IndoorPositioning

Technologies

HabilitationThesis
submittedto
ETHZurich

ApplicationforVeniaLegendiin
PositioningandEngineeringGeodesy

Dr.RainerMautz

InstituteofGeodesyandPhotogrammetry,
DepartmentofCivil,EnvironmentalandGeomatic
Engineering,ETHZurich

February2012

2
Acknowledgements
Fiist, I woulu like to acknowleuge the piomotion of this thesis by the iefeient Piof. Bi. Bilmai
Ingensanu, Institute of ueouesy anu Photogiammetiy, ETB Zuiich. Paiticulaily valuable to me
have been openminueu uiscussions with him anu his netwoikeu thinking which inspiieu me to
piouuce such a compiehensive woik.
I am inuebteu to the coiefeient Piof. Bi. Alain ueigei, as well as to my colleagues Sebastian
Tilch anu Baviu uiimm who took theii time to pioofieau this publication anu to pioviue fiuitful
suggestions.
Last but not least I woulu sinceiely thank Naik Leylanu foi coiiecting the English text. Bis help
not only impioveu the quality of this thesis, but eniicheu my English language in geneial.
Ny wife uuang was so patient with my late nights, anu I want to thank hei foi hei faithful
suppoit in wiiting this woik.

3



Contents

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................... 2
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................... 6
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.1 Notivation .......................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Pievious Suiveys ............................................................................................................................................. 8
1.S 0veiview of Technologies ........................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Inuooi Positioning Applications ............................................................................................................ 11
1.S Stiuctuie of this Woik ............................................................................................................................... 14
2 User Requirements ............................................................................................................................. 15
2.1 Requiiements Paiameteis 0veiview .................................................................................................. 1S
2.2 Positioning Requiiements Paiameteis Befinition ......................................................................... 17
2.S Nan Nachine Inteiface Requiiements ................................................................................................ 19
2.4 Secuiity anu Piivacy Requiiements ..................................................................................................... 2u
2.S Costs .................................................................................................................................................................. 2u
2.6 ueneiic Beiivation of 0sei Requiiements......................................................................................... 2u
2.7 Requiiements foi Selecteu Inuooi Applications ............................................................................. 21
3 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................................. 25
S.1 Bisambiguation of Teims foi Positioning .......................................................................................... 2S
S.2 Befinition of Technical Teims ................................................................................................................ 27
S.S The Basic Neasuiing Piinciples ............................................................................................................. 29
S.4 Positioning Nethous ................................................................................................................................... S1
4 Cameras .................................................................................................................................................. 34
4.1 Refeience fiom SB Builuing Nouels .................................................................................................... SS
4.2 Refeience fiom Images .............................................................................................................................. S6
4.S Refeience fiom Beployeu Coueu Taigets .......................................................................................... S7
4.4 Refeience fiom Piojecteu Taigets ........................................................................................................ S8
4.S Systems without Refeience ..................................................................................................................... S9
4.6 Refeience fiom 0thei Sensois ............................................................................................................... 4u
4.7 Summaiy on Cameia Baseu Inuooi Positioning Systems ........................................................... 4u
5 Infrared ................................................................................................................................................... 42
S.1 Active Beacons .............................................................................................................................................. 42
S.2 Imaging of Natuial Infiaieu Rauiation ............................................................................................... 4S
S.S Imaging of Aitificial Infiaieu Light ....................................................................................................... 4S
S.4 Summaiy on Infiaieu Inuooi Positioning Systems ....................................................................... 44
4
6 Tactile and Combined Polar Systems ........................................................................................... 45
6.1 Tactile Systems ............................................................................................................................................. 4S
6.2 Combineu Polai Systems .......................................................................................................................... 46
6.S Summaiy on Tactile anu Combineu Polai Systems ....................................................................... 49
7 Sound ....................................................................................................................................................... 50
7.1 0ltiasounu ...................................................................................................................................................... Su
7.2 Auuible Sounu ............................................................................................................................................... SS
7.S Summaiy on Sounu Systems ................................................................................................................... S6
8 WLAN / WiFi......................................................................................................................................... 57
8.1 Piopagation Noueling................................................................................................................................ S7
8.2 Cell of 0iigin .................................................................................................................................................. S8
8.S Empiiical Fingeipiinting .......................................................................................................................... S8
8.4 WLAN Bistance Baseu Nethous (PathlossBaseu Positioning) ................................................ 6u
8.S Summaiy on WLAN Systems ................................................................................................................... 64
9 Radio Frequency Identification ...................................................................................................... 65
9.1 Active RFIB ..................................................................................................................................................... 66
9.2 Passive RFIB .................................................................................................................................................. 66
9.S Summaiy on RFIB Systems ...................................................................................................................... 67
10 UltraWideband ................................................................................................................................ 69
1u.1 Range Estimation 0sing 0WB ................................................................................................................. 7u
1u.2 Nultipath Nitigation 0sing 0WB .......................................................................................................... 71
1u.S Positioning Nethous 0sing 0WB ........................................................................................................... 71
1u.4 Commeicial 0WB Systems ....................................................................................................................... 74
1u.S Summaiy on 0ltiaWiuebanu Systems ............................................................................................... 74
11 High Sensitive GNSS / Assisted GNSS ........................................................................................ 75
11.1 Signal Attenuation ....................................................................................................................................... 7S
11.2 Assisteu uNSS ................................................................................................................................................ 76
11.S Long Integiation anu Paiallel Coiielation......................................................................................... 77
11.4 Summaiy on Bigh Sensitive uNSS ........................................................................................................ 78
12 Pseudolites ......................................................................................................................................... 79
12.1 Pseuuolites 0sing Signals Biffeient to uNSS .................................................................................... 8u
12.2 uNSS Repeateis ............................................................................................................................................ 8u
12.S Summaiy on Pseuuolite Systems .......................................................................................................... 82
13 Other Radio Frequency Technologies ...................................................................................... 83
1S.1 ZigBee ............................................................................................................................................................... 8S
1S.2 Bluetooth ......................................................................................................................................................... 84
5


1S.S BECT Phones ................................................................................................................................................. 84
1S.4 Bigital Television ......................................................................................................................................... 8S
1S.S Cellulai Netwoiks ........................................................................................................................................ 8S
1S.6 Rauai ................................................................................................................................................................. 87
1S.7 FN Rauio .......................................................................................................................................................... 9u
1S.8 Summaiy on Rauio Systems .................................................................................................................... 9u
14 Inertial Navigation Systems ......................................................................................................... 92
14.1 INS Navigation without Exteinal Infiastiuctuie ............................................................................ 92
14.2 Peuestiian Beau Reckoning ..................................................................................................................... 9S
14.S INS Peuestiian Navigation 0sing Complementaiy Sensois ....................................................... 94
14.4 Foot Nounteu Peuestiian Navigation.................................................................................................. 97
14.S Summaiy on INS Baseu Systems ........................................................................................................... 99
15 Magnetic Localization ................................................................................................................... 100
1S.1 Systems 0sing the Antenna Neai Fielu ............................................................................................ 1uu
1S.2 Systems 0sing Nagnetic Fielus fiom Cuiients ............................................................................. 1uu
1S.S Systems 0sing Peimanent Nagnets .................................................................................................. 1u2
1S.4 Systems 0sing Nagnetic Fingeipiinting ......................................................................................... 1uS
1S.S Summaiy on Nagnetic Localization .................................................................................................. 1uS
16 Infrastructure Systems ................................................................................................................ 104
16.1 Powei Lines ................................................................................................................................................. 1u4
16.2 Flooi Tiles .................................................................................................................................................... 1u4
16.S Fluoiescent Lamps ................................................................................................................................... 1uS
16.4 Leaky Feeuei Cables ................................................................................................................................ 1uS
16.S Summaiy on Infiastiuctuie Systems ................................................................................................ 1u6
17 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................................................................... 107
17.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 1u7
17.2 0utlook .......................................................................................................................................................... 1u7
Acronyms ....................................................................................................................................................... 108
Symbols ........................................................................................................................................................... 111
References ..................................................................................................................................................... 112

6
Abstract
In the age of automation the ability to navigate peisons anu uevices in inuooi enviionments has
become incieasingly impoitant foi a iising numbei of applications. With the emeigence of global
satellite positioning systems, the peifoimance of outuooi positioning has become excellent, but
many mass maiket applications iequiie seamless positioning capabilities in all enviionments.
Theiefoie inuooi positioning has become a focus of ieseaich anu uevelopment uuiing the past
uecaue.
It has by now become appaient that theie is no oveiall solution baseu on a single technology,
such as that pioviueu outuoois by satellitebaseu navigation. We aie still fai away fiom
achieving cheap piovision of global inuooi positioning with an accuiacy of 1 metei. Cuiient
systems iequiie ueuicateu local infiastiuctuie anu customizeu mobile units. As a iesult, the
iequiiements foi eveiy application must be analyzeu sepaiately to pioviue an inuiviuually
tailoieu solution. Theiefoie it is impoitant to assess the peifoimance paiameteis of all
technologies capable of inuooi positioning anu match them with the usei iequiiements which
have to be uesciibeu piecisely foi each application. Such uesciiptions must be baseu on a maiket
analysis wheie the iequiiements paiameteis neeu to be caiefully weigheu against each othei.
The numbei of ielevant iequiiements paiameteis is laige (e.g. accuiacy, coveiage, integiity,
availability, upuate iate, latency, costs, infiastiuctuie, piivacy, appioval, iobustness,
intiusiveness etc.). But also the uiveisity of uiffeient technologies is laige, making it a complex
piocess to match a suitable technology with an application. At the highest level, all technologies
can be uiviueu into categoiies employing thiee uiffeient physical piinciples: ineitial navigation
(acceleiometeis anu gyioscopes maintaining angulai momentum), mechanical waves (i.e.
auuible anu ultiasounu) anu electiomagnetic waves (i.e. using the visible, infiaieu, miciowave
anu iauio spectium). Systems making use of the iauio spectium incluue FN iauios, iauais,
cellulai netwoiks, BECT phones, WLAN, ZigBee, RFIB, ultiawiuebanu, high sensitive uNSS anu
pseuuolite systems.
This thesis categoiizes all sighteu inuooi positioning appioaches into 1S uistinct technologies
anu uesciibes the measuiing piinciples of each. Inuiviuual appioaches aie chaiacteiizeu anu key
peifoimance paiameteis aie quantifieu. Foi a bettei oveiview, these paiameteis aie biiefly
compaieu in table foim foi each technology.

1.1Motivation 7


1 Introduction
Subsequent to the 2u1u anu 2u11 Inteinational Confeiences on Inuooi Positioning anu Inuooi
Navigation (IPIN), the authoi was iepeateuly askeu to pioviue keynote piesentations to give an
oveiview of cuiient inuooi positioning technologies. An obvious lack of available infoimation on
this topic inspiieu the iuea to cieate this suivey of existing techniques foi inuooi positioning anu
navigation. An attempt is being maue to compiehensively uesciibe ielevant appioaches,
uevelopments anu piouucts, at the expense of omitting technical uetails. Citeu iefeiences
pioviue such uetails foi each specific system appioach. To guiue the ieauei in the piocess of
selecting an appiopiiate technology, the system paiameteis anu typical peifoimance levels aie
compaieu to each othei.
Systems baseu on micio anu nanomeasuiing technologies foi applications with measuiing
ianges below 1 m have not been incluueu in this suivey. The ieason is that uevelopments of
smallscale technologies aie mainly uiiven by the manufactuieis ieseaich uepaitments anu
theiefoie iemain unpublisheu solutions.
An extensive list of application aieas is given in Section 1.4. It ieveals the significance of inuooi
positioning to oui society anu explains the necessity foi fuithei ieseaich effoits to put these
applications into piactice.
1.1 Motivation
Following the achievements of satellitebaseu location seivices in outuooi applications the
challenge has shifteu to the piovision of such seivices foi the inuooi enviionment. Bowevei, the
ability to locate objects anu people inuoois iemains a substantial challenge, foiming the majoi
bottleneck pieventing seamless positioning in all enviionments. Nany inuooi positioning
applications aie waiting foi a satisfactoiy technical solution. Impiovements in inuooi
positioning peifoimance have the potential to cieate unpieceuenteu oppoitunities foi
businesses.
The question why this woik uiaws a uistinction between inuooi anu outuooi positioning has
been iaiseu. In fact, most positioning systems can at least theoietically be useu inuoois as
well as outuoois. Bowevei system peifoimances uiffei gieatly, because the enviionments have a
numbei of substantial uissimilaiities. Inuooi enviionments aie paiticulaily challenging foi
positioning, i.e. position finuing, foi seveial ieasons:
seveie multipath fiom signal ieflection fiom walls anu fuinituie
NonLineofSight (NLoS) conuitions
1Introduction 8
high attenuation anu signal scatteiing uue to gieatei uensity of obstacles
fast tempoial changes uue to the piesence of people anu opening of uoois
high uemanu foi piecision anu accuiacy
0n the othei hanu, inuooi settings facilitate positioning anu navigation in many ways:
small coveiage aieas
low weathei influences such as small tempeiatuie giauients anu slow aii ciiculation
fixeu geometiic constiaints fiom planai suifaces anu oithogonality of walls
infiastiuctuie such as electiicity, inteinet access, walls suitable foi taiget mounting
lowei uynamics uue to slowei walking anu uiiving speeus.
Anothei ieason why inuooi positioning has incieasingly become a focus of ieseaich is that the
uominating technologies foi positioning in outuooi enviionments, namely uNSS (ulobal
Navigation Satellite Systems), peifoim pooily within builuings. The inuooi enviionment lacks a
system that possesses the excellent peifoimance paiameteis of outuooi uNSS in teims of global
coveiage, high accuiacy, shoit latency, high availability, high integiity anu low useicosts. Like
inuooi settings, ceitain outuooi enviionments aie not well coveieu by uNSS uue to insufficient
views to the open sky. Theiefoie, positioning systems taigeting uNSS challengeu outuooi
enviionments have been incluueu in this stuuy. Piecisely speaking, this suivey aims to uesciibe
all positioning techniques ielevant to challenging enviionments even incluuing uNSS
appioaches suitable foi such enviionments. Foi simplicity howevei, the teim indoor positioning
is kept thioughout this iepoit.
1.2 PreviousSurveys
Bightowei anu Boiiiello (2uu1) set up a classification scheme in oiuei to help uevelopeis of
locationawaie applications to bettei evaluate theii options when choosing a locationsensing
system. At this eaily stage in the uevelopment of inuooi positioning systems, 1S systems weie
compaieu in teims of accuiacy, piecision, scale, costs anu limitations. The quantifications given
1u yeais ago aie haiuly valiu touay. The iapiu piogiess in this emeiging fielu iequiies a new
suivey eveiy S to S yeais in oiuei to iepiesent a useful stateoftheait guiue.
An extensive suivey of wiieless inuooi positioning techniques anu solutions has been caiiieu
out by Liu et al. (2uu7). Theii suivey uetails the stateoftheait in 2uuS of uPS, RFIB, Cellulai
Baseu, 0WB, WLAN anu Bluetooth technologies. The peifoimance paiameteis of 2u systems anu
solutions aie compaieu in teims of accuiacy, piecision, complexity, scalability anu iobustness.
The textbook of Bensky (2uu7) uesciibes iauionavigation techniques compiehensively anu
pioviues uetails on methous foi uistance estimation between iauios.
A suivey of the mathematical methous useu foi inuooi positioning can be founu in Seco et al.
(2uu9). The stuuy focuses on wiieless positioning techniques gioupeu into the foui categoiies:
geometiybaseu methous, costfunction minimization, fingeipiinting anu Bayesian techniques.
Nautz (2uu9) evaluateu 1S uiffeient inuooi positioning solutions with focus on high piecision
technologies opeiating in the mm to cm level. The evaluation is caiiieu out fiom the peispective
of a geouesist anu incluues the ciiteiia accuiacy, iange, signal fiequency, piinciple, maiket
matuiity anu acquisition costs.
1.3OverviewofTechnologies 9


These suiveys uemonstiate conceptual heteiogenity, uiffeiences in maiket matuiity, vaiiety in
the application auuiesseu anu uissimilaiities in uesign. Theiefoie it is uifficult if not impossible
to accomplish objective peifoimance benchmaiking.
1.3 OverviewofTechnologies
All system appioaches uesciibeu in this woik have been uiviueu into 1S uiffeient technologies.
Accoiuingly, each chaptei is ueuicateu to a uistinctive inuooi positioning technology. Even if the
technology employeu is of minoi impoitance to the usei, the choice foi this categoiization is that
systems using the same technology can be easily compaieu in theii peifoimance paiameteis.
Table 1.1 chaiacteiizes the sensoi technologies at highlevel. The values specifieu foi accuiacy
anu coveiage aie given in foim of inteivals wheiein most appioaches iesiue. Theie aie many
exceptions exceeuing these inteivals. Similaily, only the main measuiing piinciples anu
applications aie mentioneu in the table. Noie uetails can be founu in the tables founu in the
inuiviuual chapteis.
Table 1.1 Overview of indoor positioning technologies. Coverage refers to ranges of single nodes.
Chapter/Technology Typical
Accuracy
Typical
Coverage(m)
Typical
MeasuringPrinciple
Typical
Application
Page
4Cameras 0.1mmdm 110 anglemeasurementsfromimages metrology,robotnavigation 34
5Infrared cmm 15 thermalimaging,activebeacons peopledetection,tracking 42
6Tactile&PolarSystems mmm 32000 mechanical,interferometry automotive,metrology 45
7Sound cm 210 distancesfromtimeofarrival hospitals,tracking 50
8WLAN/WiFi m 2050 fingerprinting pedestriannavigation,LBS 57
9RFID dmm 150 proximitydetection,fingerprinting pedestriannavigation 65
10UltraWideband cmm 150 bodyreflection,timeofarrival robotics,automation 69
11HighSensitiveGNSS 10m global parallelcorrelation,assistantGPS locationbasedservices 75
12Pseudolites cmdm 101000 carrierphaseranging GNSSchallengedpitmines 79
13OtherRadioFrequencies m 101000 fingerprinting,proximity persontracking 83
14InertialNavigation 1% 10100 deadreckoning pedestriannavigation 92
15MagneticSystems mmcm 120 fingerprintingandranging hospitals,mines 100
16InfrastructureSystems cmm building fingerprinting,capacitance ambientassistedliving 104


A giaphical oveiview in uepenuence of accuiacy anu coveiage is given in Figuie 1.1. The
coveiage is to be iegaiueu as the uiiect measuiing iange of an unextenueu implementation, i.e.
the spatial scalability which many system appioaches offei has not been taken into account (e.g.
ueployment of auuitional sensoi noues). If a system aichitectuie incluues a combination of
uiffeient sensoi technologies (e.g. ineitial navigation anu WLAN), then the woik is uesciibeu
unuei the chaptei with the technology that is most significant to the system appioach.
Nost technologies iely on electiomagnetic waves anu a few on mechanical (sounu) waves. As
can be seen fiom Figuie 1.2 a laige pait of the electiomagnetic spectium can be exploiteu foi
inuooi positioning. Bigh accuiacy systems tenu to employ shoitei wavelengths.
1Introduction 10
Figure 1.1 Overview of indoor technologies in dependence on accuracy and coverage

Figure 1.2 Indoor technologies in dependence on accuracy and carrier wavelength
1.4IndoorPositioningApplications 11


1.4 IndoorPositioningApplications
The list of applications below uemonstiates the omnipiesent neeu foi inuooi positioning
capability in oui mouein way of life. Noieovei, along with an impiovement of peifoimance,
futuie geneiations of inuooi positioning systems will finu even moie applications which aie at
the piesent time not feasible.
1.4.1 LocationBasedServicesinIndoorEnvironments
Commeicially highly ielevant applications foi the mass maiket aie the socalleu LocationBaseu
Seivices (LBS) which make use of the geogiaphical position to uelivei contextuepenuent
infoimation accessible with a mobile uevice. Such seivices aie iequiieu inuoois anu outuoois.
Examples of inuooi LBS aie obtaining safety infoimation oi topical infoimation on cinemas,
conceits oi events in the vicinity. LBS applications incluue navigation to the iight stoie in a mall
oi office in a public builuing. Within a stoie oi waiehouse, the location uetection of piouucts is
of inteiest to the ownei as well as to the customeis. In paiticulai, locationbaseu
auveitisements, locationbaseu billing anu local seaich seivices have a high commeicial value. At
laige tiaueshows, theie is a iequest to guiue the visitois to the coiiect exposition booths.
Applications at tiain oi bus stations incluue the navigation to the iight platfoim oi bus stop.
Fuithei examples of LBS aie pioximitybaseu notification, piofile matching anu the
implementation of automateu logonlogoff pioceuuies in companies. Theie is also auueu value
foi the positioning pioviuei, e.g. by iesouice tiacking, fleet management anu usei statistics.
1.4.2 PrivateHomes
Applications at homes incluue the uetection of lost items, physical gestuie games anu location
baseu seivices at home. Ambient Assistant Living (AAL) systems pioviue assistance foi elueily
people in theii homes within theii activities of uaily living. A key function of AAL systems is
location awaieness which iequiies an inuooi positioning functionality. Applications at home aie
meuical monitoiing such as monitoiing vital signs, uetection of emeigencies anu fall uetection,
but also seivice anu peisonalizeu enteitainment systems, such as smait auuio systems (Zetik et
al. 2u1u).
1.4.3 ContextDetectionandSituationalAwareness
Nobile uevices pioviue a laige vaiiety of useful functions wheie it is uesiiable to have an
automateu auaptation of the mobile uevice uepenuing on a change of the useis context. Such
functionality spaies the usei auuitional effoit by pioviuing assistance in inuiviuual situations. To
enable such an automatic auaptation the mobile useis context neeus to be ueteimineu by the
mobile uevice itself. The most significant ciiteiia to ueteimine the useis context is the cuiient
geogiaphical location. Foi example a smait confeience guiue can pioviue infoimation about the
topic uiscusseu in neaiby auuitoiiums.
1.4.4 MedicalCare
In hospitals the location tiacking of meuical peisonnel in emeigency situations has become
incieasingly impoitant. Neuical applications in hospital also incluue patient anu equipment
tiacking, e.g. fall uetection of patients. Piecise positioning is iequiieu foi iobotic assistance
uuiing suigeiies. Existing analytical uevices can be ieplaceu with moie efficient suigical
equipment.
1Introduction 12
1.4.5 SocialNetworking
As a membei of the young geneiation paiticipation in the netwoik has become incieasingly
impoitant because social integiation is goveineu thiough the social netwoik. 0biquitous
location plays a cential iole in social netwoiking, such as locating fiienus foi cooiuinating joint
activities.
1.4.6 EnvironmentalMonitoring
Enviionmental monitoiing is useu to obseive some phenomenon such as heat, piessuie,
humiuity, aii pollution anu uefoimation of objects anu stiuctuies. To monitoi these paiameteis
ovei a ceitain inuooi oi outuooi space, multiple sensoi noues aie oiganizeu as a Wiieless
Sensoi Netwoik (WSN). A WSN consists of small, inexpensive, spatially uistiibuteu autonomous
noues with limiteu piocessing anu computing iesouices anu iauios foi wiieless communication.
A compiehensive liteiatuie ieview on WSNs can be founu in Yick et al. (2uu8). In oiuei to
ietiieve the noues positions fiom ianging anu pioximity infoimation among these sensoi
noues, ueuicateu algoiithms of coopeiative localization have been uevelopeu, see Nautz et al.
(2uu7a).
1.4.7 PoliceandFirefighters
Inuooi positioning capabilities pioviue impoitant benefits in law enfoicement, iescue seivices,
anu fiie seivices i.e. location uetection of fiiemen in a builuing on fiie. The police benefits fiom
seveial ielevant applications, such as instantaneous uetection of theft oi buiglaiy, uetection of
the location of police uogs tiaineu to finu explosives in a builuing, locating anu iecoveiy of stolen
piouucts foi postinciuent investigations, ciime scene iecoveiy, statistics anu tiaining but also in
the pievention of ciime, e.g. with taggeu uevices foi establishing socalleu geofenceing i.e. alaim
systems which can uetect whethei a peison oi an asset has left a ceitain aiea unauthoiizeu.
1.4.8 IntelligentTransportation
A mass usei application foi vehicles will be the piovision of seamless navigation thiough
extension of ioau guiuance insiue paiking gaiages (Wagnei et al. 2u1u). In paiticulai, it becomes
possible to navigate the uiivei to a single paiking spot anu fiom theie to the peuestiian
uestination (uusenbauei et al. 2u1u).
1.4.9 Industry
Nechanical engineeiing is ueveloping towaius intelligent systems foi moie oi less fully
automatic manufactuiing. Foi numeious inuustiial applications inuooi position awaieness is an
essential functional element, such as foi iobotic guiuance, inuustiial iobots, iobot coopeiation,
smait factoiies (e.g. tool assistance systems at cai assembly lines), automateu monitoiing anu
quality contiol. Inuooi positioning capabilities can help to finu taggeu maintenance tools anu
equipment scatteieu all ovei a plant in inuustiial piouuction facilities. The impiovement of
automatic safety systems, intelligent woikei piotection anu collision avoiuance is uiiven by the
positioning capability of such a system.
1.4.10 Museums
Theie aie seveial applications in museums, such as visitoi tiacking foi suiveillance anu stuuy of
visitoi behavioi, location baseu usei guiuing anu tiiggeieu context awaie infoimation seivices.
1.4.11 FinancialInstitutions
Foi the seamless uocumentation of valuables uuiing theii tianspoit, an inuooi tiacking
component is iequiieu.
1.4IndoorPositioningApplications 13


