1494, in which the author Narrenschff characterized the majority of beggars as swindlers.3 This opinion was sharedby such authoritiesas Erasmus and Martin Luther, and eventually led to the establishment of prisons and workhouses. Like Brant, Hieronymus Bosch (d. 1516) was a moralist with a droll sense of humor who placed his

art in the service of strict, middle-class mores. It has long been noted that Bosch's depictions of beggars are distinctly negative.4It mattersnot that most of the surviving images of beggars attributed to him are by other hands, for it is certain that his many imitators incorporated his inventions into their own compositions. One of the best-known examples is the drawn copy in the Albertina,Vienna, depicting thirty cripples and a fool (Fig. 3).5 Bosch's particularfascination with such figures appearsto have fed on the great variety of possible deformities that could be easily observed in his day.Recently, a group of Dutch physicians attempted to diagnose the infirmities represented by the cripples in this drawing. They not only identified afflictions resulting from ergot poisoning, syphilis,leprosy,and the like, but also determined that some of the figures were faking.6 One is particularly struck by the number of amputees. From other pictures by Bosch's circle, it is clear that missing limbs indicate time in prison, since a leg iron often lies on the ground next to the severed foot.7 The only representationsof cripples that can be assignedwith certaintyto Bosch are those in the outer wings of the LastJudgment triptych of about 1505 in the Akademie der bildenden Kiinste,Vienna. In the right-hand wing, to the left behind St. Bavo, crouches an especially repulsive fellow who tries to evoke
our sympathy by placing a severed foot on the ground in front of him (Fig. 1). According to Brant, the beggar could easily have snatched the shriveled foot from a corpse,8 which is why Bosch possibly used it here as a symbol of deceit.9 The meaning of the coin-size 293

Figure 1 HIERONYMUS BOSCH.

Figure 2

HIERONYMUS BOSCH.

The Last Judgment. Detail. Akademie derbildenden Kunste. Vienna,

The Last Judgment. Detail. Akademie derbildenden Kunste. Vienna,

bleeding sore on the man's forearm remains unclear.'( Similar sores covered with a disk-like crust can be seen on the leg of the half-naked man standing in the stable doorway in Bosch's Epiphanyin Madrid," on the head of the wicked thief in the Way of the Cross in Ghent,12 and on the leg of the tree-man in the wing representingHell in the Garden of Earthly Delights of about 1505 in Madrid.'3 In the latter, the artist's loathing for professionalbeggars and fakersis evident; below the tree-man, a blind beggar is forced to crank a gigantic hurdy-gurdy,while another'spunishment is to flail helplessly with his crutch at a huge egg on his back. The Last Judgment triptych inVienna exhibits a similarly pessimistic worldview. In the left-hand wing,
294

which depicts St. James the Elder as a wandering pilgrim, Bosch filled the background landscape with grim motifs: a hanged man, a pilgrim' s grave,a dead tree, a rape scene, and-in a parallel contrast to the virtuous saint-two disabledbeggars on their own pilgrimage (Fig. 4).14 The one on the left, recognizable

from his long stick as a blind man, is led by his severely misshapen companion. This motif anticipates the allegorical engraving, Overthrowof the Beggars,that Hieronymus Cock would print-as a Bosch invention-some fifty years later.'"Another indication of Bosch's aversionto beggarsis his habit of creatingfanciful, hybrid creaturesthat combine features of cripples and devils, most notably the bird-headed, crutch-wielding demon in the center panel of the

