COMPUTER NETWORK CS1302

PART A UNIT I DATA COMMUNICATION 1. What is mean b !ata "#mm$ni"ati#n% Data communication is the exchange of data (in the form of 1s and 0s) between two devices via some form of transmission medium (such as a wire cable). 2. What a&e the th&ee "&ite&ia ne"essa& '#& an e''e"ti(e an! e''i"ient net)#&*% The most important criteria are performance, reliability and security. Pe&'#&man"e of the networ depends on number of users, type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected h!w and the efficiency of the s!w. Re+iabi+it is measured by fre"uency of failure, the time it ta es a lin to recover from the failure and the networ #s robustness in a catastrophe. Se"$&it issues include protecting data from unauthori$ed access and viruses. 3. What a&e the th&ee '$n!amenta+ "ha&a"te&isti"s !ete&mine the e''e"ti(eness #'the !ata "#mm$ni"ati#n s stem% The effectiveness of the data communication system depends on three fundamental characteristics% De+i(e& , The system must deliver data to the correct destination. A""$&a" , The system must deliver data accurately. Time+iness, The system must deliver data in a timely manner. -. What a&e the a!(anta.es #' !ist&ib$te! /&#"essin.% &dvantages of distributed processing include security!encapsulation, distributed databases, faster problem solving, security through redundancy and collaborative

processing. 0. Wh a&e /&#t#"#+s nee!e!% 'n networ s, communication occurs between the entities in different systems. Two entities cannot (ust send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. )or communication, the entities must agree on a protocol. & protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. 1. Wh a&e stan!a&!s nee!e!% *o+ordination across the nodes of a networ is necessary for an efficient communication. 'f there are no standards, difficulties arise. & standard provides a model or basis for development to which everyone has agreed. 2. 3#& n !e(i"es in a net)#&*4 )hat is the n$mbe& #' "ab+e +in*s &e5$i&e! '#& a mesh an! &in. t#/#+#. % ,esh topology - n (n+1)!. /ing topology - n 6. What is the !i''e&en"e bet)een a /assi(e an! an a"ti(e h$b% &n active hub contains a repeater that regenerates the received bit patterns before sending them out. & passive hub provides a simple physical connection between the attached devices. Distin.$ish bet)een /ee&7t#7/ee& &e+ati#nshi/ an! a /&ima& 7se"#n!a& &e+ati#nshi/. Pee&7t#7/ee& &e+ati#nshi/, &ll the devices share the lin e"ually. P&ima& 7se"#n!a& &e+ati#nshi/, 0ne device controls traffic and the others must transmit through it. 10. Ass$me 1 !e(i"es a&e a&&an.e! in a mesh t#/#+#. . 8#) man "ab+es a&e

nee!e!% 8#) man /#&ts a&e nee!e! '#& ea"h !e(i"e% 1umber of cables2n (n+1)!.23(3+1)!.214 1umber of ports per device2n+123+124 11. 9&#$/ the OSI +a e&s b '$n"ti#n. The seven layers of the 05' model belonging to three subgroups. 6hysical, data lin and networ layers are the networ support layers7 they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another. 5ession, presentation and application layers are the user support layers7 they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems. The transport layer ensures end+to+end reliable data transmission. 12. What a&e hea!e& an! t&ai+e&s an! h#) !# the .et a!!e! an! &em#(e!% 8ach layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer (ust above it and passes the whole pac age to the layer (ust below it. This information is added in the form of headers or trailers. 9eaders are added to the message at the layers 3,4,:,;, and .. & trailer is added at layer.. &t the receiving machine, the headers or trailers attached to the data unit at the corresponding sending layers are removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are ta en. 13. The t&ans/#&t +a e& "&eates a "#mm$ni"ati#n bet)een the s#$&"e an! !estinati#n. What a&e the th&ee e(ents in(#+(e! in a "#nne"ti#n% *reating a connection involves three steps% connection establishment, data transfer and connection release. 1-. What is the DC "#m/#nent% Direct current is a $ero+fre"uency signal with constant amplitude. 10. 8#) !#es NR:7; !i''e& '&#m NR:7I% 'n the 1/<+= se"uence, positive and negative voltages have specific meanings% positive for 0 and negative for 1. in the 1/<+' se"uence, the voltages are meaningless. 'nstead, the receiver loo s for changes from one level to another as its basis for recognition of 1s.