1.4.12 LogisticsandOptimization
Foi the puipose of piocess optimization in complex systems, it is essential to have infoimation
about the location of assets anu staff membeis. In a complex stoiage enviionment foi example, it
is impoitant that iequesteu goous aie founu quickly. Baseu on accuiate localization, tiacing of
eveiy single unit becomes possible. Positioning foi caigo management systems at aiipoits, poits
anu foi iail tiaffic affoius unpieceuenteu oppoitunities foi incieasing theii efficiency.
1.4.13 GuidingoftheVulnerablePeople
Systems uesigneu specifically to aiu the visually impaiieu shoulu opeiate seamlessly in all
inuooi anu outuooi enviionments. Navigation is geneially iequiieu foi vulneiable people to
assist walking in combination with public tianspoit.
1.4.14 StructuralHealthMonitoring
Sensois incoipoiateu into steel ieinfoicements within conciete can peifoim stiain
measuiements with high iesolution. Stiain sensing systems baseu on passive sensoiintegiateu
RFIBs can measuie stiain changes anu uefoimation causeu by loauing anu ueteiioiation (0KI
2u11).
1.4.15 SurveyingandGeodesy
Suiveying of the builuing inteiioi incluues setting out anu geometiy captuie of new builuings as
well as foi ieconstiuctions. Positioning capabilities with global iefeience aie neeueu foi uata
input to CAB, uIS oi CityuNL. Accuiacy iequiiements vaiy fiom centimeteis to millimeteis.
1.4.16 ConstructionSites
Apait fiom suiveying applications, laige constiuctions sites iequiie positioning capabilities that
can suppoit an infoimation management system. The capability to localize anu tiack woikeis is
a ciucial component to establish an automatic safety system.
1.4.17 UndergroundConstruction
Special positioning iequiiements apply in uusty, uaik, humiu anu space limiteu enviionments
foi tunneling (Schneiuei 2u1u) anu longwall mining (Fink et al. 2u1u).
1.4.18 SceneModelingandMapping
Scene moueling the task of builuing uigital SB mouels of natuial scenes iequiies the piecise
oiientation of the optical sensoi. Inuooi mapping systems neeu to know the cameias position in
oiuei to meige multiple views anu geneiate SB point clouus. Scene moueling is beneficial foi
seveial applications such as computei animation, notably viitual tiaining, geometiic moueling
foi physical simulation, mapping of hazaiuous sites anu cultuial heiitage pieseivation.
1.4.19 MotionCapturing
Notion captuiing ielies on the uetection of physical gestuies anu the capability to locate anu
tiack bouy paits. Such technologies aie useful foi meuical stuuies anu animateu films. Location
baseu gaming, such as exeigaming (gaming as a foim of exeicise) ielies on tiacking bouy
movement oi ieaction of the playeis.
1.4.20 ApplicationsBasedonAugmentedReality
Localization awaieness is of funuamental impoitance foi Augmenteu Reality (AR) applications
an incieasingly poweiful tool to supeiimpose giaphics oi sounus on the useis view, allowing
1Introduction 14
the usei to peiceive oveilaiu infoimation which is spatially anu semantically ielateu to the
enviionment. An example of vision baseu navigation foi AR is piesenteu in Kim anu }un (2uu8).
1.4.21 FurtherApplications
Applications aieas which have not been explicitly mentioneu above aie selfoiganizing sensoi
netwoiks, ubiquitous computing, computei vision, inuustiial metiology, aichitectuie,
aicheology, civil engineeiing, pipe inspection (i.e. locating pipes) anu facility management.
1.5 StructureofthisWork
This intiouuction is followeu by an oveiview of the usei iequiiement paiameteis foi inuooi
positioning applications in Chaptei 2. The key iequiiements aie uefineu, a geneiic methou foi
ueiivation of iequiiements is shown anu the iequiiements of some selecteu applications aie
quantifieu. Chaptei S uefines technical teims fiequently useu in the fielu of inuooi positioning.
The basic measuiing piinciples anu positioning methous aie biiefly uesciibeu. Chapteis 416
aie uevoteu to a moie uetaileu piesentation of uiffeient technologies. Each chaptei intiouuces
an inuiviuual technology anu chaiacteiizes some iepiesentative system implementations. At the
enu of each chaptei a shoit conclusion summaiizes the finuings anu pioviues an oveiview of the
key paiameteis in table foim. Chaptei 17 closes the thesis with some geneial conclusions uiawn
fiom the piesenteu liteiatuie, along with a suggestion on how the cuiient insufficiency in
system peifoimances can be systematically impioveu.
2.1RequirementsParametersOverview 15


2 UserRequirements
A ciucial element foi any initiative to uesign an inuooi positioning system is a thoiough stuuy of
the usei iequiiements anu specific application uesciiptions in oiuei to justify the ieseaich anu
uevelopment in this fielu. Requiiements foi significant applications shoulu uiive the futuie
uiiection of ieseaich. Theiefoie it is impoitant to state wellgiounueu figuies of iequiiements
paiameteis anu allocate suitable technologies.
In this chaptei an oveiview of the usei iequiiement paiameteis is given in Section 2.1 anu a
moie compiehensive uefinition of the key iequiiements can be founu in Section 2.2. In auuition,
a geneiic methou to ueteimine the values foi a specific application is inuicateu. The chaptei is
concluueu in Section 2.7 by summaiizing iesults of uiffeient stuuies on inuooi positioning
iequiiements.
2.1 RequirementsParametersOverview
The following list of uiffeient paiameteis can be useu as a basis foi assessment anu compaiison
of uiffeient inuooi positioning systems. Bue to the laige numbei of ciiteiia, it is not
stiaightfoiwaiu foi a usei to iuentify the optimal system foi a paiticulai application. Figuie 2.1
illustiates the complexity anu multiuimensionality of the optimization pioblem confionting the
usei. Foi each application, the 16 usei iequiiements neeu to be weighteu against each othei. The
uiffeient iequiiements aie listeu below with some example values given in biackets. Apait fiom
these usei iequiiements, theie aie othei impoitant technical paiameteis of inuooi positioning
systems such as those shown in Figuie 2.2.
Figure 2.1 User requirements Figure 2.2 Important technical parameters being
2UserRequirements 16
less significant to the user
In oiuei to seive maiket neeus the embeuueu technology shoulu be auequately lowcost, low
powei, lowlatency, miniatuiizeu, iequiie low maintenance anu minimal amount of ueuicateu
infiastiuctuie. Reseaich often neglects issues such as secuiity, piivacy anu ieliability.
2.1.1 ListofthemostImportantUserRequirements
accuiacy measuiement unceitainty (mm, cm, um, metei, uecametei level)
coveiage aiea limitations to ceitain enviionments (single ioom, builuing, city, global)
cost (unique system setup costs, pei usei uevice costs, pei ioom costs, maintenance costs),
iequiieu infiastiuctuie (none, maikeis, passive tags, active beacons, pieexisting oi
ueuicateu, local oi global),
maiket matuiity (concept, uevelopment, piouuct)
output uata (2B, SB cooiuinates, ielative, absolute oi symbolic position, uynamic
paiameteis such as speeu, heauing, unceitainty, vaiiances)
piivacy (active oi passive uevices, mobile oi seivei baseu computation)
upuate iate (onevent, on iequest oi peiiouically e.g. 1uu Bz oi once a week)
inteiface (manmachine inteifaces such as text baseu, giaphical uisplay, auuio voice anu
electiical inteifaces such as RS2S2, 0SB, fibei channels oi wiieless communications)
system integiity (opeiability accoiuing technical specification, alaim in case of malfunction)
iobustness (physical uamage, theft, jamming, unauthoiizeu access)
availability (likelihoou anu maximum uuiation of outages)
scalability (not scalable, scalable with aieapiopoitional noue ueployment, scalable with
accuiacy loss),
numbei of useis (single usei e.g. totalstation, unlimiteu useis e.g. passive mobile sensois),
intiusiveness usei acceptance (uistuibing, impeiceptible)
appioval (legal system opeiation, ceitification of authoiities)
2.1.2 TechnicalParametersLessImportanttotheUser
level of hybiiuization (single mouality, two uiffeient sensois, highly hybiiu sensoi fusion).
technology (optical, ineitial, magnetic, sounu, )
measuieu quantity (uiiection, uistance, signal amplituue, acceleiation, time)
basic measuiing piinciple (tii)lateiation, (tii)angulation, fingeipiinting, cell of oiigin,
ueauieckoning)
positioning algoiithm useu (multiuimensional scaling, multilateiation, heuiistics)
signal useu (sounu waves, electiomagnetic waves, magnetic fielu stiength)
signal wavelength (visible light, infiaieu, iauio fiequencies)
system aichitectuie (cential oi uistiibuteu systems)
application (navigation, suiveying, inuustiy tiacking, metiology)
cooiuinate iefeience (local, global, object oi sensoi cooiuinate system)
2.1.3 EvaluationofPositioningSystems
In oiuei to finu a suitable positioning technology foi a paiticulai application, the peifoimance
paiameteis neeu to be matcheu with the usei iequiiements. These paiameteis (listeu above anu
uetaileu in Section 2.2) pose a multiuimensional optimization pioblem when seaiching foi the
best match. Noieovei, the values foi the peifoimance paiameteis aie usually not exactly
ueteiminable since they in tuin uepenu on vaiious factois, ciicumstances anu conuitions. Each
system appioach has not only its inuiviuual set of peifoimance paiameteis, but also seveial
unique chaiacteiistics, conuitions, assumptions anu applications which neeu to be weighteu
2.2PositioningRequirementsParametersDefinition 17


against each othei. Weighting of all paiameteis anu auuitional conuitions cannot be uone in an
objective mannei. Theiefoie, faiiminueu ianking of the systems is neithei useful noi feasible.
2.2 PositioningRequirementsParametersDefinition
2.2.1 Accuracy/MeasurementUncertainty
The accuiacy of a system is an impoitant usei iequiiement which shoulu be quantifieu in any
uesciiption of an application. The teim accuiacy has been uefineu in the }oint Committee foi
uuiues in Netiology (}CuN) as the closeness of agieement between a measuieu quantity value
anu a tiue quantity value of a measuianu. In the new concept of measuiement unceitainty
publisheu in }CuN 2uu:2uu8 (2uu8) the teim tiue value has been uiscaiueu. In accoiuance,
measuiement accuiacy is not useu anymoie foi quantification of a numeiical quantity. Insteau
of measuiement accuiacy the teim measuiement unceitainty is useu now foi quantification of
a stanuaiu ueviation (incluuing the two categoiies Type A anu Type B). Neasuiement
unceitainty compiises, in geneial, many components. 0nly some of these components (Type A)
may be evaluateu fiom the statistical uistiibution. Components evaluateu fiom piobability
uensity functions baseu on expeiience oi othei infoimation belong to Type B. In oiuei to take
into account all components of unceitainty, incluuing those aiising fiom systematic effects, such
as components associateu with coiiections, all systematic measuiement eiiois must be moueleu
anu calibiation must be completeu by means of a measuieu quantity value having a negligible
measuiement unceitainty. Bowevei, ieseaicheis, uevelopeis anu venuois still quantify the
peifoimance of inuooi positioning systems in teims of positioning accuiacy. In oiuei to be able
to compaie the system peifoimances, the conventional uefinition of positioning accuiacy as
iepoiteu in the souices is useu thioughout this book. Positioning accuiacy shoulu be
unueistoou as the uegiee of confoimance of an estimateu oi measuieu position at a given time,
to the tiue value, expiesseu foi the veitical anu hoiizontal components at the 9S% confiuence
level. If noimal uistiibution can be assumeu, a useful metiic foi the quality of positions is the
computation of the stanuaiu ueviation (i.e. RNSB, Root Nean Squaie Beviation)
o
P
= _
1
n
(P

- P

)
2
n
=1
,
(2.1)
wheie n is the numbei of estimateu (i.e. measuieu) position vectois P

i
anu P
i
the position vectoi
pieuicteu by a mouel of the localizeu noue i, oi, if only one single location is estimateu, P
i
is
ieplaceu with a single position vectoi P
u
. A ciiteiion which is less sensitive to outlieis is the
aveiage absolute position ueviation
o
P
=
1
n
|P

- P

|
n
=1
. (2.2)
In most cases a pieuicteu location P
i
in Equations (2.1) anu (2.2) is iepiesenteu by an empiiical
mean value. If the unknown cooiuinates aie to be estimateu fiom a ieuunuant set of
obseivations, the aveiage of the estimateu mean squaie positional vaiiances
o
P
=
1
n

q
xx
+ q

+q
zz
n
=1
,
(2.S)
can be computeu, wheie q
xxi
, q
yyi
, q
zzi
aie uiagonal elements of the vaiiancecovaiiance matiix C
x

of the estimateu paiameteis as a iesult of a netwoik aujustment. In this book, low accuiacy
2UserRequirements 18
iefeis to a stanuaiu ueviation
P
> 1u m anu high accuiacy to
P
< 1 cm if no value of accuiacy is
stateu explicitly.
Although the accuiacy of an inuooi positioning system is the key uiivei foi most applications, it
neeus to be vieweu in context with the othei peifoimance paiameteis uesciibeu below.
2.2.2 Coverage
Besciibes the spatial extension wheie system peifoimance must be guaianteeu by a positioning
system. 0ne of the following categoiies shoulu be specifieu:
a) Local Coveiage: a small welluefineu, limiteu aiea which is not extenuable (e.g. a single ioom
oi builuing). Foi this case, the coveiage size is specifieu (e.g. (m), (m
2
) oi (m
S
)).
b) Scalable Coveiage: Systems with the ability to inciease the aiea by auuing haiuwaie (e.g.
thiough ueployment of auuitional sensois). In this book, the paiametei coveiage is set to
scalable only if the scalability is not affecteu by a loss of accuiacy.
c) ulobal Coveiage: system peifoimance woiluwiue oi within the uesiieu specifieu aiea. 0nly
uNSS systems anu celestial navigation belong to this categoiy.
2.2.3 Integrity
Integiity ielates to the confiuence which can be placeu in the output of a system. Integiity iisk is
the piobability that a malfunction in the system leaus to an estimateu position that uiffeis fiom
the iequiieu position by moie than an acceptable amount (the alaim limit) anu that the usei is
not infoimeu within the specifieu peiiou of time (timetoalaim). Regulatoiy bouies have
stuuieu anu uefineu integiity peifoimance paiameteis in some sectois such as civil aviation,
howevei, in othei sectois, incluuing those ielating to inuooi navigation it is moie uifficult to finu
quantifieu integiity paiameteis. Fiom the application uesciiption, this iequiiement paiametei
shoulu give an inuication whethei the uevices foi integiity paiameteis aie ielateu to Safety of
Life (SoL), economic factois, oi convenience factois. In acauemic ieseaich papeis which uesciibe
inuooi positioning appioaches, the integiity paiametei is usually not specifieu. Theiefoie this
suivey uoes not take integiity into account.
2.2.4 Availability
Availability is the peicentage of time uuiing which the positioning seivice is available foi use
with the iequiieu accuiacy anu integiity. This may be limiteu by ianuom factois (failuies,
communications congestion) as well as by scheuuleu factois (ioutine maintenance). ueneially
one of the following thiee levels coulu be specifieu, although this will uepenu on the paiticulai
application:
a) low availability: < 9S%
b) iegulai availability: > 99%
c) high availability: > 99.9%
To achieve availability, it is assumeu that continuity, accuiacy anu integiity iequiiements aie
fulfilleu. Application uesciiptions usually incluue specification of availability, wheieas system
uevelopeis usually uo not specify an availability figuie.
2.2.5 Continuity
The continuity is the piopeity of continuous opeiation of the system ovei a connecteu peiiou of
time to peifoim a specific function. The fiequencies of acceptable outages shoulu be given. The
continuity iequiiement is usually similai to that of availability.
2.3ManMachineInterfaceRequirements 19


2.2.6 UpdateRate
The upuate iate is the fiequency with which the positions aie calculateu on the uevice oi at an
exteinal piocessing facility. The following types of measuiements iates exist:
a) peiiouic: iegulai upuate, specifieu in an inteival (unit e.g. (Bz) )
b) on iequest : tiiggeieu by the usei oi by a iemote uevice.
c) on event: measuiement upuate initiateu by the local uevice when a specific event occuis, e.g.
when a tempeiatuie sensoi exceeus a ciitical thiesholu.
2.2.7 SystemLatency
The system latency uesciibes the uelay with which the iequesteu infoimation is available to the
usei. The latency can have the following values:
ieal time: Boes not toleiate peiceivable uelays. It is the most uemanuing latency
iequiiement. It is necessaiy foi navigation anu almost all inuooi positioning applications.
soonei the bettei: Requiies the systems best effoit.
soonei the bettei with an 0ppei Limit: Requiies the systems best effoit but the system must
be uesigneu to limit the maximum uelay to a specifieu thiesholu.
post piocessing: No specific time of ueliveiy is uefineu.
2.2.8 DataOutput
In auuition to times anu positions, a numbei of spatiotempoial uata ueiivatives may be
iequiieu, many of these can be pioviueu without significantly incieasing the uata captuie oi
stoiage iequiiements. The following ueiiveu values aie of inteiest in many applications:
speeu velocity
acceleiation
heauing beaiing
pieuicteu position
The iequiiements specification shoulu explicitly mention if the heauing of a mobile object is
neeueu. Some applications iequiie the full spatial oiientation, e.g. in foim of values foi 6 Begiees
of Fieeuom (6 BoF, i.e. S cooiuinate anu S iotation paiameteis).
2.3 ManMachineInterfaceRequirements
The man machine inteiface iequiiements uesciibe how position infoimation will be iepoiteu
anu queiieu at the usei uevice. The following questions neeu to be answeieu foi an application
uesciiption.
2.3.1 InformationDisplaySpatialDataRequirements
Is a giaphical uisplay iequiieu.
Is a scaleu map iequiieu oi is topological coiiectness sufficient.
Is auuitional caitogiaphicmappeu infoimation iequiieu.
What level of uetail is iequiieu appioximately.
2.3.2 DataQueryandAnalysisTools
Is oniequest status infoimation about the netwoik oi uevices neeueu.
Is ioute planning infoimation iequiieu.
2UserRequirements 20
Is enioute guiuance (visual oi auuio) neeueu.
Aie Natuial Language Instiuctions (NLI) iequiieu. NLI is a convenient way to pioviue ioute
infoimation to useis, offeiing iich anu flexible means of uesciibing navigational paths.
2.4 SecurityandPrivacyRequirements
The figuies about secuiity issues shoulu be given. In auuition, seveial aspects of piivacy, such as
appioval by the usei neeu to be consiueieu.
2.4.1 RequirementsforSecurityandSafety
The secuiity of a system is the extent of piotection against some unwanteu occuiience such as
the invasion of piivacy, theft, anu the coiiuption of infoimation oi physical uamage. The quality
oi state of being piotecteu fiom unauthoiizeu access oi uncontiolleu losses oi effects shoulu be
given. Safety is a piopeity of a uevice oi piocess which limits the iisk of acciuent below some
specifieu acceptable level.
2.4.2 RequirementsforPrivacyandApproval
The level of piivacy influences the appioval by the usei: Bow comfoitable aie useis with theii
uata (e.g. tiajectoiy) being stoieu. Bo useis have legal conceins about theii piivacy. If so, can
piivate useis be motivateu to pioviue peisonal uata.
Appioval also incluues the iequiiements foi the system to allow ceitification by authoiities. E.g.
if theie is a neeu foi aumissibility in couit, the iequiiements foi the system to uelivei eviuence
shoulu be given. Insuiance companies shoulu point out theii policies conceining appioval.
2.5 Costs
The maximum cost of a positioning system is an impoitant usei iequiiement which can be
assesseu in seveial ways. Time costs incluue factois such as the time iequiieu foi installation
anu auministiation. Capital costs incluue factois such as the piice pei mobile unit oi system
infiastiuctuie anu the salaiies of suppoit peisonnel. Naintenance costs incluue expenses
iequiieu to keep the system functional. Space costs involve the amount of installeu
infiastiuctuie anu the haiuwaies size. The quantification of the costs shoulu be hanuleu with
caie uue to time, location, manufactuieiielateu uepenuencies.
2.6 GenericDerivationofUserRequirements
Figuie 2.S shows the geneial appioach to uefine usei iequiiements. Fiist, the potential usei
gioups aie uefineu anu listeu. Baseu on the usei gioups, theii associateu seivices aie
ueteimineu. Then the minimum highlevel functions that a potential positioning system must
fulfill aie uefineu. Fiom these high level functions, a list of paiameteis to captuie the usei
iequiiements is ueiiveu. The uata acquisition (step S) is caiiieu out fiom a combination of
souices. Piimaiily a usei suivey is peifoimeu with questionnaiies, biainstoiming sessions anu
inteiviews of inuustiy paitneis. The evaluation of the questionnaiies, inteiviews anu sessions
with the usei gioups is then caiiieu out foi each usei gioup anu application sepaiately. The
iesult of such a stuuy is the summaiy of the usei iequiiements paiameteis in an explicit foim.
2.7RequirementsforSelectedIndoorApplications 21



Figure 2.3 Procedure for user requirements capture
2.7 RequirementsforSelectedIndoorApplications
This section pioviues numeiical taigets of some application aieas foi inuooi positioning as
stateu in vaiious stuuies of expeits. These numbeis uemonstiate laige uissimilaiity of usei
iequiiements between uiffeient applications. Figuie 2.4 shows an oveiview of iequiieu
accuiacies anu ianges allowing foi uiiect compaiison with the peifoimances of technologies in
Figuie 1.1 on page 1u.
Figure 2.4 Overview of user requirements in terms of accuracy and coverage

1. Definition of potential user groups
3. Definition of high level functions
4. Definition of required parameters
5. Data acquisition
6. Detailed description of user requirements
7. Summary of user requirements in table form
2. Definition of potential services
2UserRequirements 22
2.7.1 RequirementsfortheMassMarket
Nass maiket applications foi inuooi positioning iequiie the use of stanuaiu uevices without
supplementaiy physical components, e.g. majoi mouifications to mobile phones in oiuei to
incluue a positioning function aie outofscope in the mass maiket. The geneial usei
iequiiements foi massmaiket localization have been put into numbeis by Wiiola et al. (2u1u),
see Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Summary of requirements for massmarked localization according to Wirola et al. (2010)
Criteria CriteriaDescription Value
horizontalaccuracy 2Dpositionforthedetectionofashelfinasupermarket 1m
verticalaccuracy selectionofthecorrectfloorandvisualization floordetection
updaterate minimumfornavigation 1Hz
latency delaywithwhichpositionisavailabletotheuser none
TTFF TimeToFirstFix,latencyafterswitchingonthedevice withoutdelay
privacy maintenanceoftheuserprivacy accordingtousersetpolicy

2.7.2 RequirementsforUndergroundConstruction
Schneiuei (2u1u) uetails the positioning iequiiements foi unueigiounu constiuction. In
contiast to peuestiian navigation applications, the positioning iequiiements foi unueigiounu
suiveying aie moie uemanuing in teims of accuiacy which neeus to be in the oiuei of
millimeteis insteau of meteis. 0thei iequiiements such as constiaints on costs, size anu
electiical powei aie theiefoie less uemanuing. Auuitional iequiiements apply in teims of system
iobustness. Table 2.2 quantifies the iequiiements as stateu by Schneiuei.
Table 2.2 Summary of positioning requirements in underground construction according to Schneider (2010)
Criteria CriteriaDescription Value
accuracy fordeformationanalysis 1mm5mm
accuracy forheadingandmachineguidance 1cm5cm
range dependsontheapplication 20m50m
3Dpositioning tasksrequire3Dcoordinates yes
resistanceagainst
perturbation,robustness
required against external impacts such as dust (especially close to tunnel
face), emissions from construction machines, damage caused by ongoing
construction(e.g.drill&blast),vibrationsandtunneldeformations
yes
realtimeavailability constructionsurveyingtasksneedresultsinrealtime 80%
userfriendliness systemshouldbeoperablebyforemenwithoutsurveyingbackground yes
costs systemcostmustnotexceedthatofasurveyingtotalstation 10000
50000
operabilityundernon
lineofsight
system must be operable under NLoS conditions, continuous and direct
LoSbetweenthereferencesensorsandtheworksiteisnotalwaysgiven
required
powersupply availabilityforexternalelectricalpower guaranteed

2.7.3 RequirementsforIndoorSurveying
Caipenteis, aichitects, inteiioi uesigneis anu fitteis woulu benefit fiom a tool capable of
ueliveiing SB positions within mmaccuiacy. Such a tool must be useifiienuly in the sense that
the system setup is quick anu wiieless opeiation of a hanuhelu uevice is possible. Realtime
tiacking with 2u Bz oi moie is necessaiy to allow foi captuiing piofiles anu maintaining
iobustness uuiing fast pivoting movements of the opeiatoi. An oveiview of the usei
iequiiements is given in Table 2.S.