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295

Vienna triptych,who also displaysthe disk-shapedsore (Fig. 2). With his bad leg supported by a rope sling around his neck, he resembles a figure in the center of the sheet of studies in Vienna (Fig. 3). Another detail connects him to that drawing as well: the hollow bone affixed to the bottom of his crutch. Such bones can appearas well on the wooden leg of a cripple, on the walking stick of a crazed old woman,'6 or even on the devil as a boot.'7 Since this feature is always only found on one crutch in a pair, it was unlikely meant to be understood as a device to protect the wood,'8 but ratherit appearsto function symbolically. It may suggest-like the empty wine jars attached to the legs of numerous devils-that gluttony and intemperance lead to poverty-or perhaps it plays on the double meanings of the Dutch words for bone: been also means "leg," as in the proverb "op een been kan men niet lopen" (you can't run on one leg), and bot also means "dull" or "stupid."'9 The is the verb "to form botten identical to bud," plural In this conwith its secondary meaning "to cheat."2" text, it should be mentioned that krukcan mean not only "crutch,"but also "swindler" or "crook." Here one is reminded of the proverb "De leugen gaat op krukken" (lies walk on crutches), which is similar to the German adage "Liigen haben kurze Beine" (lies have short legs).2' By the middle of the sixteenth century, the symbolic significance of the attached bones had been forgotten: in an engraving of the Vienna drawing of beggars printed in Antwerp around 1560, they are nowhere to be seen (Fig. 5).22 Bosch's intention in his art was altogetherthe same Both wished to steer viewas Brant'sin his Narrenschiff ers or readers toward a virtuous way of life by presenting highly unsavory examples of human behavior in an entertainingway.As a living grotesque,the crippled beggar was ideally suited for this purpose.He had alreadylimped through the drolleriesof late medieval books of hours to provide comic relief- like the fools, monkeys, and fabulous beasts-and to emphasize the moralist content.23As the antithesis of ideal beauty, which was alwaysassociatedwith nobility of character, the cripple was moreover a distortedsymbol of human baseness,and as such lent himself to satire.Thus the legend on the above-mentioned engraving equates the
296

depicted crippleswith corrupt clerics who fail to "walk in their eagernessfor fat rewards.24 straight" The engraving names Bosch as its inventor,which presumably explains the traditionalattribution of the Albertina drawing. The late Hans Mielke based his argument in support of that attribution on the early watermark of a related drawing in the Bibliotheque That sheet shows thirty figRoyale, Brussels (Fig. 7).25 two fools and a woman giving almsures-including distributed at random across the page. Some of the beggars appear to have been based on known prototypes. The cripple with the fluttering cloak angrily swinging his crutch close to the left edge recalls a similarlyfigure in the Hay Wain triptych in the Prado, Madrid.26 And the beggar on the right, with one leg heavily bandaged and the other bent outward, so closely resembles a figure seen from the back in the upper right of the Vienna drawing that they seem to be two views of a single prototype. Since the Brussels drawing carries an apocryphal Bruegel signature,scholarshave associatedboth drawings with Pieter Bruegel the Elder. However, close examination of the two drawings reveals that neither can be by either Bruegel or Bosch. They are, moreover, very different from each other. The style of the Brussels drawing is more spontaneous and sketchy.In addition, it is possible to make out in it a number of pentimenti. Accordingly, this must be the work of an early imitator trying out his own variations on Bosch inventions.By contrast,the extreme control and threedimensional modeling of the drawing in Vienna, as well as its wealth of detail, identify it as a conscientious copy or a finished drawing.Even so, both works may have served the same function: in the manner of medieval pattern books, they brought together examples of beggars and fools for use by members of the artist's workshop or by others outside the studio.The two drawingsperhapsrelate to their hypothetical prototypes in much the same way as the sheet with various figures in Providence relates to Bosch's studies of monsters in Berlin.27Similar compilations of motifs are found in prints as well. For example, Israhel van Meckenem, in a vertical format engraving, brought together depictions of children, alone or in pairs, which had been invented by the Master of the

Figure 4

HIERONYMUS BOSCH.

The LastJudgment.Detail.
Kunste. derbildenden Akademie Vienna,

Housebook.28 In addition to their use by artists,such collections of figures were included as diagrammatic book illustrations in bestiaries or travel narratives, offering greaterinterest to the subject and a semblance of scholarly authority. Despite their scattered distribution on the page, a few of the figures in the two drawings of cripples (Figs. 3, 7) relate to each other, and thus are provided with a compositional context. For example, in the Vienna sheet, a lute-playing fool appearsto be exhorting the grotesque assembly to join in a dance, while in the Brussels drawing, two fools have been added at the right center as if to signify the group of figures as an allegory on folly and vice. The alternation between isolated figures and these related groupings, with no clear spatialrelationshipconnecting them, was apparentlyintended. Because of this obvious ambivalence in concept, the two drawings must be viewed as independent works of art quite aside from their function as pattern sheets. Given their curious subject matter, they would have been perfectly at home in a Kunst-und That both were indeed used as patWunderkammer. terns nonetheless is apparentfrom a feature they have in common. Above the heads of many of the figures

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Cripples and Beggars.Engraving.