11. Usin. 8D<34 en"#!e the bit st&eam 10000000000100. Ass$me the n$mbe& #' 1s s# 'a& is #!! an! the 'i&st 1 is /#siti(e. 12. What a&e the '$n"ti#ns #' a DTE% What a&e the '$n"ti#ns #' a DCE% Data terminal e"uipment is a device that is an information source or an information sin . 't is connected to a networ through a D*8. &mplitude Time 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

Data circuit+terminating e"uipment is a device used as an interface between a DT8 and a networ . 16. What !#es the e+e"t&i"a+ s/e"i'i"ati#n #' EIA7232 !es"&ibe% The electrical specification of 8'&+.;. defines that signals other than data must be sent using 0)) as less than +; volts and 01 as greater than >; volts. The data must be transmitted using 1/<+= encoding. 1=. Dis"$ss the m#!e '#& /&#/a.atin. +i.ht a+#n. #/ti"a+ "hanne+s. There are two modes for propagating light along optical channels, multimode and single mode. M$+tim#!e, ,ultiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths. Sin.+e m#!e, )iber with extremely small diameter that limits beams to a few angles, resulting in an almost hori$ontal beam. 20. What is &e'&a"ti#n% The phenomenon related to the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another. UNIT7II DATA ;INK ;A>ER 1.What a&e the &es/#nsibi+ities #' !ata +in* +a e&% 5pecific responsibilities of data lin layer include the following.

a) )raming b) 6hysical addressing c) )low control d) 8rror control e) &ccess control 2. Menti#n the t /es #' e&&#&s. There are . types of errors a) 5ingle+bit error. b) ?urst+bit error. 3. De'ine the '#++#)in. te&ms. 5ingle bit error% The term single bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit (such as byte character!data unit or pac et) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. ?urst error% ,eans that . or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 from 0 to 1. -. What is &e!$n!an" % 't is the error detecting mechanism, which means a shorter group of bits or extra bits may be appended at the destination of each unit. 0. ;ist #$t the a(ai+ab+e !ete"ti#n meth#!s. There are : types of redundancy chec s are used in data communication. a) @ertical redundancy chec s (@/*). b) =ongitudinal redundancy chec s (=/*). c) *yclic redundancy chec s (*/*). d) *hec sum.

1. W&ite sh#&t n#tes #n ?RC. The most common and least expensive mechanism for error detection is the vertical redundancy chec (@/*) often called a parity chec . 'n this techni"ue a redundant bit called a parity bit, is appended to every data unit so, that the total number of 0#s in the unit (including the parity bit) becomes even. 2. W&ite sh#&t n#tes #n ;RC. 'n longitudinal redundancy chec (=/*), a bloc of bits is divided into rows and a redundant row of bits is added to the whole bloc . 6. W&ite sh#&t n#tes #n CRC. The third and most powerful of the redundancy chec ing techni"ues is the cyclic redundancy chec s (*/*) */* is based on binary division. 9ere a se"uence of redundant bits, called the */* remainder is appended to the end of data unit. =. W&ite sh#&t n#tes #n CRC .ene&at#&. & */* generator uses a modulo+. division. A 'n the first step, the :+bit divisor is subtracted from the first : bit of the dividend. A 8ach bit of the divisor is subtracted from the corresponding bit of the dividend without disturbing the next higher bit. 10. W&ite sh#&t n#tes #n CRC "he"*e&. & */* chec er functions exactly li e a generator. &fter receiving the data appended with the */* it does the same modulo+. division. 'f the remainder is all 0#s the */* is dropped and the data accepted. 0therwise, the received stream of bits is discarded and the dates are resent. 11. 9i(e the essentia+ /&#/e&ties '#& /#+ n#mia+. & polynomial should be selected to have at least the following properties. a) 't should not be

b) 't should be divisible by(x>1). 12. De'ine "he"*s$m. The error detection method used by the higher layer protocol is called chec sum. *hec sum is based on the concept of redundancy. 13. What a&e the ste/s '#++#)e! in "he"*s$m .ene&at#&% The sender follows these steps a) The units are divided into sections each of n bits.

b) &ll sections are added together using .#s complement to get the sum. c) The sum is complemented and become the chec sum. d) The chec sum is sent with the data. 1-. ;ist #$t the ste/s '#++#)e! is "he"*s$m "he"*e& si!e. The receiver must follow these steps a) The unit is divided into section each of n bits.

b) &ll sections are added together using 1#s complement to get the sum. c) The sum is complemented. d) 'f the result is $ero. 10. W&ite sh#&t n#tes #n e&&#& "#&&e"ti#n. 't is the mechanism to correct the errors and it can be handled in . ways. a) Bhen an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit. b) & receiver can use an error correcting coder, which automatically corrects certain errors. 11. Menti#n the t /es #' e&&#& "#&&e"tin. meth#!s.