2.7RequirementsforSelectedIndoorApplications 23


Table 2.3 Summary of requirements in indoor surveying applications
Criteria CriteriaDescription Value
accuracy 3Dpositioncomparedtoreference 2mm(at20m)
coverage 3Dmeasurementvolume 20m
size sizeofmobilemeasurementunit handheld
updaterate highratesneededfortrackingandfastmovements 20Hz
operatingtime timeofbatterylife 10hours
installationcomplexity timetosetupsystem <2min
qualityindicator selfreportingofcurrentaccuracy yes
costs userpriceperunit <3000

2.7.4 RequirementsforAmbientAssistedLiving
Piioi to an evaluation of positioning systems foi Ambient Assisteu Living (AAL) thiough
competitive benchmaiking (EvAAL 2u11) the usei iequiiements foi AAL applications weie
uefineu in an open uiscussion. It ievealeu a 2B accuiacy of u.S m to 1 m anu an upuate iate of
u.S s. An impoitant iequiiement is the usei acceptance, which uesciibes how intiusive a system
is to the usei, e.g. uoes an elueily peison notice the system by weaiing tags on the bouy. An
oveiview of the iequiiements incluuing theii ielative weights is given in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Summary of requirements in AAL applications
Criteria CriteriaDescription Value Weight
accuracy 2Dpositioncomparedtoreference 0.5m1m 0.25
installationcomplexity manminutestoinstallanAALsysteminaflat <1hour 0.20
useracceptance qualitativemeasuredescribinginvasiveness noninvasive 0.20
availability fractionoftimeasystemisactiveandresponsive >90% 0.15
integrabilityofAAL useofstandardsandopenprotocols 0.10
updaterate Sampleintervalofthelocationsystem 0.5s
coverage areaofatypicalflat 90m
2

costs notassessedwithintheevaluation

2.7.5 RequirementsforFirstResponders
Rantakokko et al. (2u1u) quantify the iequiiements foi enfoicement officeis, fiiefighteis anu
militaiy peisonnel. They iuentify the following key iequiiements as stateu in Table 2.S.
Table 2.5 Summary of requirements for first responders according to Rantakokko et al. (2010)
Criteria CriteriaDescription Value
horizontalaccuracy needforspecificroomdetermination 1m
verticalaccuracy needfordeterminationofaspecificfloorinabuilding 2m
updaterate updatesneedtoprovideconstantaccessibility permanent
latency delaywithwhichpositionisavailabletotheuser none
weight weightofpersonallocalizationandtrackinggear <1kg
cost priceofcompletepositioningsystem <1000

Fuithei iequiiements incluue physical iobustness, enciypteu communication, estimation of
unceitainty, compatibility with othei infoimation souices, iealtime mapbuiluing, anu usei
fiienuliness.
2.7.6 RequirementsforLawEnforcement
The stuuy of Nautz (2uuS) uesciibes usei iequiiements foi a pioposeu positioning system in all
enviionments foi ciime pievention, ciime uetection anu the uetection of stolen goous. Table 2.6
gives an oveiview of the potential seivices which have been iuentifieu anu quantifies the
2UserRequirements 24
iequiieu paiameteis foi inuiviuual seivices. ueneially speaking, a positioning accuiacy of 1 m oi
bettei is iequiieu inuoois foi most seivices.
Table 2.6 Summary of positioning requirements in crime reduction management according to Mautz (2005)
Service Required
Data
Position
ing
Accuracy
(95%)
(indoor)
Integrity Availability
(maximum
allowable
continuous
outage)
UpdateRate BriefJustification
T
i
m
e

t
o

A
l
a
r
m

H
o
r
i
z
o
n
t
a
l

A
l

a
r
m

L
i
m
i
t

targethardening,
reducinglikelihoodof
adevicebeingstolen
position,
ranging,
alarm
1m 10s 2m20m

>95%
(5min)
onevent,in
event:
1s10s
geofencing,alarm
leavingdesignated
areaornetwork
reductioninthevalue
ofgoods.
alarm 30s >95%
(1h)
onevent,on
request
disablingofdevices,
electronicmarker
increasingtheriskfor
criminalsofbeing
caught,surveillance
position,
ranging,
movement,
alarm
0.5m 1s 2m20m >95%
(1min)
onevent,in
event:
1s10s
motiondetectionin
offices,surveillanceon
roadsandcrime
hotspots.
instantaneous
detectionoftheftor
burglary
ranging,
position,
speed,
heading,
track
0.1m 1s 1m2m >99%
(1min)
onevent,in
event:
1s10s
movementdetection
ofdevicesinoffices,
realtimetrackingon
streetsandroads
locatingandrecovery
ofstolenproducts.
ranging,
position,
track
0.5m 60s 5m10m >99%
(5min)
onevent,on
request
trajectoryofmove
ments,locatestolen
products
investigationoncrime,
e.g.locationfrom
wirelessdigitaldevices
position,
track
5m 60s 10m
20m
>90%
(5min)
onrequest crimescenerecovery.
locatemobilephones
onroads
trainingincrime
detection
position,
time
5m >90%
(60min)
onrequest identificationofcrime
hotspots

3.1DisambiguationofTermsforPositioning 25


3 DefinitionofTerms
In this chaptei pievalent technical teims foi positioning aie uefineu anu an explanation is given
foi technical teims fiequently useu in the fielu of inuooi positioning. The chaptei concluues with
the uefinition of basic measuiing piinciples anu positioning methous.
3.1 DisambiguationofTermsforPositioning
In the liteiatuie, the piocess of ueteimining a location is uesciibeu by a numbei of uiffeient
technical teims with slightly uiffeient meanings. The following uefinitions piimaiily ieflect theii
usage in this woik anu might be uefineu slightly uiffeiently elsewheie.
3.1.1 Positioning
Positioning is the geneial teim foi ueteimination of a position of an object oi a peison. It is
paiticulaily useu to emphasize that the taiget object has been moveu to a new location.
3.1.2 Localization
Nostly useu foi uesciibing the piocess of position ueteimination in wiieless sensoi netwoiks
baseu on communicating noues. In the liteiatuie, the use of localization to mean positioning
emphasizes the fact that positioning is caiiieu out in an auhoc anu coopeiative mannei. The
teim localization also unueilines that the application iequiies topological coiiectness of the
sensoi locations, wheieas the absolute cooiuinate position is of minoi impoitance. Theiefoie,
localization is mainly associateu with iough estimation of location foi lowaccuiacy systems
such as foi locating mobile phones.
3.1.3 WirelessPositioning
In the liteiatuie, the teim wiieless positioning iefeis to iauionavigation techniques that iely
on uistance estimation. Because all positioning technologies piesenteu heie aie wiieless in the
sense that they uo not iequiie electiic wiiing, the teim wiieless positioning is avoiueu.
3.1.4 Geolocation
ueolocation is useu foi locating inteinetconnecteu uevices wheie the ueteimineu location is
uesciiptive oi context baseu iathei than a set of geogiaphic cooiuinates.
3.1.5 LocationSensing
As with ueolocation, the teim Location Sensing is useu in computei science to expiess
infoimation about the location of uevices (mostly uesciiptive, iaiely cooiuinate baseu) by
employing the inteinet.
3DefinitionofTerms 26
3.1.6 Radiolocation
Rauiolocation iefeis to position ueteimination of an object by exploiting intiinsic chaiacteiistics
of ieceiveu iauio waves. Signal amplituues, phases, angles of aiiival anu times of aiiival can be
useu to ueiive uistances.
3.1.7 Locating
Locating is the piocess of ueteimining the cuiient location of an object oi a peison ielative to a
iefeience position. It is mostly useu in conjunction with less accuiate location techniques to
place, assign oi to uiscovei the location of an object.
3.1.8 Positioning
Positioning is a synonym foi position finuing.
3.1.9 LocalPositioningSystem(LPS)/RealTimeLocatingSystem(RTLS)/ActiveSystem
The teims LPS, RTLS anu Active System iefei to beaconbaseu positioning that uepenus on
locally ueployeu infiastiuctuie in contiast to passive systems that use only selfcontaineu
sensoi uata anu can opeiate autonomously. Passive inuooi positioning systems noimally use
ineitial sensois in combination with baiometeis, ouometeis anu magnetometeis. Although not
opeiating autonomously, uNSS baseu navigation is consiueieu as passive since local
infiastiuctuie is not iequiieu (unless teiiestiial uiffeiential uNSS is useu).
3.1.10 Navigation
Navigation compiises 1) ueteimination of position, speeu anu heauing of a subject oi object, 2)
finuing of the optimal path (in the sense of the fastest, shoitest, oi cheapest ioute) fiom a stait
to an enu location, anu S) guiuance along a given path anu contiol of the uiffeience between the
cuiient position anu the planneu path.
Navigation accoiuing to uefinition 2) anu S) iequiies geoinfoimation about the navigable inuooi
space. The two main types of location infoimation aie physical anu symbolic location. Physical
locations aie expiesseu in foim of cooiuinates, which iuentify a point on a map. A navigation
system pioviuing a physical position can usually be augmenteu to pioviue coiiesponuing
symbolic location infoimation with auuitional infoimation oi infiastiuctuie. Symbolic
navigation is baseu natuiallanguage, such as in the libiaiy oi neai the exit uooi.
In contiast to tiacking, navigation iequiies position infoimation to be available at the mobile
station.
3.1.11 Tracking
The piocess of iepeateu positioning of a moving object oi peison ovei time is calleu tiacking. In
case of object tiacking (also uenoteu as taiget tiacking, path tiacking, location tiacking, mobile
tiacking, uevice tiacking oi asset tiacking) the mobile object is associateu with any kinu of
positioning system. In contiast to navigation, tiacking is useu when the infiastiuctuie is
ueteimining the location of a passive mobile uevice, wheie the infoimation about the cuiient
position is not necessaiily known at the mobile uevice.
An impoitant special case is that of viueo tiacking (also the teims visual, optical,
photogiammetiic, fiuucial maikei oi image featuie tiacking aie useu). viueo tiacking involves
uigital cameias anu iecognition of taiget objects in consecutive viueo fiames. Bigh sampling
iates of tiacking kinematic objects facilitate positioning uue to high coiielation between
consecutive measuiements.
3.2DefinitionofTechnicalTerms 27


The teim tiacking is often useu in conjunction with ueau ieckoning, wheie the movement is
moueleu using pieviously ueteimineu positions, speeus anu uiiections with the aim not only to
estimate the cuiient location but also pieuict futuie positions.
3.1.12 NetworkandMobileBasedPositioning
Netwoik baseu positioning is uefineu as a technique, wheie Base Stations (BS) ieceive signals
coming fiom a Nobile Station (NS). Position ueteimination is caiiieu out iemotely on a seivei
within the netwoik. In contiast, mobile baseu techniques iely on ueteimination of position being
exclusively caiiieu out at the NS using the signals it ieceives fiom multiple BS. Since the mobile
baseu positioning appioach uoes not iequiie any foiwaiuing of infoimation to the netwoik, it
satisfies piivacy issues of mobile useis. Rauio positioning systems aie classifieu as netwoik
baseu oi mobile baseu in coiiesponuence to tiacking anu navigation iespectively.
3.2 DefinitionofTechnicalTerms
This section pioviues uefinitions foi technical teims significant in the fielu of inuooi positioning.
3.2.1 AbsoluteandRelativePosition
A uistinction must be maue between absolute anu ielative positions (locations). Absolute
locations iefei to a global oi laige aiea iefeience giiu with its iealization in the foim of maikeis,
lanumaiks oi uNSS satellites. Absolute cooiuinate positions iefei to such global oi supeiioi
iefeience system. In contiast, ielative positions uepenu on a local fiame of iefeience, e.g.
cooiuinates within a small coveiage aiea aie given in uelta positions to a local iealization of
iefeience.
3.2.2 KnownandUnknownNodes
In the liteiatuie, known positions aie uenoteu as anchoi noues, beacons, fixpoints, Access Points
(AP), Base Stations (BS) oi iefeience noues. Typically, these points aie iepiesenteu physically
thiough maikeis oi uevices at peimanent positions anu aie fixeu to a ceitain location with
known cooiuinates. The teim anchoi noue is useu in laigei netwoiks with multihop
positioning stiategies. Beacon is useu to inuicate active signal emission. Fixpoint iefeis to
stability in time, access point is the technical teim useu foi WLAN noues, base station foi
mobile phone aichitectuies anu iefeience noue is piimaiily useu to expiess availability of
absolute position infoimation.
In contiast, unknown noues aie uenoteu as Nobile Stations (NS), Nobile Teiminals (NT) oi
Blinu Noues (BN) anu iepiesent those locations whose cooiuinates neeu to be ueteimineu by
the positioning system. Nost positioning system aichitectuies allow blinu noues to be mobile.
Typically, blinu noues aie attacheu to the usei of the system in the foim of tags oi uevices. The
unknown noue can be any navigable uevice oi can iepiesent a mounteu taiget on a iobot.
3.2.3 CentralizedandDistributedPositioning
The concept of a centializeu system aichitectuie is that the entiie position ueteimination is
caiiieu out at a cential seivei wheie all noue locations aie stoieu anu pioviueu to an opeiatoi.
Benefits of centializeu aichitectuies aie simplicity, uata consistence, unifoim seivice to all useis
anu lowei expansion costs because the input anu output mouules contain fewei components. In
a uistiibuteu system, position ueteimination is caiiieu out onboaiu of each noue baseu on local
obseivations. The auvantages of a uistiibuteu aichitectuie aie unlimiteu system scalability anu
guaiantee of the useis piivacy.
3DefinitionofTerms 28
3.2.4 LineofSight(LoS)andNonLineofSight(NLoS)
LoS is piesent when a signal can tiavel on the uiiect stiaight path fiom an emittei to a ieceivei.
Positioning techniques ielying on LoS aie common, e.g. time of aiiival uistance measuiements
baseu on iauio signals. Bue to occlusions fiom walls, fuinituie anu people, inuooi enviionments
typically inuuce NLoS piopagation, which causes inconsistent time uelays at a iauio ieceivei.
These uelays pose a paiticulai challenge which can only be tackleu by few positioning
techniques.
3.2.5 CramrRaoLowerBound(CRLB)
CRLB in geneial uenotes the lowei limit foi the minimal vaiiance of any unbiaseu estimates of an
unknown paiametei. In the context of positioning algoiithms, this funuamental limit bounus the
achievable localization accuiacy anu theiefoie seives as a benchmaik foi positioning algoiithms.
3.2.6 ReceivedSignalStrengthIndicator(RSSI)
Signal attenuation can be exploiteu foi uistance estimation baseu on RSSI values. RSSI aie
obseiveu RSS (Receiveu Signal Stiength) values aveiageu ovei a ceitain sampling peiiou anu
usually specifieu as ieceiveu powei P
R
in uecibels. Baseu on the attenuation mouel
P
R
P
1
0
1
0
R
4nJ
p
(S.1)
the ieceiveu signal powei oi signal stiength P
R
can be useu to estimate the uistance d of a peison
oi a mobile object. In the mouel, P
T
is the tiansmitteu powei at the emittei, G
T
anu G
R
aie the
antenna gains of tiansmittei anu ieceivei anu p is the path loss exponent. The path loss factoi p
chaiacteiizes the iate of attenuation with the inciease of uistance d. In fiee space p = 2 (P
R
d
2
)
iespective p > 2 foi enviionments with NLoS multipath. Foi inuooi enviionments the path loss
exponent typically takes values between 4 anu 6. 0n the othei hanu, a coiiiuoi can act as a
waveguiue, iesulting in path loss with p < 2. The fiee space mouel uoes not take into account
that antennas aie typically set up above the giounu. In fact, the giounu acts as a ieflectoi anu
theiefoie the ieceiveu powei uiffeis fiom that of fiee space. A mathematical foimulation of such
a mouel known as open fielu mouel can be founu in Bensky (2uu7).
Theoietically, uistances d
i
(with i = 1...n anu n>2) which have been estimateu fiom RSSI values to
multiple beacons can be useu to ueteimine the ieceivei position by multilateiation. In ieal
woilu application howevei, inteifeience, multipath piopagation anu piesence of obstacles anu
people leaus to a complex spatial uistiibution of RSSI values, which is unfavoiable foi the
estimation of uistances fiom RSSI. Theiefoie fingeipiinting has become moie populai than
piopagation moueling.
3.2.7 SignaltoNoiseRatio(SNR)or(S/N)
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) is uefineu as the iatio of signal powei to the powei level of
backgiounu noise. An SNR of moie than 1 inuicates that the signal is stiongei than the noise. As
with RSSI, SNR can be useu foi fingeipiinting. Insteau of absolute signal stiength, SNR patteins
of the usei uevice aie compaieu to the uatabase.
3.2.8 IndoorPathLossModel
The socalleu IT0 Nouel foi Inuooi Attenuation takes into account special piopeities of iauio
piopagation insiue builuings. The mouel pioviues a ielation between uistance d anu the total
path loss L with
3.3TheBasicMeasuringPrinciples 29


I = 2ulog + p log J +c(k, ) -28, (S.2)
wheie f is the iauio fiequency, c an empiiical flooi loss penetiation factoi anu k the numbei of
floois between tiansmittei anu ieceivei. A ioom insiue a builuing is consiueieu as a closeu aiea
limiteu by walls wheie the signal is ieflecteu, absoibeu oi is able to penetiate to a ceitain extent.
Since the pieuiction of the path loss iequiies complex moueling, the values foi the pass loss
coefficient p aie ueteimineu empiiically anu uiffei between p = 2u anu p = Su uepenuing on the
type of inuooi space.
3.2.9 MultipathEnvironment
In a multipath enviionment uiffeient paths (echoes) ieach the ieceivei with uiffeient time
uelays. If uiffeiences in paths length aie less than the iecipiocal of the tiansmission banuwiuth,
these paths cannot be iesolveu as uistinct pulses anu aie obseiveu as the envelope of theii sum.
3.2.10 MultipathModeling
Nultipath piopagation of signals is paiticulaily pioblematic foi time baseu ianging methous. In
inuooi enviionments wheie NLoS is the stanuaiu case, time of flight estimation iequiies
multipath piopagation moueling anu mitigation. The pioblem aiises when signal paths fiom
uiffeient uiiections uegiaue the ability to ueteimine the tiavel time of the uiiect path. Nost
pioblematic inuoois is shoit multipath with uelays of less than u.S coue chips (i.e. pulses)
compaieu to the uiiect signal.
The stanuaiu mouel foi uecomposition of a ieceiveu multipath signal r(t) is
r(t) = A

s(t -

) +z(t)

,
(S.S)
wheie A
i
is the complex amplituue of the ith path,
i
is the uelay of the ith path, s(t) is the
tiansmitteu signal anu z(t) ianuom noise. Baseu on obseiveu uata, the multipath time uelays anu
the complex amplituues (incluuing phase shifts) can be estimateu. The numbei of paiameteis
can be ieuuceu by solving foi the complex amplituues analytically as a function of the time
uelays.
0ne way to uistinguish the uiiect path fiom an NLoS path is to move the ieceivei oi emittei
stations. NLoS paths change eiiatically while in motion allowing foi sepaiation anu aveiaging,
while the uiiect path is uiiectly ielateu to the motion of the object. Thus, aveiaging ovei time
with a motiontiacking mouel is an effective way to mitigate multipath.
Anothei way to mitigate multipath is the use of a uiveisity scheme by switching to uiffeient
fiequency channels. Alteinatively, iauio signals with a laige absolute fiequency banuwiuth such
as 0ltiaWiuebanu (Chaptei 1u) have been shown to be auvantageous foi mitigation of
multipath fauing (Nolisch 2uu9).
3.3 TheBasicMeasuringPrinciples
The following basic measuiing piinciples aie common techniques foi uistance anu angulai
obseivations which foim the basis foi the positioning methous uesciibeu in section S.4.
3DefinitionofTerms 30
3.3.1 TimeofArrival(ToA)/TimeofFlight(ToF)
The piinciple of ToA is baseu on measuiing the absolute tiavel time of a signal fiom a
tiansmittei to a ieceivei. The Eucliuean uistance between two uevices can be ueiiveu by the
multiplication of the signal tiavel time by the wave speeu (i.e. speeu of light in vacuum). Since
the wave velocity uepenus on piopeities of the piopagation meuium, knowleuge of the
penetiateu mateiial is iequiieu. Foi all builuing mateiials the piopagation speeu uepenus on the
squaie ioot of the uielectiic constant k. Foi example, foi glass anu uiy conciete k S, slowing
uown electiomagnetic waves by a factoi of moie than 2. Foi feiioconciete k 9, iesulting in a
factoi in tiavel speeu velocity of one thiiu compaieu to the speeu of light.
ToA ielies on piecise synchionization of tiansmittei anu ieceivei clocks, as even one
nanoseconu eiioi in synchionization tianslates into a uistance eiioi of Su cm if iauio fiequency
signals aie useu. Buiing LineofSight (LoS), a iule of thumb is that timing can be achieveu uown
to a fiaction of the chip uuiation. A chip is typically a iectangulai pulse of +1 oi 1 amplituue,
multiplieu by a uata sequence. ToA is paiticulaily uifficult to apply in inuooi enviionments
wheie multipath conuitions aie common, because the autocoiielation peak in the signal
iefeiiing to the LoS beam may not be iesolveu. The usage of a wiuei fiequency banu is a way to
auuiess this pioblem.
3.3.2 TimeDifferenceofArrival(TDoA)
Taking time uiffeiences of ToA measuiements has the auvantage that a possible ieceiveis clock
bias is not ielevant. Any constant time offset of a nonsynchionous ieceiveis clock is eliminateu
by subtiaction. In contiast to ToA, the ieceivei uoes not neeu to know the absolute time at which
a pulse was tiansmitteu only the time uiffeience of aiiival fiom synchionizeu tiansmitteis is
neeueu. With two emitteis at known locations, a ieceivei can be locateu onto a hypeiboloiu. A
ieceiveis location can be ueteimineu in SB fiom foui emitteis by inteisection of thiee
hypeiboloius. With this appioach, veiy piecise synchionization of all emitteis is a pieconuition.
Foi uNSS positioning TBoA is a useful appioach, because the uiift of a lowcost ieceiveis clock
can be eliminateu while the satellites aie piecisely synchionizeu by uNSS time. Conveisely, a
mobile emittei can be locateu fiom multiple ieceiveis. In this configuiation the infiastiuctuie is
tiying to ueteimine the location of the mobile station.
3.3.3 RoundTripTime(RTT)/RoundtripTimeofFlight(RToF)/TwoWayRanging(TWR)
0sing RTT, also known as TwoWay Ranging (TWR), the time taken by the signal to tiavel fiom a
tiansmittei to a ieceivei anu back is measuieu. RTT avoius the neeu foi time synchionization
between the two uevices, allowing its application in uncooiuinateu mesh netwoiks with the
auvantage of low complexity anu cost. As a uiawback of this methou, iange measuiements to
multiple uevices neeu to be caiiieu out sequentially which may cause ciitical latencies foi
applications wheie uevices move quickly.
3.3.4 PhaseofArrival(PoA)/PhaseDifference(PD)
PoA uses the ieceiveu caiiiei phase to ueteimine the uistance between two uevices. In oiuei to
mitigate phase wiapping, the ieceiveu signal phase is evaluateu on multiple fiequencies. The
uistance is then ueteimineu by the iate of phase change.
3.3.5 NearFieldElectromagneticRanging(NFER)
NFER iefeis to any iauio technology employing neaifielu piopeities of iauio waves. The
piinciple is that the phase of an electiomagnetic fielu vaiies with the uistance aiounu an
3.4PositioningMethods 31