Albertina. Vienna,

are little circles made with a dark crayon - apparently to mark a particular selection. Some of these marks have been nearly rubbed off, and presumably some have disappeared altogether.Twenty-one such marksare still visible on the Vienna drawing,only five on the one in Brussels.We know that the Vienna drawing served as the model for an engraving,and for that purpose no selection would have been necessary. The engravershifted the positions of some of the figures slightly,but he did not omit any of them. Thus, the selection must have been made for some other composition, and indeed, a Brussels tapestry incorporates individual figures from both drawings. It seems worthwhile, therefore, to try to determine whether the circles had something to do with the preparatory work for the tapestry.
297

Figure 6 Follower of HIERONYMUS BOSCH. St. Martin with Cripples and Beggars.Tapestry. San Lorenzo, El Escorial.

The tapestryin question,from a five-partcycle produced in Brusselsin 1566 for CardinalGranville, archbishop of Mechlin, now hangs in the Escorial(Fig. 6).29 It depicts a young man on horseback surroundedby Bosch's begging cripples.Others in the cycle reproduced Gardenof EarthlyDelights,a version of his Hay Wain, and a Temptation The last of these comof St. Anthony. positions, featuring an elephant,has been lost. An earlier edition of the series is described quite precisely in an inventory drawn up for King Francis I in 1542, which date serves as a terminus ante quemfor the proof the that survives. We know nothing totype cycle about the circumstancesof this cycle' s manufacture. However,from tapestryprojectsthat are more fully documented, it is possible to reconstructthe working procedure. First,if it is a new invention, the painter made 298

a presentationdrawing.Once the patron had approved or pattern painter,transit, the so-called Patronenmaler, ferred the design onto a full-size working pattern.The tapestrywas then produced directlyabove this cartoon, woven from the back, so that the front side showed the design in reverse.30This is why the tapestry copy of the Garden of Earthly Delightsreproducedits three panels as a mirror image of the painting.The same is true in part of the Hay Wain,although the composition was As no prototype is considerablyalteredin that design.31 known for the tapestryshowing the Temptation of St. it is that the last however, Anthony, possible tapestry with the elephant was based on the same Bosch prototype as the engraving by Alart du Hamel.32 To what extent the Escorial tapestrywith the rider and cripples followed a prototype by the master him-

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self we do not know. But by studying individual figures and motifs, some interesting connections can be made to the two drawings and to other works by Bosch's followers. In the lower right, near the city moat, a fat cripple is dragging himself along with a harp on his back. The mirror-image of this figure appears in the center of the Brussels drawing. Other matching figures were noted in 1967 by Otto Kurz: the begging man and woman at the lower left of the tapestry,who are nearly identical to those at the center of the Vienna drawing.33 The man plays a hurdygurdy, while the hunchbacked woman beside him sings.Presumably, they are both blind:the hurdy-gurdy player by tradition,his companion because of the way 300

she clings to him. Of the motif of the little dog in the drawing the tapestry retains only a fragment of the leash, which leads one to conclude that the animal was also present in the lost weavers' pattern. Changes of this sort are by no means uncommon. Another version of the tapestryin a Paris private collection shows how much freedom was taken in the production of such works. There the pair of beggar musicians was eliminated along with their dog, and the cripple to the right of them was moved to the left edge instead.34 There are two opinions regarding the identity of the young horseman. Some scholars have argued that he is St. Martin,35 while others see him as St. Anthony

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St. Martin with Cripples and Beggars.


Ashmolean Museum. Oxford,

However, the princisetting out for his hermitage.36 of the the attributes two sword and the tau saints, pal are It has been cross, missing. suggested that a scene in the background favors the second interpretation: this shows a mock tournament with blind men attempting to club a pig. But such entertainments were evidently a traditional part of carnival celebrations, not just those of the feast of St.Anthony aanuary 17).37 Indeed, pig-slaughteringparties were also staged in Wiirzburg on St. Martin's Day (November 11), when the animals, called "St. Martin's pigs," were goaded into attacking each other.38 Customs associated with that day would also explain the subsequent feast, the drinking bout, and the fire behind the city

gate. But the strongest argument for the identification of the rider as St. Martin is the presence of the crippled beggars, who are traditionally associated with him. Even in the inventory of Francis I, the tapestry is described as "Sainct Martin environne de plusieurs mendians."39 Only the sword with which he cut his cloak in two is lacking from this portrayalof the saint, although his mirror-image prototype could certainly have held a sword in his right hand.40 The scene shown in the tapestryappearsto be a secular allegory,for the young horseman is about to trample on a cowering cripple and shows no sign of Christian compassion. Another engravingprinted around 1560 in Antwerp as a Bosch invention, like the sheet of cripples and
301