There are . error+correcting methods. a) 5ingle bit error correction b) ?urst error correction. 12. What is the /$&/#se #' hammin. "#!e% & hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths. 5o the simple strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors must be redesigned to be applicable for multiple bit correction. 16. De'ine '+#) "#nt&#+. )low control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data. The sender can send before waiting for ac nowledgment. 1=. What is a b$''e&% 8ach receiving device has a bloc of memory called a buffer, reserved for storing incoming data until they are processed. 20. Menti#n the "ate.#&ies #' '+#) "#nt&#+. There are . methods have been developed to control flow of data across communication lin s. a) 5top and wait+ send one from at a time. b) 5liding window+ send several frames at a time. UNIT III NETWORK ;A>ER 1. What a&e the net)#&* s$//#&t +a e&s an! the $se& s$//#&t +a e&s% Net)#&* s$//#&t +a e&s, The networ support layers are 6hysical layer, Data lin layer and 1etwor layer. These deals with electrical specifications, physical connection, transport timing and reliability.

Use& s$//#&t +a e&s, The user support layers are% 5ession layer, 6resentation layer, &pplication layer. These allow interoperability among unrelated software system. 2. With a neat !ia.&am e@/+ain the &e+ati#nshi/ #' IEEE P&#Ae"t t# the OSI m#!e+% The '888 has subdivided the data lin layer into two sub layers% C =ogical lin control (==*) C ,edium access control (,&*) ==* is non+architecture specific. The ,&* sub layer contains a number of distinct modules, each carries proprietary information specific to the =&1 product being used. 3. What a&e the '$n"ti#ns #' ;;C% The '888 pro(ect D0. models ta es the structure of an 9D=* frame and divides it into . sets of functions. 0ne set contains the end user portion of the 9D=* frame - the 0ther layers 1etwor Data lin 6hysical 0ther layers 1etwor =ogical =in *ontrol ,edia &ccess *ontrol 6hysical logical address, control information, and data. These functions are handled by the '888 D0... logical lin control (==*) protocol. -. What a&e the '$n"ti#ns #' MAC%

,&* sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. 't contains synchroni$ation, flag, flow and error control specifications necessary to move information from one place to another, as well as the physical address of the next station to receive and route a pac et. 0. What is /&#t#"#+ !ata $nit% The data unit in the ==* level is called 6rotocol Data Enit (6DE). 't contains four fields. F Destination 5ervice 6oint &ddress (D5&6) F 5ource 5ervice &ccess 6oint F *ontrol field F 'nformation field 1. What a&e hea!e&s an! t&ai+e&s an! h#) !# the .et a!!e! an! &em#(e!% The control data added to the beginning of a data is called headers. The control data added to the end of a data is called trailers. &t the sending machine, when the message passes through the layers each layer adds the headers or trailers. &t the receiving machine, each layer removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to the next layer. 2. What a&e the &es/#nsibi+ities #' net)#&* +a e&% The networ layer is responsible for the source+to+destination delivery of pac et across multiple networ lin s. The specific responsibilities of networ layer include the following% F =ogical addressing. F /outing. 6. What is a (i&t$a+ "i&"$it% & logical circuit made between the sending and receiving computers. The connection is made after both computers do handsha ing. &fter the connection, all pac ets follow the same route and arrive in se"uence. =. What a&e !ata .&ams%