antenna. NFER has potential foi iange measuiements in the accuiacy iange of Su cm to 1 m anu
opeiating uistances up to Suu m. Noie uetails can be founu in Chaptei 1S Nagnetic Localization.
3.3.6 AngleofArrival(AoA)/Angulation/Triangulation/DirectionbasedPositioning
AoA infoimation, i.e. uiiection of inciuence, can be obtaineu by the use of uiiectionally sensitive
antennas. In ieal application, AoA is usually baseu on ciuue sectoi infoimation. Kemppi et al.
(2u1u) use a multiantenna aiiay foi a peuestiian navigation system. A suivey of methous foi
antenna oiientation can be founu in uiimm (2u12). But also all cameia baseu systems make use
of the piinciple of AoA. Each pixel fiom a CCBCN0S chip iepiesents a uistinctive hoiizontal
anu veitical angle of inciuence. If moie than one AoA measuiement is peifoimeu, the position
can be ueteimineu by inteisection of lines (i.e. iesection anu inteisection).
3.3.7 DopplerRanging
The Bopplei ianging technique is useu to obseive the ielative velocity between a tiansmittei
anu a ieceivei. If a fixeu signal souice is useu the absolute velocity along the line of sight can be
ueiiveu fiom the measuieu Bopplei fiequency shift. uiven a known initial position anu multiple
Bopplei fiequency obseivations, the uisplacements of a mobile uevice can be ueteimineu.
3.4 PositioningMethods
This section gives an oveiview of basic piinciples foi 2BSB position ueteimination fiom
vaiious basic measuiements such as pioximity, uistance anu angulai obseivations.
3.4.1 CellofOrigin(CoO)/ProximityDetection/ConnectivityBasedPositioning
The Co0 methou is useu to ueteimine the position of a mobile uevice meiely by its piesence in a
paiticulai aiea oi baseu on a physical phenomenon with limiteu iange. The pioceuuie consists
in simple foiwaiuing of the position of the anchoi point wheie the stiongest signal is ieceiveu.
The accuiacy of Co0 ielates to the uensity of anchoi point ueployment anu signal iange. Co0 is a
simple positioning methou useu foi applications with low iequiiements foi accuiacy. Examples
aie sensois uetecting physical contact, automatic IB systems anu mobile wiieless positioning
systems.
3.4.2 CentroidDetermination
Centioiu location ueteimination involves knowleuge of multiple beacon positions within the
uetection iange anu simply locates the beacon at the centioiu. Alteinatively the weighteu
centioiu location can be ueteimineu, wheie the weights aie set in function of RSSI values (see
S.2.6), uistances oi unceitainties of each beacon.
3.4.3 Lateration/Trilateration/Multilateration
All thiee teims iefei to position ueteimination fiom uistance measuiements. 0sually a 2BSB
position is computeu with ieuunuancy fiom moie than twothiee uistance measuiements to
neaiby noues. Lateiation baseu positioning can be applieu on a set of uistances no mattei what
uistance estimation methou has been useu. Wellknown methous foi uistance estimation aie
ToA, TBoA, E0TB, RTT, PoA anu RSSISNR. In some liteiatuie the teim multilateiation is
paiticulaily useu to inuicate that the uistances oiiginate fiom TBoA. A mathematical foimulation
to the lateiation pioblem anu its solution can be founu in Nautz et al. (2uu7a).
3DefinitionofTerms 32
3.4.4 PolarPointMethod/RangeBearingPositioning
The polai point methou uses a uistance anu an angulai measuiement fiom the same station to
ueteimine the cooiuinates of a neaiby station. This methou is paiticulaily useful, because it
iequiies measuiements fiom only one station (unuei the assumption that oiientation is also
known). Polai point ueteimination is conveniently useu in geouetic suiveying, wheie the
position of seveial taigets can be ueteimineu fiom a single setup of a totalstation.
3.4.5 Fingerprinting(FP)/SceneAnalysis/PatternMatching
The stanuaiu quantity foi Fingeipiinting (FP) is iauiofiequency RSSI, but FP can also be
peifoimeu acoustically fiom auuio oi visually fiom images. Fingeipiinting typically consists of
two phases. Fiist, in an offline calibiation phase, maps foi fingeipiinting aie set up eithei
empiiically in measuiement campaigns oi computeu analytically. In the fiist case, signal
stiengths ieceiveu fiom fixeu stations aie measuieu at a numbei of points insiue a builuing anu
auueu to a uatabase. In the opeiation phase the cuiient measuieu signal stiength values (RSSI
tuples) aie compaieu foi the best agieement with a uatabase. The seconu case of analytical
mouel geneiation is useu to avoiu elaboiate calibiation measuiements. Theieby, the signal
stiength iefeience values can be computeu using a signal piopagation mouel. Noie uetails on
fingeipiinting methous can be founu in Chaptei 8 WLAN WiFi.
3.4.6 DeadReckoning(DR)
Beau ieckoning is the piocess of estimating a position baseu upon pieviously ueteimineu
positions anu known oi estimateu speeus ovei the elapseu time. An ineitial navigation system is
the main type of sensoi useu. A uisauvantage of ueau ieckoning is that the inaccuiacy of the
piocess is cumulative, so the ueviation in the position fix giows with time. The ieason is that
new positions aie calculateu solely fiom pievious positions. In liteiatuie associateu with the
fielu of inuooi applications the teim Peuestiian Beau Reckoning (PBR) is useu as an inuication
that acceleiometeis have been attacheu to the bouy of a peison.
3.4.7 KalmanFilter(KF)andExtendedKalmanFilter(EKF)
The most wiuely useu algoiithm foi fusion of ueau ieckoning positions with absolute position
upuates is the Kalman Filtei. It is a iecuisive estimatoi of the state of a uynamic system. The
classic KF seeks to maximize the conuitional piobability of the state x given the past histoiy
max
x
{p(x

|x
-1
, x
-2
, , x
0
)].
(S.4)
Kalman filteiing is an impoitant technique paiticulaily useu to pieuict positions inbetween
uata samples foi cameia baseu tiacking anu peuestiian navigation baseu on ineitial
measuiements. Foi application on nonlineai obseivation anu state tiansition mouels the
Extenueu Kalman Filtei (EKF) is useu. The iequiieu lineaiization of the nonlineai functions
intiouuces the iisk of uiveigence. Neveitheless, the EKF has become the stanuaiu algoiithm foi
nonlineai state estimation in navigation.
3.4.8 MapMatching(MM)
Nap matching algoiithms also calleu map measuiements combine cuiient positioning uata
with spatial map uata to iuentify the coiiect link on which a peuestiian (oi vehicle) is tiavelling
while impioving positional accuiacy. The use of maps is an economical alteinative to the
installation of auuitional haiuwaie. NN techniques incluue topological analyses, pattein
iecognition oi auvanceu techniques such as hieiaichical fuzzy infeience algoiithms. A numbei of
map matching algoiithms have been assesseu in Quuuus et al. (2uu7).
3.4PositioningMethods 33


3.4.9 CombinationofBasicMeasuringPrinciplesandPositioningMethods
Nany system aichitectuies use multiple measuiing piinciples which iequiie the use of vaiious
positioning techniques. Foi example, in a laige sensoi netwoik with a huge numbei of noues, the
combineu use of pioximity, uistances anu angulai measuiements enhances positioning
peifoimance. Recently, ieseaich focus is on the integiation of heteiogeneous sensoi
technologies that employ a combination of positioning methous anu uata fusion techniques.
4Cameras 34
4 Cameras

This Chaptei uesciibes optical inuooi positioning appioaches wheie a cameia is the only oi the
main sensoi. 0ptical systems combineu with uistance oi mechanical sensois aie tieateu in
Chaptei 6. A liteiatuie ieview on optical systems has been publisheu in Nautz anu Tilch (2u11)
anu is iepiinteu heie foi the sake of completeness.
Cameias aie becoming a uominating technique foi positioning which coveis a wiue fielu of
applications at all levels of accuiacy, with its main application aiea in the submm uomain. The
success of optical methous oiiginates fiom impiovement anu miniatuiization of actuatois (e.g.
laseis) anu paiticulaily auvancement in the technology of uetectois (e.g. CCB sensois). In
paiallel theie has been an inciease in uata tiansmission iates anu computational capabilities as
well as piofounu uevelopment of algoiithms in image piocessing.
0ptical inuooi positioning systems can be categoiizeu into egomotion systems wheie a mobile
sensoi (i.e. cameia) is to be locateu anu static cameias which locate moving objects in images.
An answei is to be founu how position anu iotations in a SB woilu can be computeu wheie the
piimaiy obseivations aie 2B positions on a CCB sensoi. All cameiabaseu system aichitectuies
measuie image cooiuinates which iepiesent only angulai infoimation anu exclusively built on
the Angle of Aiiival (AoA) technique. Bepth infoimation of monoculai images can be obtaineu by
making use of the motion of a cameia. In this appioach known as synthetic steieo vision the
scene is obseiveu sequentially fiom uiffeient locations by the same cameia anu image uepths
can be estimateu in a mannei similai to the steieovision appioach. Bowevei, the baseline
between sequential images neeus to be ueteimineu by a complementaiy technique. Theiefoie,
the system scale cannot be ueteimineu fiom images alone anu iequiies a sepaiate solution.
The tiansfoimation fiom image space into object space iequiies auuitional uistance infoimation.
If a steieo cameia system is useu with a known baseline, the scale can be ueteimineu fiom
steieoscopic images. As a uiawback, the peifoimance of a steieo cameia system is uiiectly
uiiven by the length of the steieo baseline anu theiefoie a miniatuiization foi hanuhelu uevices
is not applicable.
Alteinatively, uistances can be uiiectly measuieu with auuitional sensois, such as with lasei
scanneis (see Section 6.2.4) oi iange imaging cameias. The lattei ietuin a uistance value foi
eveiy pixel of a S2u 24u image at a fiame iate of 1uu Bz. In oiuei to ueteimine the scale
ioughly, the position of the autofocus can be useu.
4.1Referencefrom3DBuildingModels 35


A uecisive chaiacteiistic in the system aichitectuie is the mannei how iefeience infoimation is
obtaineu. Theiefoie, this suivey of iecently uevelopeu optical navigation systems takes the
piimaiy moue of iefeience as ciiteiion foi categoiization. An oveiview of the heie mentioneu
systems anu theii key paiameteis aie given in Table 4.1 at the enu of this chaptei.
A compiehensive suivey of oluei woiks can be founu in BeSouza anu Kak (2uu2). A moie iecent
oveiview of viueo tiacking systems has been caiiieu out by Tiucco anu Plakas (2uu6), wheie the
main algoiithmic appioaches, namely winuow tiacking, featuie tiacking, iigiu object tiacking,
uefoimable contoui tiacking anu visual leaining aie explaineu anu 28 woiks of viueo tiacking
aie uiscusseu.
4.1 Referencefrom3DBuildingModels
This class of positioning methous ielies on uetection of objects in images anu matching these
objects with a builuing uata base (such as CityuNL as shown in Figuie 4.1) which contains
position infoimation of the builuing inteiioi. The key auvantage of these methous is that theie is
no iequiiement foi installation of local infiastiuctuie such as ueployment of sensoi beacons. In
othei woius, iefeience noues aie substituteu by a uigital iefeience point list. Accoiuingly, these
systems have the potential foi laige scale coveiage without significant inciease of costs.

Figure 4.1 Model of a room in CityGML (Kohoutek et al. 2010)

Kohoutek et al. (2u1u) use the uigital spatiosemantic inteiioi builuing mouel CityuNL at the
highest level of uetail (LoB 4) with the intention to ueteimine location anu oiientation of a iange
imaging cameia. In a fiist step the coiiect ioom of the cameia is iuentifieu in the CityuNL uata
base. Fiom the SB point clouu obtaineu by the iange image sensoi, fixeu objects such as
winuows anu uoois aie uetecteu anu theii geometiic piopeities can be compaieu with the
uatabase. The seconu anu last step consists of umlevel fine positioning of the cameia baseu on a
technique which combines tiilateiation anu spatial iesection.
Bile anu Boiiiello (2uu8) compaie a flooi plan with the cuiient image of a cameia phone. In a
fiist step iough location is ueteimineu by WLAN connectivity to limit the seaich aiea. In a
seconu step extiacteu featuies fiom the images aie useu to finu featuie coiiesponuences anu to
compute the pose of the phone at uecimetei level. Location baseu infoimation can be uisplayeu
instantly.
4Cameras 36
Kitanov et al. (2uu7) compaie image lines which have been uetecteu in images of a iobot
mounteu cameia with a SB vectoi mouel. The cameia oiientation is iepeateuly computeu fiom
image sequences while the cameia is in motion. An offline optimal matching of ienueieu image
lines anu lines extiacteu fiom the cameia images appeais to achieve umlevel positioning
accuiacy. An ouometei is useu to stabilize system iobustness.
The computei vision algoiithm uesciibeu by Schlaile et al. (2uu9) also ielies on featuie uetection
in an image sequence. Beie, the computei vision mouule is useu foi complementaiy assistance
of an integiateu navigation system mounteu on a micio aeiial vehicle.
4.2 ReferencefromImages
The socalleu viewbaseu appioach ielies on sequences of images taken befoiehanu by a cameia
along ceitain ioutes in the builuing, see Figuie 4.2. Theieby, the cuiient view of a mobile cameia
(as shown in Figuie 4.S) is compaieu with these pieviously captuieu view sequences. The main
challenge of this appioach is to achieve iealtime capability. Foi the iuentification of image
coiiesponuences the computational loau is paiticulaily high since opeiability is assumeu
without ueployeu passive oi active optical taigets. Neveitheless, all systems iequiie an
inuepenuent iefeience souice fiom time to time in oiuei to contiol accumulateu ueviations.
Figure 4.2 Example of a view sequence Figure 4.3 Current view to be compared with the
view sequence

In oiuei to navigate a humanoiu iobot thiough office builuings, Iuo et al. (2uu9) caiiy out a
template matching of images. In an initial phase, iecoiuing iuns aie captuieu by a cameia
mounteu on the heau of the iobot. When the view sequences have been analyzeu, compiesseu
anu stoieu as image templates, an autonomous navigation phase can commence. In this phase
coiielation coefficients between the image of the cuiient view anu the stoieu templates aie
computeu to ueteimine the iobots pose. Fiist tiials inuicate an accuiacy of Su cm.
Sjo et al. (2uu9) navigate theii iobot baseu on a lowiesolution cameia with zoom capabilities.
To appioximately estimate uistances to objects they use the zoom position in a fiist step anu
then caiiy out SLAN (Simultaneous Localization Anu Napping) by computing RFC Bistogiams
(Receptive Fielu Cooccuiience Bistogiams) fiom the cuiient image anu compaiing them with
histogiams of pieviously captuieu images. In oiuei to stabilize theii SLAN methou
geometiically, the iobot is also pioviueu with lasei scanning uata.
Nuffeit et al. (2u1u) ueteimine the tiajectoiy of an omniuiiectional viueo cameia baseu on
ielative cameia oiientation of consecutive images. If theie is no auuitional contiol via othei
iefeiences positions oi uiiections, the iecoiueu path uiifts away fiom the tiue tiajectoiy,
similaily to ineitial sensois ielying meiely on ueau ieckoning. Foi an acquisition time of 4u s,
stanuaiu ueviations of u.1 gon aie iepoiteu foi yaw angles.
4.3ReferencefromDeployedCodedTargets 37


Kim anu }un (2uu8) match stoieu image sequences with the cuiient view of a cap mounteu
wiieless cameia. In auuition to the vision baseu positioning technique, ueployeu maikeis anu
topogiaphical infoimation of the inuooi enviionment aie also useu to suppoit the iecognition of
the location. The system is uesigneu foi augmenteu ieality applications by annotating the useis
view with auuitional infoimation.
Baseu on the piinciple of optical ouometiy, Naye et al. (2uu6) uevelop a lowcost optical
navigation uevice using an optical mouse sensoi. The only mouification to a computei mouse is a
uiffeient lens tailoieu to highei speeus (2 ms) anu giounu cleaiance (S cm). In oiuei to coiiect
the accumulateu path ueviation, fixeu lanumaiks aie ueployeu to enable position upuates. In
auuition, a magnetoinuuctive compass is employeu. The iepoiteu uiift foi velocities of less than
2 ms is 1% of the tiavelleu path length.
4.3 ReferencefromDeployedCodedTargets
0ptical positioning systems that iely entiiely on natuial featuies in images lack of iobustness, in
paiticulai unuei conuitions with vaiying illumination. In oiuei to inciease iobustness anu
impiove accuiacy of iefeience points, ueuicateu coueu maikeis aie useu foi systems with
uemanuing iequiiements foi positioning. The maikeis seive thiee puiposes foi algoiithmic
uevelopment: a) simplification of automatic uetection of coiiesponuing points, b) intiouuction
of the system scale, c) uistinction anu iuentification of taigets by using a unique coue foi each
maikei.
Common types of taigets incluue concentiic iings, baicoues oi patteins consisting of coloieu
uots, see Figuie 4.4. Theie aie ietioieflective anu nonieflective veisions.
Figure 4.4 Three examples of coded targets used for point identification and camera calibration

SkyTiax Inc. (2u11) uevelopeu an optical navigation system foi foiklift tiucks in waiehouses.
Coueu iefeience maikeis aie ueployeu on ceilings along the ioutes. 0n the ioof of each foiklift
an optical sensoi takes images that aie foiwaiueu to a seivei wheie they aie piocesseu
centially. The position accuiacy is iepoiteu as between one inch to one foot.
Nulloni et al. (2uu9) uevelopeu a lowcost inuooi positioning system foi offtheshelf cameia
phones by using baicoueu fiuuciaiy maikeis. These maikeis aie placeu on walls, posteis oi
ceitain objects. If an image of these maikeis is captuieu, the pose of the uevice can be
ueteimineu with an accuiacy of a few centimeteis. Auuitional location baseu infoimation (e.g.
about the next confeience ioom oi the next session) can also be uisplayeu.
AIC0N SB Systems (2u1u) uevelopeu a system nameu PioCam foi inuustiial applications in the
submm accuiacy iange. The mobile viueo cameia is pointeu to a piecalibiateu iefeience point
fielu. In oiuei to inciease iobustness of the point uetection, the cameia emits active infiaieu
light which illuminates the iefeience points. Tactile measuiements aie caiiieu out manually
with an integiateu piobe tip.
4Cameras 38
The Staiuazei system of Bagisonic (2uu8) is tailoieu foi iobot positioning anu ielies on ietio
ieflective taigets mounteu on the ceiling. An infiaieu sensitive cameia obseives uiffeient point
patteins which aie actively illuminateu by an infiaieu light souice. The point patteins aie
uniquely aiiangeu on a S S oi 4 4 giiu to iuentify each ioom, but also to ueteimine the pose
of the ioving cameia within subum accuiacy.
Lee anu Song (2uu7) also use the piinciple of ietio ieflective taigets to locate anu oiientate a
mobile iobot. Beie, the coineis of the tiiangle shapeu taigets aie useu foi appioximate
oiientation estimation anu six innei sectois foi unique iuentification. In oiuei to achieve algo
iithmic iobustness the uiffeience between one image with anu one without active illumination
aie piocesseu. Accoiuing to the stateu iesults, the 2B accuiacy is at subuecimetei level.
Fiank (2uu8) uesciibes a system with the name steieoScanSB uevelopeu by Bieuckmann
umbB foi high piecision mapping of inuustiial suifaces. Two mobile high iesolution cameias
with a fixeu baseline aie useu to captuie points with an accuiacy of Su m. Piecise positioning of
the cameias is caiiieu out in a calibiation phase which consists in image captuie with maikeis
attacheu to the taiget object.
4.4 ReferencefromProjectedTargets
Piojection of iefeience points oi patteins spaies physical ueployment of taigets in the
enviionment, making this methou economical. Foi some applications mounting of iefeience
maikeis is unuesiiable oi not feasible. 0ptionally, infiaieu light can be piojecteu to attain
unobtiusiveeness to the usei. In contiast to systems ielying only on natuial image featuies, the
uetection of piojecteu patteins is facilitateu uue to uistinct coloi, shape anu biightness of the
piojecteu featuies. The piinciple of an inveise cameia (oi active tiiangulation) can be useu
wheie the cential light piojection ieplaces the optical path of a cameia. The main uisauvantage
of active light baseu systems is that cameia anu light souice iequiie uiiect view on the same
suiface.