the Downfall of the Beggarsby Hieronymus Cock, makes the iconographic connection to St. Martin even more convincing (Fig. 8). It shows the saint at a harbor standing next to his horse in a barge;he is there identified by his sword, a halo, and even his name. As in the tapestries,he has just left the city and is being besieged by beggars outside the gate.The background is occupied by a riotous drinking party on a boat, a St. Martin's bonfire on the pier, and two floating vessels upon which fools and beggarsjoust with lances. While the inclusion of a saint might seem out of place-for the engraving by no means appeals to Christiancharity- St. Martin'sgenerosityis employed as a contrast to, and thus as a denunciation of, the greed and excess represented by the beggars.As the legend beneath the picture relates,Martin's gift of his cloak only served to unleash a fight over such a prize.4 One of the cripples has even climbed on the horse to steal one of the stirrups. A pen-and-wash drawing in the Ashmolean, Oxford, possibly done around 1600, combines figures from this engraving of St. Martin with a landscape of This pastiche was based grotesquesa la Bosch (Fig. 9).42 on other works as well. Three of the figures in the crowd of people streaming out of the cave on the right correspond-in reverse-to figuresin theVienna while the Wayof the Crossby one of Bosch' s pupils,43 fantasticfountain sculptureis taken from the Cleansing which survives in copies.44 It is the left of the Temple, half of the drawing that correspondsto the two drawings of cripples. Here several figures appear to have been modeled after the lost tapestry design, for the two pairs of beggars in the lower left corner can be seen in the tapestry-again, in reverse-just to the right of the center. Also, the two figures on crutches-one in profile, the other seen from the backare mirrored in the tapestry between the rock cliff and the rider.Two of the beggars in the Vienna drawing also follow their original prototype:the one holding a lute in the center and the figure seen from the back at the right edge. A further correspondence is seen in the cripple caught beneath the horse's hooves and trying to protect himself with his upraised arm in both the Oxford drawing and the tapestry.The horse, however, representsa conflation of two proto302

types: it rears above the crouching figure as in the tapestry,but carries on its back the audacious stirrup thief from the engraving.45 Does any of this help explain the little circles on the Vienna and Brussels drawings? Portions of the Oxford drawing were not based on the tapestry but rather-to judge from the mirror-image correspondences-on some prototypecommon to all three drawings.This could have been the presentationdrawingfor the tapestry, the actual cartoon, or even a panel painta Such ing. painting would have provided the tapestry'scomposition, making any selection of figuresfrom If a lost the Vienna and Brusselsdrawingsunnecessary. have circles then the little was indeed the model, panel nothing to do with the creation of the tapestryafter all, leaving their function as obscure as ever. Erwin Pokornyis a memberof the team preparingthe Corpus of German and Netherlandish Drawings from 1300 to 1500 in Vienna and coauthor of Early Netherlandish Drawings from Jan van Eyck to 2002). Hieronymus Bosch (Antwerp,

EDITORS' NOTE: Russell Stockman kindly translated the text from the German.

1.

See J. Huizinga, Herbst des Mittelalters.Studien uber Lebensin Frankreich des 14. und 15. Jahrhunderts und Geistesformen und in den Niederlanden (The Waning of the Middle Ages), Stuttgart, 1975, pp. 248, 443. See P. Vandenbroeck, Hieronymus Bosch. The Complete Paintings and Drawings (first published on the occasion of the exhibition Jheronimus Bosch, Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, 2001), Ghent and Amsterdam, 2001, pp. 113-14. S. Brant, Das Narrenschiff (Basel, 1494), modernized by H. A. Junghans, edited, annotated, and reissued with an afterword by H.-J. Mahl, Stuttgart, 1999, pp. 222-25. See O. Kurz, "Four Tapestries after Hieronymus Bosch," and Courtauld Institutes, 30, 1967, p. Journal of the Warburg 160; Vandenbroeck, 2001, p. 116. Inv. no. 7798. Dates to about 1520-60 (?). Pen and brown ink; 285 x 208 mm. See F Koreny and E. Pokorny, "Hieronymus Bosch. Die Zeichnungen in Briissel und Wien," Delineavit et Sculpsit, 24, 2001, pp. 23-27.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

J. Dequeker, G. Fabry, L. Vanopdenbosch, "De processie van kreupelen naar Jeroen Bosch (ca. 1450-1516): een studies, 15, 2001, pp. 140-53. An earlier version of this article was published in the IsraelMedicalAssociation Journal, 3, 2001, pp. 864-71. I would like to express my warmest gratitude to Aafje D'hooge and Jos Koldeweij for calling my attention to these articles.

stichkabinett.KritischerKatalog,Turnhout, 2001, no. 1.33).