'n datagram approach, each pac et is treated independently from all others. 8ven when one pac et represents (ust a place of a multipac et transmission, the networ treats it although it existed alone. 6ac ets in this technology are referred to as datagram. 10. What a&e the t)# t /es #' im/+ementati#n '#&mats in (i&t$a+ "i&"$its% @irtual circuit transmission is implemented in . formats. F 5witched virtual circuit F 6ermanent virtual circuit. 11. What is meant b s)it"he! (i&t$a+ "i&"$it% 5witched virtual circuit format is comparable conceptually to dial+up line in circuit switching. 'n this method, a virtual circuit is created whenever it is needed and exits only for the duration of specific exchange. 12. What is meant b Pe&manent (i&t$a+ "i&"$it% 6ermanent virtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in circuit switching. 'n this method, the same virtual circuit is provided between two uses on a continuous basis. The circuit is dedicated to the specific uses. 13. De'ine R#$te&s. D5&6 55&6 *ontrol 'nformation /outers relay pac ets among multiple interconnected networ s. They /oute pac ets from one networ to any of a number of potential destination networ s on 'nternet routers operate in the physical, data lin and networ layer of 05' model. 1:. What is meant b h#/ "#$nt% The pathway re"uiring the smallest number of relays, it is called hop+count routing, in which every lin is considered to be of e"ual length and given the value one. 10. 8#) "an the &#$tin. be "+assi'ie!% The routing can be classified as, F &daptive routing

F 1on+adaptive routing. 11. What is time7t#7+i(e #& /a"*et +i'etime% &s the time+to+live field is generated, each pac et is mar ed with a lifetime, usually the number of hops that are allowed before a pac et is considered lost and accordingly, destroyed. The time+to+live determines the lifetime of a pac et. 1G. What is meant b b&#$te&% & brouter is a single protocol or multiprotocol router that sometimes act as a router and sometimes act as a bridge. 16. W&ite the *e s '#& $n!e&stan!in. the !istan"e (e"t#& &#$tin.. The three eys for understanding the algorithm are F Hnowledge about the whole networ s F /outing only to neighbors F 'nformation sharing at regular intervals 1=. W&ite the *e s '#& $n!e&stan!in. the +in* state &#$tin.. The three eys for understanding the algorithm are F Hnowledge about the neighborhood. F /outing to all neighbors. F 'nformation sharing when there is a range. 20. 8#) the /a"*et "#st &e'e&&e! in !istan"e (e"t#& an! +in* state &#$tin.% 'n distance vector routing, cost refer to hop count while in case of lin state routing, cost is a weighted value based on a variety of factors such as security levels, traffic or the state of the lin . UNIT I? TRANSPORT ;A>ER 1. What is '$n"ti#n #' t&ans/#&t +a e&%

The protocol in the transport layer ta es care in the delivery of data from one application program on one device to an application program on another device. They act as a lin between the upper layer protocols and the services provided by the lower layer. 2. What a&e the !$ties #' the t&ans/#&t +a e&% The services provided by the transport layer 8nd+to+ end delivery &ddressing /eliable delivery )low control ,ultiplexing 3. What is the !i''e&en"e bet)een net)#&* +a e& !e+i(e& an! the t&ans/#&t +a e& !e+i(e& % Net)#&* +a e& !e+i(e& T&ans/#&t +a e& !e+i(e& The networ layer is responsible for the the source+to+destination delivery of pac et across multiple networ lin s. The transport layer is responsible for source+to+destination delivery of the entire message. -. What a&e the '#$& as/e"ts &e+ate! t# the &e+iab+e !e+i(e& #' !ata% The four aspects are, 8rror control

5e"uence control =oss control Duplication control 0. What is meant b se.ment% &t the sending and receiving end of the transmission, T*6 divides long transmissions into smaller data units and pac ages each into a frame called a segment. 1. What is meant b se.mentati#n% Bhen the si$e of the data unit received from the upper layer is too long for the networ layer datagram or data lin layer frame to handle, the transport protocol divides it into smaller usable bloc s. The dividing process is called segmentation. 2. What is meant b C#n"atenati#n% The si$e of the data unit belonging to single sessions are so small that several can fit together into a single datagram or frame, the transport protocol combines them into a single data unit. The combining process is called concatenation. 6. What a&e the t /es #' m$+ti/+e@in.% The types of multiplexing are, Epward multiplexing Downward multiplexing =. What a&e the t)# /#ssib+e t&ans/#&t se&(i"es% Two basic types of transport services are, *onnection service *onnectionless services 10. The t&ans/#&t +a e& "&eates the "#nne"ti#n bet)een s#$&"e an! !estinati#n. What a&e the th&ee e(ents in(#+(e! in the "#nne"ti#n% )or security, the transport layer may create a connection between the two end