Figure 4.5 Projected reference patterns. Upper left: TrackSense Grid, upper right: CLIPS laserspots, lower
left: laserspots of Habbecke, lower right: diffraction grid of Popescu
Kohlei et al. (2uu7) built an expeiimental mouel calleu TiackSense consisting of a piojectoi anu
a simple webcam. A giiu pattein is piojecteu onto plain walls in the cameias fielu of view as
shown in Figuie 4.S (uppei left). 0sing an euge uetection algoiithm, the lines anu inteisection
4.5SystemswithoutReference 39


points aie ueteimineu. By the piinciple of tiiangulation analogous to steieo vision uistance
anu oiientation to each point ielative to the cameia is computeu. With a sufficient numbei of
points TiackSense can ueteimine the cameias oiientation ielative to fixeu laige planes, such as
walls anu ceilings. The evaluation of TiackSense inuicates that such a system can uelivei up to
4 cm accuiacy with S cm piecision.
Tilch anu Nautz (2u1u) uevelopeu CLIPS (Cameia anu Lasei baseu Inuooi Positioning System)
with the puipose to ueteimine the pose of a mobile cameia with iespect to a lasei iig. Since the
iig emits laseibeams fiom a viitual cential point, it can be iegaiueu as an inveise cameia. Fiom
biight lasei spots piojecteu to any suiface without any specific stiuctuie of the scene as shown
in Figuie 4.S (uppei iight), the ielative oiientation between cameia anu lasei iig can be
computeu. Point tiacking is achieveu at fiame iates of 1S Bz anu the accuiacy of the cameia
position is submm.
The viueo cameia system of Babbecke anu Kobbelt (2uu8) is baseu on a mobile iig of lasei
pointeis anu a fixeu cameia. The lasei iays mounteu on the iig have an aibitiaiy alignment
without the neeu foi a cential point of inteisection. In oiuei to accomplish coiiect iuentification
of the lasei spots (shown in Figuie 4.S lowei left), a gieeuy paiiing algoiithm is useu. via least
squaies minimization, the ielative oiientation between the cameia anu the iig is ueteimineu.
Apait fiom pose ueteimination, the system can be useu foi tiacking anu scene ieconstiuction.
Repoiteu accuiacies inuicate position ueviations in the oiuei of a few millimeteis.
The lasei iig of Popescu et al. (2uu4, 2uu6) is iigiuly mounteu to a hanuhelu viueo cameia with
the auvantage that the ielative oiientation between lasei souice anu cameia iemains constant.
Fiom a single lasei souice anu a uiffiaction giating which acts as a beam splittei a giiu of 7 7
lasei spots is geneiateu, see Figuie 4.S lowei iight. These 49 spots aie locateu in each fiame, anu
theii SB positions aie computeu by tiiangulation between the optical iays anu the lasei beams.
When the cameia with the lasei iig is fieely moveu thiough a scene, the SB positions of the lasei
spots can be useu foi scene moueling. The positional accuiacy was iepoiteu to be bettei than
1 cm.
Evolution Robotics (2u1u) uevelopeu the inuooi localization system NoithStai foi navigation of
shopping caits oi iobotic vacuum cleaneis. Position anu heauing of the mobile unit is
ueteimineu fiom infiaieu light spots, emitteu fiom one oi moie infiaieu LEB. Each mobile unit
can be equippeu with an infiaieu uetectoi anu piojectoi to allow ueteimination of ielative
oiientation between mobile uevices. The iepoiteu positioning accuiacy is in the magnituue of
cm to um.
4.5 SystemswithoutReference
The puipose of systems in this class is to obseive position changes of objects uiiectly anu
theiefoie uo not iequiie exteinal iefeience. The common appioach is to tiack mobile objects
with high fiame iates in iealtime by a single oi multiple static cameias.
4Cameras 40
Figure 4.6 Tracked LED by DEADALUS with a circle indicating the centroid

The BEABAL0S system uesciibeu by Biki et al. (2u1u) consists of a CCB cameia clippeu on a
suiveying totalstation. Bue to the magnification of the telescope, highpiecision hoiizontal anu
veitical angle measuiements aie possible foi automateu 2B monitoiing of objects with high uata
iates. ueneially, any object can be tiackeu, but typically illuminateu taigets aie obseiveu to
enhance algoiithmic iobustness, see Figuie 4.6. BEABAL0S is a highenu system wheie the
iepoiteu ielative accuiacy between points can ieach u.S aicseconus oi u.u4 mm.
Boochs et al. (2u1u) use multiple fixeu calibiateu anu oiientateu cameias to tiack an illuminateu
taiget mounteu on the heau of an inuustiial iobot. The taiget bouy consists of a spheie with S4
selfluminous infiaieu LEBs to allow iobust tiacking fiom all uiiections. Fiist test iesults of this
photogiammetiic tiacking appioach have shown SB cooiuinate quality of about u.uS mm.
Tappeio (2uu9) suggests a lowcost system foi tiacking of people in an inuooi enviionment. In
oiuei to accomplish iealtime tiacking using extiemely cheap components the computational
efficiency is optimizeu by uetection of changes in uiffeience images of subsequent fiames. A
static cameia is mounteu at the ceiling is able to locate people anu objects within an accuiacy of
some uecimeteis.
4.6 ReferencefromOtherSensors
Soloviev anu venable (2u1u) combine vision uata with uNSS caiiiei phase measuiements foi
uNSS challengeu enviionments. If less than the iequiieu numbei of satellites is visible, single
caiiiei phase measuiements at the accuiacy level of subcentimeteis aie useu to suppoit featuie
extiaction fiom viueo images. Range measuiements obseiveu by uNSS aie useu to ueteimine
the system scale anu facilitate featuie extiaction by pioviuing image uepth initialization. Theie
is no neeu to ueteimine the integei caiiiei ambiguities because the unknown ambiguities aie
eliminateu by uiffeiencing between caiiiei phase measuiements of successive positions with
only a small shift in space.
4.7 SummaryonCameraBasedIndoorPositioningSystems
As can be infeiieu fiom the oveiview Table 4.1, cameias achieve accuiacy levels between tens of
m anu um. Some high piecision systems offei solutions foi applications in suiveying anu
inuustiial metiology. The coveieu aieas of the systems piesenteu in this chaptei (excluuing
micioscale technologies) uiffei between 4 m
2
anu laige ioom sizes oi can be scaleu aibitiaiily.
Bigh upuate iates of typically moie than 1u Bz allow foi kinematic applications such as
piecisionnavigation, iealtime mapping anu pose estimation. With the abunuance of computing
4.7SummaryonCameraBasedIndoorPositioningSystems 41


powei anu CCB sensoi chips, lowcost positioning solutions aie in view which have the potential
to seive the mass maiket.
Table 4.1 Camera systems and reported performance parameters
Name Coordinate
Reference
Reported
Accuracy
Coverage CCDSize
Pixel
Frame
Rate
Object/Camera
Positioning
Camera
Costs
Market
Maturity
Kohoutek CityGML dm scalable 176144 54Hz cam.,SR4000 9000$ suggestion
Hile floorplan 30cm scalable 640480 0.1Hz obj.,cellphone 100$ developm.
Kitanov vectormodel dm scalable 752585 10Hz cam.,EVID31 245 developm.
Schlaile edgessegments 1dm/min scalable 752582 50Hz cam.,VCPCC48P 175 developm.
Ido images 30cm scalable 320404 30Hz cam.,IEEE1394 developm
Sj images/scans subm scalable 320240 30Hz cam.,VCC4R 700 developm.
Muffert images 0.15gon/min room 161612326 15Hz cam.,Ladybug3 >10000$developm.
Kim images 89%success scalable 320240 Hz cam,WLANcam. lowdevelopm.
May images/landm. 1% scalable 1616 2300Hz cam.,ADNS2051 1.35 developm.
SkyTrax codedmarkers 2cm30cm scalable camera product
Mulloni codedmarkers mdm scalable 17644 15Hz cam.,cellphone low product
AICONProcam codedmarkers 0.1mm vehicle 16281236 7Hz cam.,Procam high product
StarGazer codedmarkers cmdm scalable 20Hz camera 980$ product
Lee codedmarkers dm 36m
2
12801024 30Hz cam.,VX6000 40$ developm.
naviSCAN3D projection 50m 1.510m 244820482 1Hz obj.,steroSCAN highproduct
TrackSense projection 4cm 25m
2
640480 15Hz obj.,cam,Pro4000 200$ developm.
CLIPS projection 0.5mm 36m
2
1032778 30Hz cam.,GuppyF80 1000 developm.
Habbecke projection mm 25m
2
1280960 object 1000 developm.
Popescu projection cm 25m
2
720480 15Hz camera 1500$ developm.
NorthStar projection cmdm 36m
2
10Hz cam./obj,IR 1400$ product
DEADALUS none 0.04mm mkm 1024768 30Hz obj.,GuppyF80 high developm
Boochs none 0.05mm 4m
3
200020004 object high developm.
Tappero none dmm 30m
2
356292 3Hz obj.,OV6620 20$US suggestion


5Infrared 42
5 Infrared

Infiaieu (IR) wavelengths aie longei than that of visible light, but shoitei than that of teiaheitz
iauiation. Theiefoie infiaieu light is invisible to the human eye unuei most conuitions, making
this technology less intiusive compaieu to inuooi positioning baseu on visible light.
System aichitectuies foi positioning baseu on IR signals uiffei to such an extent that they haiuly
can be summaiizeu within a single chaptei. The thiee geneial methous of exploiting infiaieu
signals aie: a) use of active beacons, b) infiaieu imaging using natuial (i.e. theimal) iauiation oi
c) aitificial light souices.
5.1 ActiveBeacons
The active beacon appioach is baseu on fixeu infiaieu ieceiveis placeu at known locations
thioughout an inuooi space anu mobile beacons whose positions aie unknown. The system
aichitectuie may incluue only one ieceivei in eveiy ioom foi simple ioompiecise localization
(i.e. Co0) oi one ieceivei with auuitional AoA capabilities foi subioom piecision. In oiuei to
achieve meteilevel piecision oi bettei, a configuiation of an IR tiacking system baseu on active
beacons must incluue seveial ieceiveis ueployeu in each ioom to uisambiguate sectois of a
ioom. Note that IR signals aie unable to penetiate opaque mateiials, such as walls anu ceilings.
0ne of the eaily anu most wiuely iecognizeu IR inuooi positioning systems is the Active Bauge
System (Want et al. 1992) uesigneu foi locating people at ioom level. The builuing staff weais
Active Bauges which emit shoit IR pulses with unique coues at a iate of u.u7 Bz. The signals aie
pickeu up by a netwoik foi fixeu IR ieceiveis ueployeu in the builuing inteiioi. Since the concept
of Active Bauge makes use of the Cell of 0iigin (Co0) piinciple, the positional accuiacy is uiiven
by the opeiating iange of an IR senuei, which is 6 m. 0ne majoi uisauvantage of Active Bauge is
that it is not suitable foi iealtime applications as the positional upuate iate is 1S s. The laigest
implementation incluues 2uu active bauges anu Suu sensois.
A special application of infiaieu iays has been pioposeu by Atsuumi anu Sano (2u1u). The
system is uesigneu to mitigate the sensoi uiift of integiating positioning systems by pioviuing
angulai infoimation. The azimuth angle of inciuence is estimateu with iespect to a single beacon
by the use of polaiizeu infiaieu light. The beacon is composeu of an infiaieu light souice anu an
optical polaiizing filtei, which only passes light thiough that oscillates along a single plane. The
ieceivei consists of a photo uetectoi anu a iotating polaiizei that causes attenuation of the
5.2ImagingofArtificialInfraredLight 43


signal intensity uepenuing on the hoiizontal angle. The phase of the timevaiying signal is then
tianslateu into the angle of the polaiizing plane. This allows estimation of the absolute azimuth
angle with an accuiacy of 2% (oi a few uegiees) as fiist expeiiments have shown. Note that this
technique uses a special measuiing piinciple that is not ielateu to the AoA (Angle of Aiiival)
methou.
5.2 ImagingofNaturalInfraredRadiation
In the liteiatuie, positioning systems using natuial infiaieu iauiation aie known as passive
infiaieu localization systems. Sensois opeiating in the long wavelength infiaieu spectium (8 m
to 1S m, also known as the theimogiaphy iegion) aie able to obtain a completely passive image
of the suiiounuing woilu fiom natuial theimal emissions. Thus, it is not necessaiy to employ
active infiaieu illuminatois oi any othei ueuicateu theimal souice. Theimal infiaieu iauiation
can be useu to iemotely ueteimine the tempeiatuie of people oi objects without any neeu foi
weaiing tags oi emitteis. Existing theimal uetectois aie theimal cameias, bioaubanu uetectois
(uolay Cells), pyioelectiic infiaieu sensois useu foi motion uetection oi theimocouples useu to
conveit heat giauients into electiicity oi to measuie the tempeiatuie contactfiee. As a
uiawback, passive infiaieu appioaches aie compiomiseu by stiong iauiation fiom the sun.
Bauschilut anu Kiichhof (2u1u) piopose a localization system baseu on passive theimal IR
sensois to uetect theimal iauiation of the human skin. Theii theimal IR appioach uses
theimophiles, which aie a seiies of theimocouples (i.e. tempeiatuie sensoi elements) with a
lowei iesolution compaieu to IR cameias. Nultiple sensois aie placeu in the coineis of a ioom
fiom wheie the angles ielative to the iauiation souice aie measuieu. The position is then
ioughly estimateu via the piinciple of AoA. via tiiangulation fiom multiple theimophile aiiays
the position of humans can be ueteimineu. Fiist expeiiments inuicate that positional accuiacy at
uecimetei level is feasible, but effects of uynamic backgiounu iauiation neeu to be stuuieu fiist
befoie the methou is applicable in ieal enviionments.
Ambiplex (2u11) offeis the system IR.Loc that incluues uiffeient localization solutions baseu on
natuially emitteu heat iauiation. A sensoi measuies the angle of inciuence to a heat souice.
Fiom multiple sensois mounteu on the walls, the location of a heat souice can be ueteimineu at
a measuiement iate of Su Bz. The iepoiteu location accuiacy is 2u cm to Su cm at an opeiating
iange of 1u m. Intenueu applications foi IR.Loc aie in the aiea of peison uetection such as
contiol of automatic uoois, uetection of peisons in secuiity zones oi suiveillance to ieuuce the
iisk of fiie.
5.3 ImagingofArtificialInfraredLight
0ptical IR inuooi positioning systems baseu on active IR light souices anu IR sensitive CCB
cameias aie a common alteinative to optical systems opeiating in the visible light spectium.
Implementations using IR cameias aie eithei baseu on active infiaieu LEBs such as that of
Boochs et al. (2u1u) oi baseu on ietio ieflective taigets, e.g. Lee anu Song (2uu7), AIC0N (2u11)
anu Bagisonic (2uu8) with theii Staiuazei system. Noie uetails on cameia systems can be founu
in Chaptei 4.
The motion sensing uevice known as Kinect useu foi the viueo game console Xbox (Niciosoft
Kinect 2u11) uses continuouslypiojecteu infiaieu stiuctuieu light to captuie SB scene
infoimation with an infiaieu cameia. The SB stiuctuie can be computeu fiom the uistoition of a
5Infrared 44
pseuuo ianuom pattein of stiuctuieu IR light uots. People can be tiackeu simultaneously up to a
uistance of S.S m at a fiame iate of Su Bz. An accuiacy of 1 cm at 2 m uistance has been iepoiteu.
The ielease of a Kinect softwaie uevelopment kit has inspiieu seveial thiiu paity uevelopments
foi automatic tiacking, iobotic guiuance anu gestuie contiol anu even suigical navigation. The
NoithStai system uevelopeu by Evolution Robotics (2u1u) is also baseu on piojection of infiaieu
lasei spots. 0nly two piojecteu spots aie employeu by NoithStai to ueteimine the position anu
oiientation of a vacuum cleanei.
5.4 SummaryonInfraredIndoorPositioningSystems
The spectial iegion of infiaieu has been useu in vaiious ways foi uetection oi tiacking of objects
oi peisons. Systems baseu on high iesolution infiaieu sensois aie able to uetect aitificial IR light
souices at submm accuiacy, wheieas systems baseu on active beacons oi those using natuial
iauiation aie mainly useu foi iough positional estimation oi uetecting the piesence of a peison
in a ioom. Some peifoimance paiameteis of infiaieubaseu inuooi positioning systems aie
quantifieu in Table S.1.
Table 5.1 Positioning systems based on infrared
Name Year Measuring
Principle
Reported
Accuracy
Coverage TargetIllumination Update
Rate
MarketMaturity
ActiveBadges(Want) 1999 celloforigin 6m scalable signaltransmission 0.1Hz product
Atsuumi 2010 polarizedlight 2% 3m photodetector high demonstrator
Hauschildt 2010 angleofarrival dm 30m
2
naturalIRradiation demonstrator
Ambiplex 2011 angleofarrival 2030cm 10m naturalIRradiation 50Hz product
Boochsetal. 2010 IRcamera 0.05mm 4m
3
active,LED development
LeeandSong 2007 IRcamera dm 36m
2
retroreflective 30Hz development
AICONProCam 2011 IRcamera 0.1mm vehicle retroreflective 7Hz product
HagisonicStarGazer 2008 IRcamera cmdm scalable retroreflective 20Hz product
EvolutionRobotics 2010 IRcamera cmdm 36m
2
IRprojection 10Hz product
Kinect 2011 structuredlight 1cm 3.5m passive 30Hz product


6.1TactileSystems 45


6 TactileandCombinedPolarSystems
Tactile anu Combineu Polai Systems aie piimaiily useu foi inuustiial oi suiveying applications
since they fulfill uemanuing accuiacy iequiiements in the oiueis of 1u
S
to 1u
6
. Bespite this
excellent peifoimance, which tianslates into u.1 mm to u.u1 mm positional accuiacy within the
specifieu opeiating iange of a few meteis, these systems have not tiauitionally been consiueieu
as inuooi positioning systems. This is uue to theii high piice, which is not suiteu foi mass
maiket applications. Reseaich in this fielu is conuucteu by geouetic institutes anu manufactuieis
of instiuments. Publisheu papeis focus mainly on calibiation oi assessment of such instiuments.
Table 6.1 shows an oveiview of the instiumentation useu foi highpiecision SB inuooi
positioning anu tiacking.
6.1 TactileSystems
Tactile systems aie high piecision mechanical instiuments which measuie positions by touching
an object with a calibiateu pointei, a socalleu piobe.
6.1.1 MeasuringArms
Neasuiing aims aie manually opeiateu uevices uesigneu foi shoitiange inuooi applications.
The objective is ueteimination of the pose of a piobe oi the position of a lasei tiiangulation
scannei, iepiesenting the enu of an openchain stiuctuie with q links connecteu to each othei by
q 1 joints. 0p to q = 7 links aie useu. Bigh piecision angle encoueis in the joints measuie the
oiientation of the next link. The cooiuinates of the tip aie ueteimineu fiom the joint angles anu
wellcalibiateu lengths of the joints which foim a polygonal chain. Foi the puipose of a uetaileu
uigital SB acquisition anu iepiesentation of an objects suiface, the tip of the measuiement aim
can be combineu with a lasei scannei. The main auvantages of measuiing aims aie poitability,
high piecision anu a high (m1) uegiee of fieeuom which facilitates its manual opeiation. The
opeiating iange is typically S m, but can be scaleu by combining measuiements fiom multiple
instiument stations. Nanufactuieis of measuiing aims aie CogniTens, Bexagon Netiology,
Romei, Faio, Nikon Netiology, CAN2 anu otheis.
6.1.2 CoordinateMeasuringMachines
A Cooiuinate Neasuiing Nachine (CNN), sometimes iefeiieu to as measuiing iobot, is
stationaiy uevice foi veiy piecise SB positioning ueteimination. A CNN consists of a table on
which the object to be measuieu is placeu anu a movable biiuge with a measuiing piobe. The
piobe samples the test object along the x, y, anu zaxes of the Caitesian machine cooiuinate
system with extiemely high accuiacy in the oiuei of 1u
6
to 1u
8
. Tiauitionally, mechanical touch
piobes have been useu, wheieas new piobing systems aie noncontact optical piobes. 0ptical
6TactileandCombinedPolarSystems 46
giatings iunning along the length of each axis can be useu to ueteimine the position along a scale
system. The woik space is limiteu to the size of the CNN, typically coveiing volumes between
(u.S m)
S
anu 1u m 4 m S m. As with measuiing aims, a scanning uevice can be mounteu on
the tip foi a uetaileu acquisition of the physical geometiical chaiacteiistics of an object.
0peiation of CNNs can be caiiieu out manually oi automatically by uiiect computei contiol.
Nanufactuieis incluue Netiis, Neilin, Leitz, Biown & Shaipe, LT, Nitutoyo, Leauei Netiology
anu Waltei.
6.2 CombinedPolarSystems
Polai systems measuie angles by mechanical oi optical encoueis oi by the Time of Aiiival (ToA)
of a iotating beam, e.g. iuPS 6.2.6. In auuition to angles, the uistances to taigets aie also
measuieu such that combineu polai systems ueteimine object positions fiom the complete SB
vectoi between instiument anu taiget object.
6.2.1 LaserTrackers
Nouein lasei tiackeis aie uevices equippeu with a telescope anu a multituue of sensois, wheie
an inteifeiometei anu two angle encoueis aie the key components. The lasei inteifeiometei is
useu foi uistance measuiements to a tiacking ieflectoi. Nowauays absolute uistance can be
obseiveu by an absolute inteifeiometei. The spatial oiientation of the emitteu lasei beam is
ueteimineu by two angle encoueis which measuie hoiizontal anu veitical positions of the
iotation axes of a leveleu instiument. Fiom uistance anu angle obseivations, spheiical SB
cooiuinates can be ueteimineu with accuiacy in the oiuei of 1 1u
6
foi highuynamic anu high
piecision applications such as foi automotive anu aeiospace inuustiies. A typical opeiating
iange is 1S m, expanuable to 8u m. Bistances can be measuieu with an accuiacy of 1u m +
S ppm (mm) anu angles up to u.uu1. The tiacking ietio ieflectoi can be equippeu with tactile
uevices foi piobing oi laseis foi object scanning. Nouein lasei tiackeis can ueteimine the full
pose (6 BoF) of the piobe by integiation of a highspeeu cameia system. Foi uynamic tiacking,
the system is capable of closeuloop contiol by following the taiget automatically, wheie the
cuiient position of the suivey beam is measuieu by a Position Sensitive Bevice (PSB). Lasei
tiackeis aie offeieu by Bexagon Netiology, Faio anu Automateu Piecision Inc.
6.2.2 TotalstationsandTheodolites
Totalstations aie useu foi vaiious tasks in the fielu of inuooi anu outuooi suiveying engineeiing.
0sually, a ieflectoi piism is manually oi automatically sighteu thiough the ciosshaiis of a
telescope. Boiizontal anu veitical angles aie then measuieu visually oi optically by means of
piecise ieauings of uigital baicoues on iotating uiscs within the instiuments aliuaue. Refeience
to the plumb line is establisheu by a twoaxis tilt sensoi. In combination with an Electionic
Bistance Netei (EBN), ielative SB cooiuinates of the piism can be ueteimineu. Nouein
totalstations featuie an Automatic Taiget Recognition (ATR) system anu a seivomotoi contiol
system foi automatic piism tiacking anu iobotic guiuance. Nowauays, tiacking totalstations can
be useu to measuie iealtime SB tiajectoiies of moving taigets within an accuiacy of a few
millimeteis (Kiischnei anu Stempfhubei 2uu8).
In contiast to totalstations, theouolites uo not incluue a uistance sensoi. Two theouolites can be
employeu as an inuustiial measuiement system to ueteimine SB cooiuinates solely fiom
angulai measuiements unuei the assumption that the baseline vectoi between the two stations
is known. By the use of an inuustiial measuiement system, a cooiuinate accuiacy of u.1 mm can
be ieacheu within uistances of 1u m.
6.2CombinedPolarSystems 47


The maximal opeiating iange of a totalstation is typically 2 km to 1u km, uepenuing on the EBN
anu the piism. Bespite these peifoimance paiameteis, totalstations aie not associateu with
inuooi positioning, uue to high haiuwaie costs, haiuwaie size anu neeu foi LoS between
instiument anu taiget. Leauing manufactuieis of totalstations aie Tiimble, Bexagon Netiology
(Leica ueosystems), Topcon anu Sokkia.
6.2.3 3DDisto
Leica ueosystems (2u11) has uevelopeu a lowcost totalstation foi inuooi applications. The so
calleu SB Bisto combines a lasei piojectoi, a lasei uistance metei, hoiizontal anu veitical
goniometeis, tiltmeteis anu a cameia within one instiument which can be placeu on a table with
a selfleveling function. The lasei piojectoi is useu to pioject lasei patteins on the walls foi
setting out. The SB Bisto is uesigneu to assist plumbeis, builuing manageis oi ioofeis.
6.2.4 LaserScanners
Teiiestiial lasei scanneis aie baseu on a noncontact ianging technology foi SB point
measuiement anu SB point clouu acquisition. In combination with ieauings at a hoiizontal anu a
veitical ciicle, piimaiily polai cooiuinates of the measuieu points aie ueteimineu anu then
tiansfoimeu into Caitesian cooiuinate system. This piocess geneiates a socalleu point clouu of
the scene. The main piinciples foi uistance ueteimination aie optical tiiangulation, phase anu
pulse measuiements. Fiom a single instiument set up close iange scanning allows captuiing an
aiea less than 1uu m anu up to S km if a long iange scannei is useu. Scans fiom multiple stations
can be combineu via iegistiation, making lasei scanning a scalable technique.
Nanufactuieis aie amongst otheis Sick, Faio, Zollei + Fiohlich, Riegl, Calliuus, Nensi, 0ptech,
Leica, visImage anu Nensi. An oveiview of teiiestiial lasei scanning is pioviueu in Fiohlich anu
Nettenleitei (2uu4).
Khoshelham (2u1u) piesents an inuooi localization methou foi teiiestiial lasei scanneis via
matching planai objects (such as walls) in multiple scans. If at least thiee coiiesponuences of
inteisecting planes can be founu in two scans, ielative scannei positions can be ueteimineu with
an accuiacy of a few centimeteis. This methou is useful foi the piocess of fine iegistiation of
multiple scans, but it is no iealtime methou foi inuooi positioning uue to long acquisition times
iequiieu foi captuiing laige SB point clouus.
Kokeisl (2u11) offeis a laseiscanning baseu navigation anu collision avoiuance system foi
inuustiial iobots. The position iefeience is obtaineu ielative to the enviionment. Fiom
automatic scans the enviionment is mappeu anu the navigation path is aujusteu accoiuingly in
case of obstacles. An accuiacy of 1 cm at speeus of 1.S ms is iepoiteu.
6.2.5 LaserRadar
Lasei iauai, known as Fiequency Nouulateu Coheient Lasei Rauai (FN CLR) uses the piinciple
of lasei scanning, by senuing an infiaieu lasei beam to a taiget object wheie the signal is
ieflecteu anu a fiaction of it is ietuineu. In contiast to lasei scanning, a pait of the beam tiavels
thiough a calibiateu optical fibei foi iefeience. The two ietuining beams aie supeiimposeu by
nonlineai mixing (heteiouyne uetection). This technology allows foi piecise measuiement of
the absolute uistance. 0p to 2uuu points pei seconu can be measuieu. Lasei iauais can be useu
at a suiface ieflectivity of less than 1 % anu opeiate inuepenuent of lighting conuitions. The
main application is the inspection of laige volume paits foi aeiospace anu shipbuiluing
inuustiies. A manufactuiei is Nikon Netiology anu a ietailei is Quamt Engineeiing.
6TactileandCombinedPolarSystems 48
6.2.6 iGPS
iuPS (inuooi ulobal Positioning System) is a laseibaseu SB measuiement system which can be
useu foi high piecision inuustiial measuiements. Its name iuPS is misleauing, because the
measuiing piinciple is uiffeient fiom its spacebaseu counteipait uPS. iuPS consists of two oi
moie static tiansmitteis which continuously senu out two iotating fanshapeu lasei beams anu a
iefeience infiaieu pulse (see Figuie 6.1). Baseu on Time Biffeience of Aiiival (TBoA) between
the thiee signals, the ielative hoiizontal anu veitical angles with iespect to a ieceivei aie
ueteimineu. In oiuei to establish a timeuepenuency between the aiiival of the lasei planes anu
the veitical angle, the iotation axis of the lasei planes aie tilteu by an elevation angle of
el
= Su.
The fiist lasei plane follows the seconu at a 9u angle uelay (one plane is tilteu Su to the left, the
othei Su to the iight). The hoiizontal angle to a ieceivei is estimateu fiom TBoA between a
lasei plane anu the iefeience pulse. A ieceiveis SB position is ueteimineu fiom two angles of at
least two oiientateu tiansmitteis whose cooiuinates have been ueteimineu in a piioi setup
phase. 0ne can say that iuPS is baseu solely on tiiangulation, oi moie piecisely on spatial
iesection. The system scale is intiouuceu fiom the fixeu length between two ieceiveis as shown
in Figuie 6.2. Two ieceiveis mounteu on a fixeu stick (the socalleu vectoibai) allow foi
ueteimination of the sticks full pose (6 BoF).