historische analyse," voormiddeleeuwse 18. As proposed by D. Bax, OntcijferingvanJeroen Bosch, The Millenium, tijdschrift
Hague, 1949, p. 74. 19. For been and bot, see W. Martin and G. A. J. Tops, Van

Dale groot woordenboek Utrecht and Nederlands-Engels,


Antwerp, 1999, pp. 112, 195. 20. 21. I am most grateful to Frank Willaert for this information. See L. De Pauw-DeVeen,"Das Briisseler Blatt mit Bettlern und Kriippeln: Bosch oder Bruegel?" in Pieter Bruegelund seine Welt (colloquium, Kunsthistorisches Institut der Freien Universitat Berlin and Kupferstichkabinett der Staatlichen Museen Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, 13-14 November 1975), Berlin, 1979, p. 153. Incidentally, this observation negates the question posed by De Pauw-De Veen of whether the drawing could possibly have followed the engraving (De Pauw-De Veen in Pieter Bruegel,1979, pp. 150- 51). See Hollstein, vol. 3, p. 144, no. 34.

7.

See, for example, the central panel of the famous Temptation of St. Anthony triptych in Lisbon and its numerous copies (R. H. Marijnissen, HieronymusBosch. Das vollstdndigeWerk,Antwerp 1988, p. 194, repr. ), as well as the tapestry discussed below (see Fig. 8). See Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff (Brant, 1999 ed., p. 224) or the LiberVagatorum, "Von der falschen Better Biiberei" ("On the Trickery of Evil Beggars") (Kurz, 1967, pp. 160-61). This motif is also found in the upper left corner of the Albertina drawing and in other works by followers of Bosch.

8.

22.

9.

10. This detail recalls Brant's angry verses claiming that professional beggars were not above etching "wounds and boils" on their own children. See Brant, 1999 ed., p. 223. On the other hand, the disk-shaped crust-if that is what it is-would suggest the skin disease Ecthyma, which is caused by poor hygiene. I am most grateful to Jan Dequeker for this medical information. For this wound as a sign of evil, see also P. Reutersward, HieronymusBosch, Uppsala, 1970, pp. 144-47. 11. See R. H. Marijnissen, Hieronymus Bosch. Das vollstdndige Werk,Antwerp, 1988, pp. 234-35, 251, repr. (detail). 12. See Marijnissen, 1988, pp. 379, 382, repr. (detail). 13. See H. Belting, HieronymusBosch, Garten derLiiste, Munich and elsewhere, 2002, p. 43, repr. 14. The traditionally close connection between professional beggars and pilgrims is also clearly seen in the badges worn by figures in the Vienna drawing (Fig. 1). See K. Zweerink and J. Koldeweij, "Insignes en Jheronimus

23. See, for example, some drolleries in the Book of Hours of Mary of Burgundy (Vienna, Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Cod.Vin. 1857), fols. 47v, 48r, 195r, 195 v. See

also M. Camille,Image on theEdge. The Margins of Medieval


Art, Cambridge, MA, and London, 1992, pp. 132-36, figs.

70-73.
24. The legend reads:

Al dat op den blauwen trughelsack, gheerne leeft Gaet meestal Cruepele, ob beijde sijden Daeromden Crupeln veel dienaers Bisschop, haaft Die om een vetteproue,den rechten ghanckmijden.
25. Inv. no. S.II.133.708. Dates to about 1520-40. Pen and brown ink; 265 x 199 mm. H. Mielke, Pieter Bruegel.Die Zeichnungen (Pictura nova, vol. 2), Turnhout, 1996, nos. A 47, A 48. See also Koreny and Pokorny, 2001, pp. 28-31.

2. Laatmiddeleuuwse uit Bosch," Heilig en Profaan Insignes en particuliere collecties openbare (Rotterdam Papers, 12),
Cothen, 2001, pp. 207-23.

26. Lydia De Pauw-DeVeen has already mentioned this correspondence (De Pauw-De Veen in Pieter Bruegel, 1979, p. 153). Jacques Combe also pointed out the similarities between the cripples in the drawings and those sur-

Paris, Bosch, roundingthe HayWain U. Combe,Jheronimus


1946, p. 46). 27. See Buck, 2001, no. 1.33.