ports. & connection is a single logical path between the source and destination that is associated with all pac ets in a message. *reating a connection involves three steps% F *onnection establishment F Data transfer I *onnection release. 11. What is meant b "#n.esti#n% *ongestion in a networ occurs if user sends data into the networ at a rate greater than that allowed by networ resources. 12. Wh the "#n.esti#n #""$&s in net)#&*% *ongestion occurs because the switches in a networ have a limited buffer si$e to store arrived pac ets. 13. What is meant b 5$a+it #' se&(i"e% The "uality of service defines a set of attributes related to the performance of the connection. )or each connection, the user can re"uest a particular attribute each service class is associated with a set of attributes. 1-. What a&e the t)# "ate.#&ies #' B#S att&ib$tes% The two main categories are Eser 0riented 1etwor 0riented 10. ;ist #$t the $se& &e+ate! att&ib$tes% Eser related attributes are 5*/ - 5ustainable *ell /ate 6*/ - 6ea *ell /ate

,*/+ ,inimum *ell /ate *@DT - *ell @ariation Delay Tolerance 11. What a&e the net)#&*s &e+ate! att&ib$tes% The networ related attributes are, *ell loss ratio (*=/) *ell transfer delay (*TD) *ell delay variation (*D@) *ell error ratio (*8/) 12. What is the !i''e&en"e bet)een se&(i"e /#int a!!&ess4 +#.i"a+ a!!&ess an! /h si"a+ a!!&ess% Se&(i"e /#int a!!&essin. The transport layer header includes a type of address called a service point address or port address, which ma es a data delivery from a specific process on one computer to a specific process on another computer. ;#.i"a+ a!!&essin. 'f a pac et passes the networ boundary we need another addressing to differentiate the source and destination systems. The networ layer adds a header, which indicate the logical address of the sender and receiver. Ph si"a+ a!!&essin. 'f the frames are to be distributed to different systems on the networ , the data lin layer adds the header, which defines the source machine#s address and the destination machine#s address. 12. What a&e the &$+es #' n#nb#$n!a& 7+e(e+ mas*in.% F The bytes in the '6 address that corresponds to .44 in the mas will be repeated in the subnetwor address

F The bytes in the '6 address that corresponds to 0 in the mas will change to 0 in the subnetwor address F )or other bytes, use the bit+wise &1D operator 1=. De'ine 9ate)a . & device used to connect two separate networ s that use different communication protocols 20. What is ;SP% 'n lin state routing, a small pac et containing routing information sent by a router to all other router by a pac et called lin state pac et. UNIT ? APP;ICATION ;A>ER 1. What is the /$&/#se #' D#main Name S stem% Domain 1ame 5ystem can map a name to an address and conversely an address to name. 2. Dis"$ss the th&ee main !i(isi#n #' the !#main name s/a"e. Domain name space is divided into three different sections% generic domains, country domains I inverse domain. 9ene&i" !#main, Define registered hosts according to their generic behavior, uses generic suffixes. C#$nt& !#main, Eses two characters to identify a country as the last suffix. In(e&se !#main, )inds the domain name given the '6 address. 3. Dis"$ss the TCP "#nne"ti#ns nee!e! in 3TP. )T6 establishes two connections between the hosts. 0ne connection is used for

data transfer, the other for control information. The control connection uses very simple rules of communication. The data connection needs more complex rules due to the variety of data types transferred. -. Dis"$ss the basi" m#!e+ #' 3TP. The client has three components% the user interface, the client control process, and the client data transfer process. The server has two components% the server control process and the server data transfer process. The control connection is made between the control processes. The data connection is made between the data transfer processes. 0. What is the '$n"ti#n #' SMTP% The T*6!'6 protocol supports electronic mail on the 'nternet is called 5imple ,ail Transfer (5,T6). 't is a system for sending messages to other computer users based on e+mail addresses. 5,T6 provides mail exchange between users on the same or different computers. 3. What is the !i''e&en"e bet)een a $se& a.ent CUAD an! a mai+ t&ans'e& a.ent CMTAD% The E& prepares the message, creates the envelope, and puts the message in the envelope. The ,T& transfers the mail across the 'nternet. G. 8#) !#es MIME enhan"e SMTP% ,',8 is a supplementary protocol that allows non+&5*'' data to be sent through 5,T6. ,',8 transforms non+&5*'' data at the sender site to 1@T &5*'' data and deliverers it to the client 5,T6 to be sent through the 'nternet. The server 5,T6 at the receiving side receives the 1@T &5*'' data and delivers it to ,',8 to be transformed bac to the original data. 6. Wh is an a//+i"ati#n s$"h as POP nee!e! '#& e+e"t&#ni" messa.in.% Bor stations interact with the 5,T6 host, which receives the mail on behalf of every host in the organi$ation, to retrieve messages by using a client+server protocol such as 6ost 0ffice 6rotocol, version ;(606;). &lthough 606; is used to download