Figure 6.1 Laser planes of iGPS. Graphic by Schmitt et al. (2010), origin
from Nikon.
Figure 6.2 iGPS scale determination,
by Schmitt et al. (2010), origin from
Nikon

The manufactuiei (Nikon Netiology 2u11) states that the accuiacy of SB positions is u.2 mm
anu a typical measuiement footpiint baseu on 4 to 8 tiansmitteis is 12uu m
2
. A moie uetaileu
assessment of the system is pioviueu by Schmitt et al. (2u1u).
Bue to the iotational speeu of the lasei planes (4u Bz to Su Bz) anu an upuateu iate foi ieceivei
positions at 4u Bz, iuPS can be useu foi kinematic tiacking. Bepenthal (2u1u) assesseu the
peifoimance unuei kinematic conuitions anu concluueu that the uynamic moue enables ieal
time tiacking of ieceiveis at velocities of S ms anu SB position ueviations of less than u.S mm.
6.3SummaryonTactileandCombinedPolarSystems 49


6.3 SummaryonTactileandCombinedPolarSystems
Tactile anu combineu polai systems pioviue m to mm level accuiacy, outpeifoiming all othei
technologies piesenteu in this woik. Bue to high instiument costs anu limitation to a single
ioom at a time, these systems aie iaiely applieu to navigation, but aie essential tools foi
inuustiy, suiveying anu SB moueling. The key peifoimance paiameteis of these instiuments
useu in geouesy anu metiology aie quantifieu in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Tactile and combined polar systems used for geodetic and industrial applications
Device Typical
Accuracy
(m)
Measuring
Range(m)
orArea(m
2
)
MeasuringPrinciple Application Typical
Hardware
Costs
Market
Maturity
measuringarm 15m+10ppm 3m polygonalchain objectinspection >30.000product
CMM 2m+0.4ppm 10m3m mechanical,interferometry automotive,inspection sizedepend.product
lasertracker 10m+5ppm 80m distance&angularmeas. automotive,aerospace >110.000product
totalstation 2mm+5ppm >2000m distance&angularmeas. surveying,multipurpose 10.000product
laserscanner 3mm+5ppm <1000m distance&angularmeas. 3Dmodeling 50.000product
3DDisto 2mm 50m distance&angularmeas. settingout,plumbing 8.000product
laserradar 15m+5ppm 120m distance&angularmeas aerospace,industry 250.000product
iGPS 0.2mm 1200m
2
TDoA,resection industry,metrology >60.000product


7Sound 50
7 Sound
In contiast to electiomagnetic waves (Chapteis 81S), sounu is a mechanical wave that is an
oscillation of piessuie tiansmitteu thiough a meuium. Positioning systems use the aii anu
builuing mateiial as piopagation meuia.
An establisheu concept using sounu waves foi positioning is that locations of mobile noues on
iobots oi tags woin by human useis aie ueteimineu via multilateiation baseu on uistance
measuiements to static noues mounteu peimanently at the ceiling oi walls. Nost systems use
ultiasounu but as an alteinative, auuible sounu can be useu (see Section 7.2).
7.1 Ultrasound

The ielative uistance oi iange between two uevices can be estimateu fiom Time of Aiiival (ToA)
measuiements of 0ltia Sounu (0S) pulses which tiavel fiom an 0S emittei to an 0S ieceivei. In
contiast to iauio waves, the 0S ToA opeiating iange is 1u m oi less uue to the specific uecay
piofile of the aiiboine acoustic channel. Boubling the uistance causes the signals sounu
piessuie level to attenuate by 6 uB uue to iauial intensity attenuation anu absoiption which
tianslates to an inveise quauiatic attenuation in SB space.
An estimation of the emitteis cooiuinates is possible by multilateiation fiom thiee oi moie
ianges to fixeu ieceiveis ueployeu at known locations. Systems opeiating on such aichitectuie
aie known as active uevice systems. The alteinative system aichitectuie consists of a ieveise
signal flow with multiple static emitteis at known locations anu one oi moie mobile passive
uevices which ieceive the signal. In the liteiatuie ultiasounu ieceiveis aie uenoteu as listeneis
anu bioaucasting noues as beacons.
In oiuei to avoiu the neeu foi time synchionization of the mobile unit with the fixeu noues anu
to enable au hoc localization in unpiepaieu enviionments, the Time Biffeience of Aiiival (TBoA)
methou is useu insteau of ToA. Each beacon bioaucasts an RF (Rauio Fiequency) signal togethei
with an ultiasonic pulse in oiuei to tiiggei neaiby ieceivei noues. The iange r between beacon
anu listenei can then be ueiiveu by the uiffeience of aiiival times t between the RF anu the 0S
signal,
t =
r
:
US
-
r
:
RF
,
(7.1)
7.1Ultrasound 51


wheie v
0S
S44 ms is the speeu of sounu in the aii anu v
RF
S 1u
8
ms the speeu of light.
Because RF tiavels about 1u
6
times fastei than ultiasounu, the tiavel time of the RF signal can be
neglecteu. The most ciitical influence on the sounu speeu v
0S
is the tempeiatuie T. The
uepenuency is
:
US
= (SS1.S +u.6u6 I) m s
-1
,
(7.2)
wheie T is the absolute tempeiatuie in Celsius (C). At ioom tempeiatuies this effect causes
about u.2 % systematic iange ueviation pei uegiee Celsius. Foi a typical maximum iange of
1u m, a change of 1 C in the tempeiatuie causes a ueviation in the iange estimation of 2 mm.
Theiefoie, most ultiasounu systems incluue sensois foi automatic tempeiatuie compensation.
Neveitheless, the tiue aii tempeiatuie along the path between tiansmittei anu ieceivei iemains
unknown. Ninoi influences on the speeu of acoustic sounu aie the aii piessuie, the C0
2
content
anu the sounu amplituue. Tempoial changes in the speeu of sounu can also be compensateu by
taking into account calibiation measuiements between known noues.
Applications of positioning systems baseu on ultiasounu aie inuooi tiacking of people anu
mobile uevices, but these systems aie iaiely useu in outuooi enviionments uue to the following
thiee ieasons: Tempeiatuie giauients aie laigei outuoois anu theiefoie moie complicateu to
mouel oi compensate. Seconuly, winu uegiaues the system piecision significantly. Thiiuly, the
typical limitation foi uistance measuiements of about 1u m is not piactical foi outuooi use.
Although ultiasounu systems aie scalable by auuing fuithei fixeu noues, the ueployment of
noues in outuooi enviionments is pioblematic uue to the absence of ceilings oi neaiby walls.
Fuithei challenges of ultiasounu systems aie mitigation of multipath piopagation (Nautz anu
0chieng 2uu7) anu uetection of heavily Boppleishifteu signals (Alloulah anu Bazas 2u1u). A
piactical challenge aiises fiom the task of minimizing the batteiy uiain that wiieless ultiasonic
systems usually face. Theiefoie poweisaving techniques have been implementeu. Anothei
negative influence on ianging accuiacy is the neaifai pioblem of tiansmitteis (see Chaptei 12)
anu the uiiectivity of the tiansuuceis (Bazas anu Boppei 2uu6).
In oiuei to make a listeneibeacon system functional, the cooiuinates of the static noues neeu to
be known in auvance. Theiefoie the static noues neeu to be suiveyeu by anothei positioning
system. Because the accuiacy of the noue cooiuinates shoulu be at least as goou as the
ultiasounu positioning system itself, timeconsuming manual positioning methous such as
totalstation measuiements aie iequiieu ueliveiing a positioning accuiacy of S mm to 1u mm
(1 ). In oiuei to avoiu the use of a seconu positioning system foi static noue localization, Nautz
anu 0chieng (2uu7) have implementeu an autolocalization algoiithm. As shown in Figuie 7.1, a
uynamic sensoi noue is moveu slowly to vaiious locations in a ioom while peimanently
collecting ToA ianging uata to at least foui beacon noues mounteu at the ceiling. The mobile anu
the static noue positions aie unknown. Even the inteibeacon ianges may not be available uue to
obstacles between them.
The uesciibeu scenaiio neveitheless allows cieation of a iigiu uistance netwoik baseu on local
cooiuinates. The ueployment of static noues in the foui coineis of a ioom allows the setup of a
meaningful local cooiuinate system oiientateu along the oithogonal walls. The ieuunuancy of
such an autolocalization pioblem in SB is given by
ieuuncancy = n

-S (n
s
+n
m
) + 6, (7.S)
7Sound 52
wheie n
r
is the numbei of obseiveu ianges, n
s
the numbei of static noues anu n
m
the numbei of
mobile positions. If uiiect line of sight conuitions allow all combinations of ianges to be
obtaineu, then n
r
= n
s
n
m
holus.

In Figuie 7.1, the mobile noue has collecteu 4 ianges to 4 static noues at 6 uiffeient locations.
Foi the SB case, theie aie S (n
s
+ n
m
) = Su unknown cooiuinates anu n
r
= n
s
n
m
= 24 iange
measuiements cieating a netwoik with a ieuunuancy of 6. But taking into account the 6 uegiees
of fieeuom (i.e. S tianslations anu S iotations) foi the iigiu SB uistance netwoik, the solution
has no ieuunuancy foi this case. Nautz anu 0chieng (2uu7) have shown that zeio oi low
ieuunuancy of the netwoik causes the autolocalization algoiithm to fail unuei ieal fielu
conuitions. With too low ieuunuancy, gioss eiiois in the position estimation aie likely to iemain
unuetecteu uue to the existence of outliei obseivations, bau geometiic constiaints anu eiiois
causeu by lineaiization of the objective function. To obtain the beacon cooiuinates the following
pioceuuie can be caiiieu out:
a) Stepwise movement of the mobile noue in a ioom while collecting iange measuiements.
b) uiouping of the ianges at m mobile positions accoiuing to theii time stamps.
c) uioss eiioi uetection by finuing suuuen jumps in the iange measuiements anu testing
tiiangle conuitions.
u) Cieation of a uistance matiix between all netwoik positions with size (n
s
+ n
m
) by
(n
s
+ n
m
), see Figuie 7.2.
e) Filling the gaps of the uistancematiix by inteipolation. This step establishes iough
appioximations foi all inteinoual ianges.
f) Setting up a local cooiuinate system baseu on the inteinoual ianges of foui noues
(piefeiably static noues).
g) Computation of all cooiuinates baseu on NultiBimensional Scaling (NBS), a localization
methou which tiansfoims a uistance netwoik into geometiic embeuuing. uiven a set of
paiiwise uistances in piesence of laige iange measuiement noise, the location appioach
using NBS has outpeifoimeu pioximity baseu algoiithms (Shang et al. 2uu4). If the
iange measuiements aie of goou quality, positions can be ueteimineu by multilateiation.
h) Refinement of the cooiuinates by geouetic netwoik aujustment. When applieu to ieal
uata, the netwoik aujustment may not be caiiieu out stiaight away, because it iequiies
goou appioximate values of the unknown positions. In oiuei to avoiu a failuie of the
netwoik aujustment, a heuiistic optimization methou can be caiiieu out which avoius
lineaiization by uiiectly using the oiiginal obseivation equations. The heuiistic methou
impioves appioximate positions foi the input of the netwoik aujustment typically fiom
metei to centimetei level. An insight into heuiistic methous is given in Nautz (2uu2).
Figure 7.1 Autolocalization of static nodes using a mobile sensor
Mobile Node
Static Nodes
Ceiling
7.1Ultrasound 53


s
1
s
2
s
3
s
4
m
1
m
2
m
3
m
4
m
5
m
6

s
1

s
2
not
observed
observed
s
3

s
4

m
1

m
2
not
observed

m
3
observed
m
4

m
5

m
6

Figure 7.2 Distance matrix of the example with 4 static nodes and 6 mobile positions

When the autolocalization pioceuuie has been completeu, the cooiuinates of the static noues
aie available in a local system. An oveiueteimineu autolocation setup allows ueteimining
quality inuicatois of the cooiuinates.
7.1.1 ActiveDeviceSystems
In an active uevice system, mobile uevices actively tiansmit signals. Theiefoie, the tiansmission
of ultiasonic pulses neeus to be well scheuuleu among the mobile uevices. The uisauvantage of
an active uevice system is insufficiency in scalability, i.e. if too many useis with ultiasonic
uevices gathei in a ioom, the chance of signal oveilap is incieaseu. A wellcooiuinateu scheme
foi pulse tiansmission between the uevices may solve the pioblem but at the cost of a ieuuceu
measuiement iate.
Waiu et al. (1997) uesciibe an ultiasonic system nameu Active Bat which can be iegaiueu as
pioneei woik in the uevelopment of bioaubanu ultiasonic positioning systems. Active Bat
consists of ioaming tiansmitteis attacheu to the usei anu fixeu ultiasonic ieceiveis mounteu on
the ceiling. Each tiansmitteis position is ueteimineu by peifoiming ToF multilateiation. The
Active Bat system also ueuuces uiiection infoimation by attaching multiple tiansmitteis on the
mobile object. Bowevei, Active Bat employs a centializeu system aichitectuie anu iequiies
uense ueployment of piecisely positioneu ultiasonic ieceiveis. The SB accuiacy of a
synchionous tiansmittei is S cm in 9S peicent of cases. A laige uemonstiation system consisting
of 72u ieceiveis anu up to 7S mobile tags has been ueployeu in an office space of 1uuu m
2
.
In oiuei to mitigate the pioblem of multiple usei uetection which active uevice systems usually
face, Alloulah anu Bazas (2u1u) implementeu a Coue Bivision Nultiple Access (CBNA)
uespieauei on a bioaubanu ultiasonic signal. CBNA allows simultaneous tiansmission of
uiffeient uata stieams at the same communication channel.
Sato et al. (2u11) uevelopeu a iange measuiement technique calleu Extenueu Phase Accoiuance
Nethou (EPAN) which showeu a stanuaiu ueviation of less than 1 mm in a laboiatoiy
expeiiment. Bowevei, the oveiall position accuiacy of the ieal implementation with tags
attacheu to a bouy is iepoiteu as 4 cm.
Sonitoi IPS (2u11) is a commeicially available ultiasonic positioning solution which has been
installeu on a laige scale in seveial hospitals foi the puipose of patient anu equipment tiacking
at ioom oi subioom level accuiacy. Notion activateu tags woin by the usei tiansmit ultiasonic
7Sound 54
signals with unique iuentification coues to wall mounteu ieceiveis which piocess the signal anu
tiansfei ielevant infoimation to a cential seivei via LAN oi WLAN. The maximum iange is
specifieu as 18 m.
Bexamite (2u11) offeis ultiasonic positioning systems with vaiious aichitectuial setups.
Accoiuing to the company the piouucts aie supposeu to pioviue accuiacy of 9 mm anu piecision
of 1 mm foi uistances up to 14 m. A stanuaiu evaluation package contains thiee ieceiveis anu
two tiansmitteis. Intenueu applications aie iobotic guiuance, automation anu manufactuiing as
well as SB film stuuio assistance.
7.1.2 PassiveDeviceSystems
Passive systems iely on peimanently installeu tiansmitteis which bioaucast ultiasounu signals
to the ieceiving uevices. Such an aichitectuie has the auvantage that the piivacy of the useis can
be kept. Nobile passive uevices only ieceive signals anu uo not tiansmit anything. Theiefoie the
localization is exclusively caiiieu out onboaiu of the uevice, without any neeu foi netwoik
inteiaction. The numbei of useis can be scaleu without any iisk of signal oveilapping.
Piiyantha (2uuS) uesciibes in his thesis the passive Ciicket system uevelopeu by the NIT
Laboiatoiy foi Computei Science. The Ciicket system is pioneei woik uating back to the yeai
2uuu. A SB positioning accuiacy of 1 cm to 2 cm can be ieacheu inuoois within a maximum
iange of 1u m. Realtime tiacking is geneially possible with an upuateiate of 1 Bz. A haiuwaie
unit can be piogiammeu eithei as a static beacon oi mobile listenei. Bue to its open system
aichitectuie, Ciicket has been useu as a ieseaich platfoim all ovei the woilu anu inspiieu many
applications.
A mouein, welluesigneu veision of a passive system is piesenteu in Schweinzei anu Syafiuuin
(2u1u). Although the piecision of TBoA uistances is bettei than u.7 mm (empiiic 1 stanuaiu
ueviation of iepetitive measuiements), the absolute accuiacy of a locateu listenei is iepoiteu as
1 cm.
}imnez et al. (2uu9) piesent the passive uevice system chiisteneu SBL0C0S baseu on T0F
multilateiation anu ueliveiing 1 cm accuiacy. In oiuei to apply pseuuoianuom uigital coues
they have chosen to use acoustic tiansuuceis which opeiate mainly in the auuible iegion below
2S kBz. In oiuei to seive the intenueu application aiea of aicheological suiveying, special
pointing ious with ieceiveis at both enus have been uevelopeu.
7.1.3 Echolocation
Similai to biosonai useu by seveial animals such as bats, it is possible to emit sounu pulses by a
tiansmittei to the enviionment anu make use of the ietuineu echoes to locate anu iuentify
objects oi even ueteimine the tiansmitteis location. The piinciple of binauial (i.e. twoieceivei
baseu) localization is illustiateu in Figuie 7.S. Echolocation systems have the auvantage that
they can opeiate without the neeu foi beacons oi tags.
7.2AudibleSound 55



Figure 7.3 Principle of echolocation, graphic by Petteri Aimonen (2009)

Reijnieis anu Peiemans (2uu7) piopose a biomimetic sonai system baseu on uistance anu
beaiing estimation of ieflectois using a cential tiansmittei anu two ieceiveis pointing in slightly
uiffeient uiiections. A sweeping pulse of S ms uuiation in the fiequency iange between S1 kBz
anu S9 kBz is tiansmitteu anu the echoeu signal is evaluateu in the time anu fiequency uomain.
Fiist iesults inuicate an unceitainty of the angles of a few uegiees anu positions of a few
uecimeteis.
Wan anu Paul (2u1u) implementeu an expeiimental setup with 6 ultiasonic wallmounteu
tiansmitteis in oiuei to tiack peisons without the neeu foi bouywoin tags. An 0S signal is
ieflecteu at a peisons bouy causing an echo which is analyzeu foi estimation of the uistance
between the peison anu the tiansmittei. Fiom multiple sensois it is possible to ueteimine the
peisons 2B position with an accuiacy of bettei than u.S m.
7.2 AudibleSound

A small fiaction of system appioaches makes use of sounu waves in the auuible spectium. The
key iuea is to make the system easily ueployable using sounu caius of stanuaiu uevices. Apait
fiom the task of avoiuing annoyance to the usei, othei challenges aiise fiom low bit iates anu
uelays causeu by the sounucaius.
Filonenko et al. (2u1u) piopose the use of inbuilt mobile phone speakeis to geneiate simple sine
tone ultiasonic signals in the neai auuible spectium of 17 kBz to 22 kBz. Theii goal is to
implement ToF tiilateiation positioning using unmouifieu haiuwaie on oiuinaiy mobile phones.
7Sound 56
Nanual et al. (2uuS) locate stanuaiu mobile uevices using auuible sounus at a fiequency of
4 kBz. To minimize intiusiveness, positioning is caiiieu out on iequest only. Aftei calibiation of
these uelays, the T0F multilateiation appioach achieves SB accuiacy of 6u cm (2 ) with a iange
of 7 m.
7.3 SummaryonSoundSystems
Sounu systems aie useu foi vaiious tiacking applications at cmlevel accuiacy. The stiong uecay
piofile of acoustic waves causes sounu systems to be limiteu to a 1u m opeiating iange if not
scaleu with auuitional noue ueployment. Time synchionization is simple uue to the ielatively
slow speeu of sounu. The uiawbacks aie fiequency changes uue to the Bopplei shift anu a stiong
tempeiatuie uepenuency. In contiast to othei technologies, the peifoimance paiameteis of
vaiious sounu systems aie ielatively similai as shown in Table 7.1. Bue to existing NLoS
conuitions anu multipath piopagation in inuooi enviionments, the uevelopment of ieliable
sounu systems at cmlevel oi bettei iemains a substantial challenge.
Table 7.1. Localization systems using sound waves and reported performance parameters.
Name Year Reported
Accuracy
Active
or
Passive
Devices
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
r
s
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
s
Tags
or
Tag
Free
Carrier
Fre
quency
Update
Rate
Principle Application Market
Maturity
ActiveBat 1997 3cm active 75 720 tags 40kHz 5Hz multilateration smarttracking prototype
Alloulah 2010 3cm active 5 4 tags 2050kHz multilateration AAL,monitoring demonstr.
Sato 2011 4cm active 5 4 tags 40kHz 10Hz multilateration humanmotion demonstr.
Sonitor 2011 subroom active >99 >99 tags 3540kHz 5Hz disclosed hospitals,mines product
Hexamite 2011 0.9cm active >99 >99 tags 40kHz 30Hz multilateration 3Dstudio product
Cricket 2005 12cm passive 20 >99 tags 40kHz 1Hz multilateration smarttracking product
Schweinzer2010 1cm passive 56 >99 tags 3565kHz 10Hz multilateration WSN demonstr.
Jimnez 2009 1cm passive >5 >8 tags <25kHz 10Hz multilateration archeology prototype
Reijiniers 2007 decimeter echo 1 2free 3159kHz low echolocation robotguidance study
Wan 2010 0.5m echo 6 1 free 40kHz 2Hz bodyreflection persontracking study
Filonenko 2010 <1m active 1 1 tags 1722kHz 1Hz multilateration LBS,guidance proposal
Mandal 2005 60cm active 1 6 tags 4kHz request multilateration LBS,malls demonstr.