15. F W. H. Hollstein, Dutchand FlemishEtchings, Engravings,


and Woodcuts,ca. 1450-1700, vol. 3, p. 138, no. 21 (see also vol. 9, p. 27, nos. 19-20). 16. See Vandenbroeck, 2001, p. 127, figs. 102-103. 17. See, for example, Bosch's drawing of two monsters in Berlin (inv. no. KdZ 547; S. Buck, Die niederldndischen

28. J. P. Filedt Kok, with K.G. Boon, M.D. Haga, J.C. Hutchison, P. Moraw, and K. P. F Moxey, Vom Leben im

Der Hausbuchmeister oderder Meisterdes spatenMittelalter.


Amsterdamer Kabinetts,exh. cat., Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, and Stadelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt, 1985, pp. 141-43,

im Berliner KupferZeichnungendes 15. Jahrhunderts

figs. 59-61, 61g.


303

29. Until only a few years ago, the tapestries hung in Madrid's Palacio Real, but they have now been placed on permanent display in the Escorial. P. Junquera de Vega and C. Herrero Carretero, Catalogo de tdpices del Patrimonio Nacional, vol. 1, Siglo XVI, Madrid, 1986, pp. 263-67. 30. See R. Bauer, "Wie entsteht eine Tapisserie? Zur Technik des Webens," in R. Bauer and G. J. Kugler, Der Kriegszug Kaiser Karls Vgegen Tunis.Kartons und Tapisserien, exh. cat., Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, 2001, pp. 127-32.

(1499-1542) recorded this custom. See J. Diinninger and H. Schopf, eds., Briuche und Feste im frinkischenJahreslauf Texte vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert (Die Plassenburg. und Kulturpflege in Ostfranken, Schriftenfir Heimatforschung 30), Kulmbach, 1971, p. 114. I am grateful to Julia Hecht for directing me to this source. 39. Gewirkt in Gold, 1993, p. 92.

31. Kurz, 1967, p. 15, figs. a-b. 32. Hollstein, vol. 3, p. 147, no. 42. 33. Kurz, 1967, p. 158. 34. G. Delmarcel, with I. van Tichelen, A. Volckaert, and Y. aus dem Besitz Maes, Gewirkt in Gold. Flimische Tapisserien der spanischen Krone, exh. cat., Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich, 1993, p. 94, fig. 6. See D. Bax, "Als de Blende tzwijn sloughen," Tijdschrift voor NederlandseTaal- en Letterkunde,63, 1944, p. 84; L. Brand Philipp, "The 'Peddler' by Hieronymus Bosch, a Jaarboek,9, Study in Detection," NederlandsKunsthistorisch 1958, p. 59; Kurz, 1967, pp. 156- 61.Vandenbroeck (2001, p. 115) avoided a precise identification and called the tapestry "Saint Leaving the City." See J. K. Steppe, "Jheronimus Bosch. Bijtrage tot de historische en de ikonografische studie van zijn werk," JheronimusBosch. Bijtragenbij gelegenheidvan de herdenkingte 's-Hertogenbosch, 1967, pp. 33-36;Junquera stentoonstelling de Vega and Herrero Carretero, 1986, p. 264; A. Volckaert in Gewirkt in Gold, 1993, p. 96.

40. Vandenbroeck, 2001, p. 115. In the second copy of the tapestry in a Paris collection, there is even a suggestion of a halo. 41. Neither Bosch nor one of his followers invented the greedy beggar; already in a drawing attributed to the Master of the Drapery Studies in the Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin, there is a cripple crouching beneath St. Martin's horse and pulling on the cloak that the saint is in the act of sharing with another beggar (inv. no. KdZ 1973; Buck, 2001, no. IV.6). Inv. no. 1863.156. Pen and black ink, blue wash, charcoal; 365 x 505 mm. See Buck, 2001, p. 309, fig. 144. One can recognize the soldier in the red cloak, the thief next to him, and the guard in armor behind them. See Marijnissen, 1988, p. 271, repr. G. Unverfehrt, Hieronymus Bosch. Die Rezeption seiner Kunst imfriihen 16.Jahrhundert,Berlin, 1980, no. 142, fig. 71.

35.

42.

43.

44.

36.

37. Kurz, 1967, pp. 156-59; Gewirkt in Gold, 1993, p. 96. 38. Johannes Boemus (1485-1535) and Sebastian Franck

45. This motif recalls the saying "Set a beggar on horseback, and he'll ride to the Devil." Other variants from the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries: "Set a beggar on horse backe, they saie, and hee will neuer alight" (Robert Greene, Card of Fancie); "That beggars mounted run their horse to death" (William Shakespeare,King Henry VI, Part III); "Set a beggar on horseback, and he will ride a gallop" (Robert Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy).

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