messages from the server, the 5,T6 client still needed on the des top to forward messages from the wor station user to its 5,T6 mail server. =. 9i(e the '#&mat #' 8TTP &e5$est messa.e. 10. 9i(e the '#&mat #' 8TTP &es/#nse messa.e. 11. W&ite !#)n the th&ee t /es #' WWW !#"$ments. The documents in the BBB can be grouped into three broad categories% static, dynamic and active. Stati", )ixed+content documents that are created and stored in a server. D nami", *reated by web server whenever a browser re"uests the document. A"ti(e, & program to be run at the client side. 12. What is the /$&/#se #' 8TM;% 9T,= is a computer language for specifying the contents and format of a web document. 't allows additional text to include codes that define fonts, layouts, embedded graphics and hypertext lin s. 1;. De'ine C9I. *J' is a standard for communication between 9TT6 servers and executable programs. 't is used in crating dynamic documents. 1-. Name '#$& 'a"t#&s nee!e! '#& a se"$&e net)#&*. P&i(a" , The sender and the receiver expect confidentiality. A$thenti"ati#n, The receiver is sure of the sender#s identity and that an imposter has not sent the message. Inte.&it , The data must arrive at the receiver exactly as it was sent. N#n7Re/$tati#n, The receiver must able to prove that a received message came from a specific sender. 10. 8#) is a se"&et *e !i''e&ent '&#m /$b+i" *e %

'n secret ey, the same ey is used by both parties. The sender uses this ey and an encryption algorithm to encrypt data7 the receiver uses the same ey and the corresponding decryption algorithm to decrypt the data. 'n public ey, there are two eys% a private ey and a public ey. The private ey is ept by the receiver. The public ey is announced to the public. 11. What is a !i.ita+ si.nat$&e% Digital signature is a method to authenticate the sender of a message. 't is similar to that of signing transactions documents when you do business with a ban . 'n networ transactions, you can create an e"uivalent of an electronic or digital signature by the way you send data. 12. What a&e the a!(anta.es E !isa!(anta.es #' /$b+i" *e en"& /ti#n% A!(anta.es, a) /emove the restriction of a shared secret ey between two entities. 9ere each entity can create a pair of eys, eep the private one, and publicly distribute the other one. b) The no. of eys needed is reduced tremendously. )or one million users to communicate, only two million eys are needed. Disa!(anta.e, 'f you use large numbers the method to be effective. *alculating the cipher text using the long eys ta es a lot of time. 5o it is not recommended for large amounts of text. 16. What a&e the a!(anta.es E !isa!(anta.es #' se"&et *e en"& /ti#n% A!(anta.e, 5ecret Hey algorithms are efficient% it ta es less time to encrypt a message. The reason is that the ey is usually smaller. 5o it is used to encrypt or decrypt long messages. Disa!(anta.es, a) 8ach pair of users must have a secret ey. 'f 1 people in world want to use this

method, there needs to be 1 (1+1)!. secret eys. )or one million people to communicate, a half+billion secret eys are needed. b) The distribution of the eys between two parties can be difficult. 1=. De'ine /e&m$tati#n. 6ermutation is transposition in bit level. St&ai.ht /e&m$tati#n, The no. of bits in the input and output are preserved. C#m/&esse! /e&m$tati#n, The no. of bits is reduced (some of the bits are dropped). E@/an!e! /e&m$tati#n, The no. of bits is increased (some bits are repeated). 20. De'ine s$bstit$ti#na+ E t&ans/#siti#na+ en"& /ti#n. S$bstit$ti#na+, & character level encryption in which each character is replaced by another character in the set. T&ans/#siti#na+, & *haracter level encryption in which the characters retain their plaintext but the position of the character changes.