8.1PropagationModeling 57


8 WLAN/WiFi

WLAN (Wiieless Local Aiea Netwoiks, IEEE 8u2.11 stanuaiu; WiFi is useu inteichangeably oi
as a supeiset of IEEE 8u2.11 anu uenotes the iegisteieu tiauemaik of the WiFi Alliance) can be
useu to estimate the location of a mobile uevice within this netwoik. The use of WLAN signals is
a tempting appioach, since WLAN access points aie ieauily available in many inuooi
enviionments anu it is possible to use stanuaiu mobile haiuwaie uevices. The iange of Su m to
1uu m which is typically coveieu by WLAN outieaches that of Bluetooth oi RFIB. Anothei
auvantage of using WLAN is that line of sight is not iequiieu. ToA, TBoA oi AoA methous aie less
common in WLAN uue to the complexity of time uelay anu angulai measuiements. The most
populai WLAN positioning methou is to make use of RSSI (Receiveu Signal Stiength Inuicatois)
which aie easy to extiact in 8u2.11 netwoiks anu can iun on offtheshelf WLAN haiuwaie.
Theiefoie, WLAN positioning systems have become the most wiuespieau appioach foi inuooi
localization, see Table 8.1 foi an oveiview. In geneial, the use of RSSI in combination with WLAN
can be subuiviueu into foui stiategies: Piopagation moueling, Cell of 0iigin (Co0),
Fingeipiinting (FP) anu multilateiation.
8.1 PropagationModeling
Noueling of signal piopagation is consiueieu as analytical fingeipiinting in the liteiatuie, but
tieateu sepaiately heie. Foi the puipose of analytical ueteimination of Receiveu Signal Stiength
Inuicatois (RSSI), uiffeient piopagation mouels aie useu. A majoi technical uifficulty using RSSI
aiises fiom the fact that RSSI values uepenu to a laige extent on the piopagation enviionment,
making it veiy uifficult to set up suitable piopagation mouels which uesciibe the ielationship
between RSSI values anu ieceivei position in ieal inuooi enviionments. Theiefoie fingeipiinting
methous (see 8.3) which iely on simple compaiison of empiiical measuiements without
application of a theoietical mouel have become the moie favoiable methou compaieu to
analytical moueling. Bowevei, analytical moueling can be useu in combination with empiiical
fingeipiinting. The bettei a theoietical mouel can pieuict the measuiements, the less calibiation
measuiements aie iequiieu in an offline stage.
A basic piopagation mouel is the iauial symmetiic fieespace path loss mouel (S.1). The puipose
of this mouel is to ueiive the uistance between a iauiating souice anu a ieceivei by exploiting
the attenuation of RSSI with uistance. Bowevei, this simplistic mouel is iaiely applicable in
inuooi settings wheie the signals uo not attenuate pieuictably with the uistance uue to
8WLAN/WiFi 58
shauowing, ieflection, iefiaction anu absoiption by the builuing stiuctuies. The Nulti Wall
Nouel (NWN) is a mouifieu veision of the path loss mouel which takes into account the wall
being ciosseu on the uiiect path. It iequiies the thickness of walls anu the uielectiic piopeities
of each wall as input. Since NWN consiueis only the uiiect path which uoes not necessaiily
coiiesponu to the stiongest path, iay tiacing algoiithms have been pioposeu which take into
account all possible paths anu sum up each inuiviuual contiibution. In oiuei to avoiu the
computational buiuen intiinsic to iay tiacing Paioui et al. (2uu6) useu the Bominant Path Nouel
(BPN) which takes only into account the stiongest path which is not necessaiily iuentical to the
uiiect path. An accepteu piopagation is the Inuooi Path Loss Nouel (S.2.8) which has been
valiuateu by Chiysikos et al. (2uu9). Bowevei, the success of moueling WLAN piopagation
inuoois is limiteu uue to the inteiplay of highly unpieuictable multipath fauing.
8.2 CellofOrigin
This is a stiaightfoiwaiu methou suitable foi applications with iequiiements foi positioning
accuiacies of Su m oi moie. The WLAN access point geneiating the highest RSSI value at the
mobile uevice is iuentifieu anu the usei position is assumeu to have the same cooiuinate
position as the access point.
8.3 EmpiricalFingerprinting
The empiiical fingeipiinting appioach iequiies as a majoi uiawback a pievious set of
calibiation measuiements in an offline stage (also uenoteu as the calibiation phase) wheie the
RSSI aie obseiveu at vaiious locations in the builuing anu stoieu togethei with giounutiuth
locations in a uatabase known as a iauio map. Each entiy of the uatabase is uenoteu as fingei
piint f anu consists of the giounutiuth position (x, y, z) anu the RSSI vectoi c containing the
calibiation measuiements to access points. The uatabase is then useu in the opeiational online
stage to estimate the position of a mobile uevice by coiielating all cuiient RSSI measuiements r
t

ieceiveu at time t fiom n uiffeient access points with the RSSI values c of fingeipiint location f
stoieu in the uatabase. A common methou is to ueteimine the Eucliuean uistance
J(r
t
|I(x, y, z, )) = (r
t
- )
2
(8.1)
in signal space, wheie the vectoi of RSSI uiffeiences (r
t
c) is of uimension n, anu n is the
numbei of access points. Then, the Eucliuean uistances d
j
foi all m fingeipiint locations aie
ueteimineu anu stoieu in the uistance vectoi d. In the most stiaightfoiwaiu appioach, the
minimum Eucliuean uistance d
min
= min (d) to a calibiation point is taken as the cuiient location.
Alteinatively, the cooiuinates of the obseivation point can be computeu by a weighteu mean of
the calibiation points, wheie the weights aie set iecipiocal to theii uistances d
j
. Foi example, the
weighteu mean foi the cooiuinate x ieaus
x = _
1
J
]
m
]=1
_
-1

x
]
J
]
m
]=1
.
(8.2)
In the so calleu piobabilistic appioaches, the coiielation values
8.3EmpiricalFingerprinting 59


cor
]
= cor [r
t
|I
j
(x, y, z, ) =
_
d
|
2 n
=1
n
,
(8.S)
foi all j fingeipiint locations aie compaieu. Baseu on the coiielation value cor
j
the piobability
that the cuiient RSSI obseivations r
t
have been ieceiveu at the same position as the fingeipiint f
j

can be computeu. Since iecoius at an obseivation point contain moie than one epoch, fuzzy logic
methous have been applieu to make use of the auuitional infoimation (Teubei anu Eissfellei
2uu6).
Fingeipiinting peifoimance can ieach meteiaccuiacy, uepenuing on the numbei of base
stations pei m
2
anu the uensity of calibiation points wheie the fingeipiints aie taken. Even if
theie aie no changes to the enviionment, iecoiueu RSSI fluctuates in time. In oiuei to eliminate
the highfiequency ueviation of attenuation in the signal (known as fast fauing teim) the RSS
values aie to be aveiageu ovei a ceitain time inteival up to seveial minutes at each fingeipiint
location. 0wing to the substantial cost incuiieu by builuing the iauio map, the fingeipiinting
appioach may be piohibitive foi many applications. In oiuei to make the cieation of iauio maps
economically efficient, Bolligei (2uu8), Paik et al. (2u1u) anu Bansen et al. (2u1u) uiaw on
active usei paiticipation ielying on the contiibution of enu useis by maiking theii location on a
flooi plan while iecoiuing the fingeipiints. The amount of piioi fingeipiint measuiements can
also be minimizeu by using mutual measuiements between the access points to set up an initial
piopagation mouel which is iefineu by incoipoiating auuitional paiameteis via online leaining
(Paioui et al. 2uu6).
The main uiawback of WLAN fingeipiinting systems is that changes in the enviionment such as
the moving of fuinituie in offices, opencloseu uoois oi even people may necessitate
iecalculation of the pieuefineu signal stiength map. Chen et al. (2uuS) quantifieu these uynamic
changes empiiically anu employeu RFIB sensois togethei with an online calibiation scheme to
builu multiple iauio maps unuei vaiious enviionmental conuitions. Bansen et al. (2u1u)
concluue fiom longteim measuiements ovei a peiiou of two months that static iauio maps
cannot be useu foi ioom iuentification even in mouestly uynamic enviionments anu theiefoie
iecommenu uynamically auapting algoiithms. Also the oiientation of the uevices contiibutes to
a change in the RSSI values (Xiang et al. 2uu4) anu the influence fiom the useis bouy (uansemei
et al. 2u1u). King et al. (2uu6) obseiveu a ueciease in the ieception powei of 1S uBm fiom the
blocking effect of a human bouy. Even the humiuity level causes changes in the RSSI, uue to the
WLAN opeiation banu of 2.4 uBz being a iesonant fiequency of watei (Chen et al. 2uuS).
WLAN haiuwaie anu netwoik piotocols have not been uesigneu foi positioning. As a
consequence, anothei weakness of WLAN fingeipiinting aiises when the methou is applieu to
useis with uiffeient WLAN chipsets. RSSI values collecteu fiom uiffeient chipset venuois uiffei
in the RSSI uefinition anu aie theiefoie uifficult to compaie (Koski et al. 2u1u). vaupel et al.
(2u1u) ueteimineu offsets in the RSSI values of 16 uBm between uiffeient hanuhelu WLAN
uevices. Theii calibiation appioach foi RSSI offsets takes into account uiffeient uistances,
oiientations anu multiple access points. Aftei calibiation, the same localization accuiacy coulu
be achieveu inuepenuent of the haiuwaie useu.
The inuooi localization system RABAR is a pioneei woik in WLAN fingeipiinting. Bahl anu
Paumanabhan (2uuu), who uevelopeu the system, useu the KNeaiest Neighboi (KNN) methou
in signal space foi location of a peison anu achieveu a meuian ueviation of S m using S access
points coveiing about 1uuu m
2
. Apait fiom the noue uensity, theii finuings incluue that the
8WLAN/WiFi 60
peifoimance uepenus on the numbei of uata points taken anu the oiientation anu speeu of the
usei.
With extensive piecalibiation (1 m giiu of calibiation points, 11u RSSI measuiements at each
calibiation point in 8 uiffeient oiientations) King et al. (2uu6) iepoit an aveiage ueviation of
1.6 m. Theii appioach incluues the use of an auuitional uigital compass to uetect the oiientations
of the useis to hanule blocking effects fiom the usei. The static iauio map uoes not mouel
enviionmental changes.
The fingeipiinting methou of uansemei et al. (2u1u) uevelopeu an auapteu Eucliuean uistance
mouel which takes into account a uynamically changing enviionment with changing sets of
ieceiveu base stations. Theiefoie, the uistances in the mouel aie noimalizeu accoiuing to the
numbei of stations ieceiveu.
In oiuei to make theii WLAN fingeipiinting system economically feasible foi campuswiue
ueployment, uallaghei et al. (2u1u) simplify the calibiation phase, while accepting ioomlevel
accuiacy. Theii system also integiates uNSS measuiements anu aims to pioviue inuooi anu
outuooi localization foi stuuents anu staff baseu on smait phones.
8.3.1 CommercialWLANFingerprintingSystems
The XPS WLAN fingeipiinting system offeieu by Skyhook

is a softwaieonly, seivei baseu

solution which allows ueteimining a mobile position in uense uiban aieas. Skyhook (2u11)
builus up anu maintains a global uatabase of WLAN access points by collecting RSSI uata fiom
specially equippeu cais. uNSS anu cell towei IBs (Co0) aie also useu. Since the fingeipiinting is
uone by Skyhook, positioning can commence immeuiately aftei softwaie installation. The system
ueteimines a uevice location with 1u to 2u metei accuiacy in outuooi enviionments. The
positioning peifoimance foi inuooi enviionments was Su m to 7u m aveiage accuiacy in a test
measuiement at availability of Su % of the time (uallaghei et al. 2uu9). The system is uesigneu
to pioviue efficient positioning infoimation on a laige scale.
Also commeicially available is the Ekahau

RealTime Location System, baseu on the

combination of RSSI WLAN fingeipiinting anu tiack histoiy. In contiast to Skyhook, ueuicateu
WLAN tags aie to be ueployeu anu the RSSI uatabase is to be geneiateu by the system pioviueis
themselves. Accoiuing to the Ekahau

specifications, WLAN tags can be tiackeu at 1 to S metei

accuiacy. uallaghei et al. (2uu9) state an aveiage accuiacy of 7 m foi inuooi enviionments.
8.4 WLANDistanceBasedMethods(PathlossBasedPositioning)
Infoimation iegaiuing the uistance fiom a tiansmittei is containeu in the aiiival times anu the
amplituues of the ieceiveu wavefoims. Accoiuingly, uistance estimation using WLAN is
geneially possible fiom RSSI, ToA, TBoA anu RTT.
8.4.1 LaterationUsingRSSI
The RSSI value obtaineu by a wiieless uevice is a function of the uistance between emittei anu
ieceivei. The path loss oi attenuation mouel (S.1) uesciibes this uepenuency in geneial.
Bowevei, this simplistic mouel uoes not fully uesciibe the uistiibution of the path amplituues in
inuooi enviionments, wheie the piopagation conuitions aie of uynamic natuie uue to multipath
(i.e. fast fauing) anu shauow fauing (i.e. slow fauing). Taking into consiueiation fast anu slow
fauing the mouel becomes
8.4WLANDistanceBasedMethods(PathlossBasedPositioning) 61


P
R
= P
1
0
1
0
R
yb
2
4nJ
p
,
(8.4)
wheie P
R
is the ieceiveu powei (RSS) value, P
T
the tiansmitteu powei, G
T
anu G
R
the tiansmittei
anu ieceivei antenna gains, d the uistance, p the path loss exponent, a mouel paiametei foi
slow fauing (lognoimal uistiibution) anu h a paiametei moueling the fast fauing, often iefeiieu
to as multipath fauing. Fast fauing appeais in the foim of small scale iapiu amplituue
fluctuations of the complex envelope, causeu by ieception of multiple copies of the signal
thiough multipath piopagation anu is usually moueleu by Rayleigh uistiibution in absence of a
stiong ieceiveu component, i.e. NLoS conuitions. In cases wheie a stiong uominating path (e.g.
the LoS path) exists compaieu to othei aiiiving low level scatteieu paths, the Rician uistiibution
is useu. Noie uetails on the piopagation mouels in inuooi enviionments can be founu in
Bashemi (199S).
If the RSSI aie aveiageu ovei a ceitain time inteival, the fast fauing teim h in (8.4) can be
appioximateu with h = 1 anu using logaiithmic units the uepenuency between RSSI P
R
anu
uistance d becomes
P
R
= o - 1u p log
10
(J) +z(u, o), (8.S)
wheie the shauow fauing (also known as slow fauing) is moueleu as suggesteu by Salo et al.
(2uu7) as the zeiomean uaussian ianuom vaiiable z with stanuaiu ueviation . Shauow fauing
iepiesents the slow vaiiation in the signal amplituue uue to obstacles in the piopagation paths.
The teim contains the aveiageu fast fauing, the tiansmittei powei P
T
as well as the antenna
gains G
T
anu G
R
. Equation (8.S) can be useu in any inuooi enviionment to uesciibe the
ielationship between RSSI values anu the uistance between an access point anu a ieceivei.
Figuie 8.1 shows the logaiithmic tienu anu also uemonstiates that uue to the logaiithmic
uepenuency, iange estimation becomes moie uifficult with the inciease in uistance, i.e. long
uistances aie almost inuistinguishable fiom RSSI.

Figure 8.1 Dependency between distance and RSSI. The continuous line represents the logdistance model
and the dots are measurements according to Laitinen (2004)

8WLAN/WiFi 62
The main challenges foi WLAN RSSI inuooi positioning methous aie the high timevaiiability of
signal stiength anu the complexity of moueling the signal piopagation accoiuing to attenuation
patteins in inuooi enviionments.
Nazuelas et al. (2uu9) use ielation (8.S) to ueiive uistance estimates fiom RSSI values to
multiple WLAN access points in oiuei to ueteimine the location of a mobile ieceivei. To
minimize the uiiectional uepenuency of powei tiansfeiieu fiom tiansmittei to ieceivei causeu
by the iotational position of the antenna, omniuiiectional antennas have been useu. Piioi to
caiiying out positioning, the aveiageu fauing teim anu the path loss p weie ueteimineu foi a
specific inuooi enviionment. 0sing an oveiueteimineu set of uistance estimates foi theii
multilateiation appioach, the ieuunuancy was exploiteu to uynamically aujust the path loss
exponents by leastsquaies minimization anu also quantify the stanuaiu ueviation of the
ueteimineu position estimate baseu on the iesiuuals. Nazuelas et al. achieveu a mean positional
accuiacy of 4 m in theii test measuiements.
8.4.2 WLANToA
WLAN ToA baseu on tiilateiation constitutes a technology to oveicome the offline tiaining phase
iequiieu by RSSI baseu techniques. Timing measuiements also pioviue a moie stable alteinative
compaieu to RSSI measuiements with theii known vaiiability in time.
Bowevei, ToA obseivations aie not uiiectly available fiom a stanuaiu WLAN inteiface. The
piesent WLAN stanuaiu uoes not pioviue timestamps with sufficient iesolution in time.
Assuming optimal conuitions it is possible to access a time base of 1 s using stanuaiu WLAN,
which coiiesponus to a iesolution of Suu m in uistance. This pioblem might be mitigateu in
futuie with the intiouuction of IEEE 8u2.11v which has an allocation foi timestamp uiffeiences
within the iequestiesponse mechanism.
Nethous using time uelay measuiements in stanuaiu WLAN aie complex uue to the uifficulty of
obtaining piecise timing measuiements. In oiuei to piecisely ueteimine the impulse iesponse,
the uistiibution of the aiiival time sequence has been stuuieu by Bashemi (199S).
Nuthukiishnan et al. (2uu6) concluueu in theii feasibility stuuy that ToA is not a feasible
appioach foi localization foi WLAN uue to the limitation of cuiient haiuwaie anu piotocols.
Foi piecise time measuiements, it is piefeiieu to keep the system opeiating at the lowest pos
sible netwoik layeis in oiuei to avoiu extia uelays uue to piocessing between the layeis. Theie
foie, most ToA ianging methous iely on piecise time measuiements at the physical layei at the
cost of haiuwaie mouifications in the WLAN chipset. It shoulu be noteu howevei, that the use of
mouifieu WLAN haiuwaie is an obstacle foi ueploying WLAN ToA as piactical positioning
solution.
The ToA appioach of uoluen anu Bateman (2uu7) estimateu uistances between fixeu access
points anu the location of a laptop. Theii appioach iequiies minoi mouifications to the physical
layei (softwaie anu haiuwaie). In oiuei to mitigate multipath piopagation thiee uiffeient
measuies aie taken. Fiist, a uiveisity scheme is applieu which ielies on a numbei of uiffeient
communication channels. Seconuly, the multipath is minimizeu by using uiiectional antennas at
the access points. Thiiuly, the existence of uiffeient uelayeu paths in the ieceiveu signal is taken
into account by applying the pathuecompositionmouel (S.S). The iepoiteu accuiacy foi the
uistances is 1 m to S m.
8.4WLANDistanceBasedMethods(PathlossBasedPositioning) 63


Reuuy anu Chanuia (2uu7) piopose a ToA technique baseu on coiielation of the WLAN signal
wheie the ieceiveu signal is coiielateu at the physical layei with tiaining symbols stoieu in the
ieceivei. Biffeient channel mouels weie uefineu which take into account specific powei uelay
piofiles typical of ceitain enviionments, e.g. an office with NLoS conuitions. A majoi uiawback
foi measuiements at the physical layei is that specific (nonstanuaiu) haiuwaie mouules aie
iequiieu, causing the implementation to be uifficult to put thiough in iealwoilu applications.
The estimation of ToA uistances at uppei layeis of WLAN takes auvantage of the WLAN (IEEE
8u2.11) stanuaiu piotocol anu theiefoie its applicability is facilitateu foi ianging using poitable,
offtheshelf uevices. Bue to the limitations of unmouifieu WLAN haiuwaie anu piotocols,
cuiient appioaches ueteimine ToA inuiiectly fiom Rounu Tiip Time (RTT) ianging techniques.
8.4.3 WLANTDoA
TBoA iequiies simultaneous ieception of signals fiom at least 2 access points foi the most basic
opeiation moue. 0ne piemise of WLAN howevei is that only one noue talks at a time, i.e. the
access points uo not tiansmit on the same channel simultaneously. Theiefoie, TBoA baseu on
WLAN follows the othei appioach wheie the access points seive as multiple synchionizeu iecei
veis anu the mobile station tiansmits the signal. The pioblem is that neighboiing access points
aie typically set to uiffeient fiequency channels anu listen only in that paiticulai fiequency.
8.4.4 WLANAoA
IEEE 8u2.11n is an amenument to the WLAN stanuaiu to impiove the netwoik thioughput by
auuing a technology which suppoits multiple antenna configuiations, known as NultipleInput
Nultiple0utput (NIN0). Wong et al. (2uu8) useu this amenument of WLAN to ueteimine the
Angle of Aiiival (AoA) of a mobile tiansmittei signal ieceiveu at an access point with an aiiay of
foui lineai monopole antennas. Fiom AoA of foui access points, the position of the mobile was
estimateu. Baseu on simulations it was concluueu that the potential positioning accuiacy is
bettei than 2 m.
8.4.5 WLANRTT
The Rounu Tiip Time (RTT) is the time uiffeience between the time a pulse was sent to an
access point anu the time the iesponse was ieceiveu at the same uevice aftei ietuin (see Section
S.S.S). In oiuei to estimate a uistance to a WLAN access point baseu on RTT, the uelay at the
access point must be known. WLAN access points have no ueteiministic uelay. Bue to vaiiable
inteiiupt latencies outgoing oi incoming time stamps aie falsifieu. The iesulting uelays have a
typical vaiiation of S s which tianslates to 1Suu m eiioi in the uistance estimation. 0ne
possible solution is to measuie the time uelay uiiectly at the access point anu foiwaiu the value
of the uelay to the mobile station. In auuition, the clock uiift of an RTT obseivation must be
taken into account uuiing tiansmission of a sequence. If a WLAN clock has a fiequency stability
of Su ppm anu the RTT obseivation takes S2u s, an accuiacy of S m can be assumeu.
unthei anu Boene (2uu4) conuucteu expeiiments with WLAN RTT baseu on lowcost,
commeicial WLAN haiuwaie (with mouifications at the Neuia Access Contiol (NAC) layei but
without mouification at the physical layei). They useu the intiinsic featuie of WLAN that a ping
iesponse is immeuiately acknowleugeu by its ieceivei to ueteimine inuiiectly the aii
piopagation time. By using multiple uelay obseivations anu applying statistical methous (i.e.
stochastic iesonance) unthei anu Boene founu that the piopagation uelays coiielate closely
with the uistance, obtaining a ueviation of only a few meteis.
8WLAN/WiFi 64
Ciuiana et al. (2uu9) caiiieu out a puie softwaie baseu solution foi twoway ianging on the IEEE
8u2.11 stanuaiu piotocol anu offtheshelf WLAN haiuwaie. Fiom the Rounu Tiip Time RTT
i
foi
a uistance i anu the iefeience Rounu Tiip Time RTT
u
foi the uistance zeio, the signal tiavel time
t

=
RII

-RII
0
2
(8.6)
can be ueteimineu. The RTT is the uiffeience between timestamps obtaineu at the NAC layei.
Expeiiments conuucteu unuei LoS conuitions showeu a laige uispeision of RTT values. Aftei
aveiaging 1uuu measuiements (equivalent to a uuiation of 1 s), a ianging accuiacy of 1.7 m was
obtaineu foi a LoS inuooi uistance of 1S m. An attempt to ieuuce the uispeision of the RTT
obseivations has been maue by Ciuiana et al. (2u1u). In oiuei to become a piactical solution foi
inuooi positioning, moie hostile scenaiios must be auuiesseu anu the impact of simultaneously
injecteu uata tiaffic at the access point must be bettei unueistoou. Baseu on simulation, Tappeio
et al. (2u1u) pieuict that a campus wiue implementation of a WLAN RTT positioning system can
achieve an accuiacy of S m to S m.
8.5 SummaryonWLANSystems
Fingeipiinting baseu on RSSI values is the pievalent methou of using WLAN foi positioning.
Bepenuing on the uensity of calibiation points, fingeipiinting ieaches accuiacies of 2 m to Su m,
see Table 8.1. The fingeipiinting methou is paiticulaily of commeicial inteiest, because offthe
shelf uevices can be useu. Expeiiments on WLAN timeofaiiival uistance measuiements have
pioven to be of pooi quality uue to multipath anu low iesolution of the clocks. 0sing RSSI foi
uistance estimation in inuooi enviionments has also pioveu unieliable uue to an iiiegulai
uepenuency between attenuation anu uistance in inuooi enviionments.
Table 8.1 Localization approaches using WLAN and reported performance parameters
Name Year Reported
Accuracy
(m)
Area(m
2
)per
AccessPoint.
FornonRSS:Type
ofModification
Principle Prior
cali
bration
Numberof
Calibration
Points
Model/Method Market
Maturity
Parodi 2006 3.3 1235/14=88 onlinelearning minimal 114 DPM study
Xiang 2004 25 1400/5=280 fingerprint&map yes 100 offlinetraining study
Bahl 2000 5 978/3=326 fingerprinting yes 70 offlinetraining study
Gansemer 2010 2.1 972/24=40 fingerprinting yes 972 offlinetraining study
Koski 2010 57 5600/206=27 fingerprint&map yes 96 coveragearea study
Hansen 2010 2 ca.140/14=10 fingerprinting yes 17 dynamicmodel study
Chen 2005 24 400/5=80 fingerprint&RFID no online dynamicmodel study
King 2006 1.6 312/20=156 fingerprinting yes 166 offlinetraining study
Teuber 2006 23 400/5=80 fingerprinting yes 16 fuzzylogic study
Mazuelas 2009 4 3375/8=422 multilateration no onlyAP pathlossmodel study
Gallagher 2010 roomlevel unknown fingerprinting yes low signaldistance study
Ekahau 2009 7 ca.450/5=90 fingerprinting yes offlinetraining product
Skyhook 2011 3070 globalcoverage fingerprinting no,by Skyhook offlinetraining product
Golden 2007 15 hardwaremod. diversity no pathdecomposition study
Reddy 2007 15 hardwaremod. timeofarrival no LTScorrelation simulation
Wong 2008 2 hardwaremod. angleofarrival no simulation
Gnther 2004 515 softwaremod. roundtriptime no study
Ciurana 2009 1.7 softwaremod. roundtriptime no lineofsight study


8.5SummaryonWLANSystems 65


9 RadioFrequencyIdentification

An RFIB (Rauio Fiequency IBentification) system consists of a ieauei with an antenna which
inteiiogates neaiby active tiansceiveis oi passive tags. 0sing RFIB technology, uata can be
tiansmitteu fiom the RFIB tags to the ieauei (also known as RFIB scannei) via iauio waves.
Typically, the uata consist of the tags unique IB (i.e. its seiial numbei) which can be ielateu to
available position infoimation of the RFIB tag. The most fiequently employeu positioning
piinciple is that of pioximity, also known as Co0 (Cell of 0iigin), e.g. the system inuicates the
piesence of a peison weaiing an RFIB tag. Theieby, the accuiacy of an RFIB system is highly
uepenuing on the uensity of tag ueployment anu the maximal ieauing ianges. Alteinatively, the
Receiveu Signal Stiength Inuicatois (RSSI) can be useu foi coaise iange estimation in oiuei to
apply multilateiation techniques. Time of Aiiival (ToA) uistance estimation on RFIB has been
pioven uifficult to achieve. In oiuei to measuie the uistance between a ieauei anu a tag at a
iesolution of bettei than one metei, a banuwiuth of at least 1u kBz must be useu anu multiple
obseivations neeu to be aveiageu. The stanuaiu case of RFIB positioning baseu on ToA uistances
ielies on obseivations fiom a single tag, wheie the position ueteimination is caiiieu out in
combination with Angle of Aiiival (AoA) measuiements fiom that tag. Also Phase of Aiiival
(PoA) methous have been pioposeu foi RFIB, see Povala anu ebesta (2u1u). Fingeipiinting
(FP) baseu on piemeasuieu signal maps can also be applieu. Reaueis aie able to scan seveial
tags at high uata iates up to 1u Bz.
ueneially, RFIB systems can be unobtiusive to the usei by integiating the tags in the pavement,
unuei the caipet oi in the walls without uiiect line of sight, since the iauio waves have the
ability to penetiate soliu mateiials to some extent. The highei the fiequency, the moie the signal
suffeis fiom attenuation. The typical fiequency ianges aie categoiizeu as Low Fiequencies (LF)
at Su kBz to Suu kBz, Bigh Fiequencies (BF) at S NBz to Su NBz, 0ltiaBigh fiequencies (0BF)
at 4SS NBz & 868 NBz to 9Su NBz anu miciowaves (SBF) at 2.4 uBz to 2.S uBz & S.8 uBz.
Piouucts equippeu with RFIB tags can be tiackeu seamlessly fiom a supplieis factoiy to the
ietaileis stoie shelves. Bowevei, as RFIB moves to item anu uevice tagging, the piobability of
tags uisclosing peisonally iuentifiable infoimation has become a piimaiy piivacy concein foi
useis. 0n the othei hanu, the unique iuentification of RFIB can be useu foi secuiity to contiol
builuing access oi foi payment systems allowing customeis to pay foi items automatically. When
scaling an RFIB system to laige numbeis in multiple facilities with geogiaphical uistiibution, a
challenge foi uata management anu configuiation aiises.
9RadioFrequencyIdentification 66
9.1 ActiveRFID
An active RFIB system consists of ueployeu RFIB scanneis which inteiiogate active iauio
tiansceiveis equippeu with inteinal batteiy powei. In contiast to passive tags the neeu foi
batteiies makes active tiansceiveis heaviei anu moie costly, but enables long uetection ianges
of Su m oi moie. The active RFIB technology can be useu foi positioning, wheie the location
estimation is typically caiiieu out by fingeipiinting on RSSI.
Seco et al. (2u1u) have achieveu a meuian positioning accuiacy of 1.S m baseu on 71 active RFIB
tags coveiing SS iooms of 16uu m
2
. 0sing uaussian piocesses to uesciibe the spatial uepenuence
of RSSI signals piopagating inuoois they impioveu the accuiacy by Su% veisus least squaies
minimization. }imnez et al. (2u1u) useu the active RFIB tags to stabilize the IN0 uiift of a foot
mounteu peuestiian navigation system. Theii methou of tight IN0RFIB integiation limits the
absolute uiift ueviation to maximal 1 m to S m. At an emission fiequency of 1 Bz, it is expecteu
that the tags batteiies will last foi a peiiou of 6 months.
Peng et al. (2u11) integiateu an active RFIB system with INSuNSS in oiuei to establish a
seamless inuooioutuooi positioning system foi the puipose of vehicle anu peuestiian
navigation. Baseu on a Sigma Point Kalman Filtei multisensoi integiation algoiithm, metei
level accuiacy coulu be achieveu.
Kimalui (2u11) offeis a solution foi applications in hospitals baseu on static active ieaueis
opeiating in the miciowave banu. The tags aie woin as wiistbanus oi attacheu to keyiings foi
access contiol anu peisonal monitoiing.
9.2 PassiveRFID
Passive RFIB systems solely iely on inuuctive coupling anu theiefoie uont iequiie batteiies. The
piinciple of inuuctive coupling allows the tags to ieceive sufficient eneigy in the foim of RF
waves fiom the neaiby RFIB scannei to tiansmit theii coues back to the scannei. Passive tags
can be applieu foi waypoint navigation baseu on a iefeience giiu of IB maikeis whose locations
aie accessible fiom a uatabase. The auvantages of using passive RFIB tags foi positioning aie
theii small size, high level of iuggeuness, ielatively inexpensive installation anu low
maintenance neeus since they have no batteiies. Theiefoie, passive tags aie suitable foi
subsuiface embeuuing in builuing mateiial. As the main uiawback, the uetection iange is usually
limiteu to 2 m, which uemanus uense ueployment of tags. The attenuation foi embeuueu tags
incieases with the fiequency, e.g. the application foi conciete embeuueu tags is piohibitive foi
fiequencies above 2.4 uBz. Below 1uu NBz the attenuation of embeuueu tags is low anu
compaiable to that of fiee space, but fiequencies below Suu NBz aie unsuiteu foi ieau ianges
above 1 metei uue to inuuctive coupling as a phenomenon of neaifielu opeiation. The
penetiation of electiomagnetic waves in conciete uepenus on the use of integiateu metal fibeis,
the moistuie content of walls, floois anu ceilings anu the angle of inciuence of the iauio wave.
Pena et al. (2uuS) have shown that signal piopagation thiough ieinfoiceu conciete has a powei
loss of 9u% at Su cm penetiation uepth anu a fiequency of 9uu NBz.
Baly et al. (2u1u) have embeuueu passive RFIB tags in conciete anu optimizeu the antenna
uesign with iespect to a maximal ieauing iange foi passive tags. They weie able to uouble the
ieauability by achieving a ieauing iange of up to 1.2 m of conciete embeuueu tags. The
embeuuing of RFIB in the giounu is useu foi navigation baseu on smait paving stones.
9.3SummaryonRFIDSystems 67


Fuithei applications aie uiscoveiy anu iuentification of buiieu pipes. Bziauak et al. (2uuS)
suggest attaching passive RFIB tags to buiieu nonmetallic pipes in oiuei to facilitate theii
uetection.
Passive tags have shown to be applicable foi vehicle guiuance (Baum et al. 2uu7) as well as
inventoiy contiol (Fiick 2u11).
The navigation system ways4all, uevelopeu by Kieis et al (2u11) incluues aiiays of passive
RFIB tags which have been ueployeu unuei the caipet to pioviue ioute guiuance foi visually
impaiieu anu blinu people. Expeiiments show, that the cuiient maximal ieauing iange of Su cm
neeus to be extenueu to 6u cm in oiuei to obtain a sufficiently high tag uetection iate.
0chitomi et al. (2u1u) have enhanceu the puie pioximity positioning of an RFIB ieauei antenna
baseu on passive RFIB tags. They iotate the RFIB ieauei antenna in the hoiizontal plane anu
estimate its position fiom the inteisection of positions of two communication bounuaiy aieas,
see Figuie 9.1. 0sing this methou, a iobot aim of 1.2 m in length coulu be locateu with an
accuiacy of less than 2u cm.

Figure 9.1 Intersection of two RFID antenna communication boundaries based on different rotation angles
according to Uchitomi et al. (2010)

Anothei enhancement of passive RFIB positioning baseu on pioximity uetection has been
implementeu by Fujimoto et al. (2u11). By vaiying the tiansmission powei of the ieauei, they
cieate uiffeient sensing ianges to iefine the uistance estimation of a tag. In auuition, the ieauei
is moveu to uiffeient locations in oiuei to ueteimine its position with highei accuiacy. It takes
Su seconus to ueteimine a position.
Futuie Shape offeis the solution foi iobot navigation baseu on a Su cm giiu of passive RFIB tags
with the piouuct name NaviFlooi (2u11). 0ne application is that a cleaning iobot can iecoiu the
uate anu place of its opeiation anu even which cleansei was useu.
9.3 SummaryonRFIDSystems
Nost RFIB systems iely on pioximity uetection of peimanently mounteu tags to locate mobile
ieaueis. Theiefoie the accuiacy of an RFIB system is uiiectly ielateu to the uensity of tag
9RadioFrequencyIdentification 68
ueployment anu ieauing ianges. Some longiange active RFIB systems can also use signal
stiength infoimation to impiove the localization accuiacy. RFIB can be combineu with IN0 in
oiuei to coiiect the uiift which IN0s have. The main application of RFIB location systems is
ioute guiuance foi peuestiians. System paiameteis of RFIB appioaches incluueu in this stuuy
aie given in Table 9.1
Table 9.1 Localization systems using RFID and reported performance parameters
Name Year Active
Passive
Tag
Range
Tag
Frequency
Tag
Deployment
Accuracy Positioning
Principle
Application Market
Maturity
Seco 2010 active 30m 433MHz walls 1.5m RSSI,FP person/objectlocation development
Jimnez 2010 active 70m 433MHz walls 13m RSSI+IMU pedestriannavigation development
Peng 2011 active 100m 915MHz floor 13m RSSI+IMU pedestriannavigation study
Kimaldi 2011 active 13m 2.45GHz wrist,keyring room CoO hospital product
Kiers 2011 passive 1130cm 134kHz undercarpet dm CoO navigationofblind prototype
Daly 2011 passive 1.2m 868MHz concrete m CoO vehiclesandblind prototype
Dziadak 2005 passive 2m 130kHz soil,2mdepth m CoO buriedassetdetection study
Baum 2007 passive 710cm 13.5MHz foilcoverroad dm CoO guidedvehicle development
Utchitomi 2010 passive 2m 2.45GHz floor 20cm CoO+AoA pedestriannavigation simulation
Fujimoto 2011 passive 2m 2.45GHz floor 15cm CoO+range pedestriannavigation study
NaviFloor 2011 passive >50cm 13.5MHz floor 50cm CoO robotnavigation product


9.3SummaryonRFIDSystems 69


10 UltraWideband

0ltiaWiuebanu (0WB) is a iauio technology foi shoitiange, highbanuwiuth communication
holuing the piopeities of stiong multipath iesistance anu to some extent penetiability foi
builuing mateiial which can be favoiable foi inuooi uistance estimation, localization anu
tiacking. A typical 0WB setup featuies a stimulus iauio wave geneiatoi anu ieceiveis which
captuie the piopagateu anu scatteieu waves. In contiast to naiiowbanu opeiation, 0WB waves
occupy a laige fiequency banuwiuth (>Suu NBz). Noie piecisely, an emitteu iauio wave belongs
to 0WB if eithei the banuwiuth exceeus Suu NBz oi 2u % of the caiiiei fiequency. In oiuei to
avoiu inteifeience with othei iauio seivices, the Feueial Communications Commission (FCC) in
the 0SA has limiteu the unlicenseu use of 0WB to an equivalent isotiopically iauiateu powei
uensity of 41.S uBmNBz anu iestiicteu the fiequency banu to S.1 uBz 1u.6 uBz (iespectively
6.u uBz 8.S uBz in accoiuance to the Euiopean Communications Committee (ECC)). Figuie 1u.1
illustiates how 0WB coexists with othei Rauio Fiequency (RF) stanuaius.
Figure 10.1 Regulated UWB spectrum

Legal iestiictions in signal powei limit the opeiating iange to less than 1uu m. 0n the othei hanu
the low powei spectial uensity pievents haimfulness to the human bouy anu bounus the
inteifeience of 0WB signals with othei naiiowbanu ieceiveis. Licenseu 0WB technologies
opeiate in the wavelength of miciowaves, wheie the low fiequency components in the 0WB
10UltraWideband 70
signal spectium have the ability to penetiate builuing mateiials such as conciete, glass anu
woou (Koncui et al. 2uu9). This is a useful piopeity foi inuooi positioning, because it enables
ianging unuei NLoS conuitions anu makes inteiioom ianging possible. 0n the othei hanu,
paitial signal penetiation into the taiget object is unfavoiable foi piecise uistant measuiements,
because the ieflecteu signal incluues multiple ietuins besiues the outei bounuaiy ieflection.
Theiefoie iobust extiaction of useful infoimation fiom the ieceiveu signal is a majoi challenge
in 0WB ianging. Supeiposition of uiffeient scatteiing effects complicates uata inteipietation.
10.1 RangeEstimationUsingUWB
A majoi auvantage of using 0WB foi uistance measuiements is that laige banuwiuth tianslates
into a high iesolution in time anu consequently in iange. The achievable iange iesolution rr can
be appioximateu with
rr =
:
2 b
,
(1u.1)
wheie v is the speeu of the wave fiont anu b the banuwiuth. E.g. foi the FCC banu anu
piopagation in fiee space (assuming speeu of light with v = c
u
) it is rr u.S c
u
7.S uBz = 2 cm,
iespectively 6 cm foi the ECC banu at banuwiuth b = 2.S uBz).
0WB ianging techniques incluue Time of Aiiival (ToA), Two Way Ranging (TWR), Time
Biffeience of Aiiival (TBoA). All these techniques iely on time measuiements which can be
uiviueu into thiee uiffeient piinciples as uesciibeu below.
10.1.1 ContinuousWaves
Within the fiequency banu, uiffeient fiequencies aie sequentially useu by stepping oi sweeping
(i.e. fiequency mouulation in a mannei similai to a chiip, see Figuie 1S.2). The signal is analyzeu
in the fiequency uomain iesulting in low time iesolution which is unfavoiable foi uynamic ieal
time applications. Continuous waves allow foi piecise ianging, but cannot be useu foi small
uevices such as a smait phone because such technology iequiies laige antennas. If the fiequency
iange is veiy wiue, a laige physical size of the antenna is necessaiy to achieve sufficient antenna
efficiency.
10.1.2 ImpulseRadio
The 0WB Impulse Rauio (0WBIR) is simply stiuctuieu anu can be useu foi fast uistance
measuiements. The uuiation of the pulses is in the oiuei of nanoseconus oi even less. Compaieu
to continuous waves, ultiashoit pulses aie less likely to inteifeie with signals tiaveling othei
paths allowing foi bettei iesolution of the line of sight path anu theiefoie evoking iobustness
against multipath. Since the iauios have to be poweieu foi a shoit time only befoie anu uuiing
pulse geneiation, 0WBIR has a low powei consumption compaieu to othei 0WB techniques.
0WB pulsebaseu ianging systems aie employeu with ielatively low iepetition iates of 1 NBz to
1uu NBz (i.e. megapulses pei seconu), in contiast to 0WB communication systems which use
1 uBz to 1uu uBz (Robeit et al. 2u1u). Stoica (2uu6) piesents a uemonstiatoi foi 0WBIR
ianging baseu on noncoheient eneigycollection anu achieves 1.S m (S ns) uistance estimation.
Fischei et al. (2u1u) use impulses of Suu ps uuiation (equivalent to 9 cm wavelength) employing
a Two Way Ranging (TWR) technique baseu on the gateu oscillatoi piinciple. An accuiacy of
4 cm was iepoiteu unuei peifect LoS conuitions. Pietizyk anu von uei uin (2u1u) achieveu a
ianging accuiacy of 1 cm to 2 cm foi LoS uistances of up to S m between an 0WBIR tiansmittei
anu a noncoheient eneigy uetection ieceivei.
10.2PositioningMethodsUsingUWB 71


An actual implementation foi localizing a mobile iobot in inuustiial enviionments with NLoS
conuitions has been caiiieu out by Seguia et al. (2u1u). Foui synchionizeu anchoi noues aie
useu to ueteimine the 2B location of a iobot within 2u cm accuiacy by TBoA ianging anu
hypeibolic inteisection. The methou also woiks unuei NLoS conuitions at slightly pooiei
positional accuiacy.
10.1.3 PseudoNoiseModulation
Ranuom oi pseuuo noise can be applieu foi ToA ianging (Beiman et al. 2u1u, Zetik et al. 2u1u,
Kocui et al. 2uu9). 0sually this technique is baseu on Naximum Length Sequences (NLS, also
known as Nsequences) which aie pseuuoianuom binaiy sequences (of S8S ns uuiation foi
example). As a uisauvantage, laige piocessing capabilities aie iequiieu foi ueteimining the
coiielation at the ieceivei. Neveitheless, pseuuo noise techniques aie of inteiest foi the mobile
phone maiket, because miniatuiizeu antennas can be useu.
10.2 MultipathMitigationUsingUWB
The laige signal banuwiuth of 0WB allows foi high iesolution in time such that a laige numbei
of uelayeu multipath components appeai in the signal anu become iesolvable. The iich
multipath uiveisity can be useu to mitigate signal fauing. Accoiuing to Bausmaii et al. (2u1u) it
is an ongoing ieseaich challenge to extiact the multipath components fiom the infoimation
embeuueu in the Channel Impulse Response (CIR) of the 0WB signal. Nolisch (2uu9) has maue
an attempt to bettei unueistanu the 0WB fauing statistics anu CIR which consists of the sum of
uelayeu, attenuateu anu scaleu ieplicas of a tiansmitteu impulse.
Coheient ieceiveis aie paiticulaily well suiteu foi multipath mitigation. A coheient ieceivei
iecoveis the absolute phase, amplituue anu time of the ieceiveu multipath components, while a
noncoheient ieceivei uses only the envelope of the signal powei by autocoiielation of the
ieceiveu signal. Since noncoheient ieceiveis uo not use fiequency anu phase, less infoimation
is pioviueu foi the sepaiation of multipath ieflections. Theiefoie, theii ability to uetect
multipath is limiteu compaieu to coheient ieceiveis.
10.3 PositioningMethodsUsingUWB
10.3.1 PassiveUWBLocalization
Passive 0WB systems have the potential foi localization of people anu objects fiom signal
ieflection, using the piinciple of iauai (Chaptei 1S.S). The auvantage of passive 0WB is that
neithei an active noi a passive tag neeus to be woin by the usei noi attacheu to the localizeu
object. A typical passive localization setup incluues one oi moie omniuiiectional emittei
antennas anu multiple listenei antennas, as shown in Figuie 1u.2.
10UltraWideband 72

Figure 10.2 Passive localization setup

In oiuei to uetect a moving peison, timeinvaiiant uiiect waves anu stiong static signals
ieflecteu fiom fuinituie neeu to be subtiacteu. uiven that the locations of the emittei anu
ieceivei antennas aie known, estimateu ianges fiom the ieflecteu waves can be useu foi any
iangebaseu algoiithm such as ToA oi TBoA multilateiation to ueteimine the object position.
Following the socalleu backgiounu subtiaction appioach, it is possible to obseive extiemely
small movements such as caiuiac oi iespiiatoiy activity (e.g. Kosch et al. 2u11).
Baseu on expeiiments with a netwoik of ueployeu 0WB pseuuonoise sensois, Beiimann et al.
(2u1u) have shown the feasibility of 0WB foi application in Ambient Assistant Living (AAL). The
test netwoik consisteu of two tiansmitteis anu foui ieceiveis in one ioom. Fiom signal
ieflections fiom a moving peison, the piopagation uistance anu the ieflectivity of the ieceiveu
wave weie useu to ueteimine the location anu iuentify the activity of the peison. The authois
concluueu that scatteiing effects at the human bouy complicate uata inteipietation. Foi the
puipose of smait auuio systems, Zetik et al. (2u1u) uemonstiateu that passive 0WB localization
has the capability to uetect walking peisons by employing a setup of multiieceivei antennas.
10.3.2 UWBVirtualAnchors
0nuei the assumption that the SB geometiy of a ioom is known, multipath signal ieflections
fiom a single 0WB tiansmittei can be useu foi position estimation of a mobile ieceivei. Even if
only one tiansmittei has been physically ueployeu, signal ieflections fiom walls cause path
uelays which can be useu to ueiive pseuuouistances to socalleu viitual anchois anu peifoim
multilateiation to estimate the tiansmittei position. Figuie 1u.S illustiates the piinciple of
viitual anchois. Neissnei et al. (2u1u) piopose the viitual anchoi methou in combination with
the use of tiajectoiy infoimation. To ueteimine the unknown positions, a multimoual
optimization pioblem is solveu by a socalleu state space estimation technique.
MovingPerson
Emitter
Emitter
Reflected
Waves
ReceiverAntennas
Direct
Waves
10.3PositioningMethodsUsingUWB 73



Figure 10.3 Virtual anchor based multilateration

10.3.3 UWBDirectRanging
Biiect, nonieflecteu 0WB iange measuiements can also be useu foi positioning. As active tags
aie caiiieu by the mobile usei, such appioaches can be categoiizeu as active systems.
Implementations can be baseu on ToA, TBoA oi RTT (Rounu Tiip Time) uistance measuiements
fiom 0WB Impulse Rauios (0WBIR, see 1u.1.2.). Positions aie ueteimineu baseu on LoS
uistances by lateiation techniques.
10.3.4 UWBFingerprinting
The laige fiequency spectium of a Channel Impulse Response (CIR) fiom an 0WB tiansmittei
contains a laige amount of infoimation oiiginating fiom multiple multipath components.
Theiefoie, a unique fingeipiint can be assigneu to each location anu stoieu in a uatabase uuiing
an offline tiaining phase. In an online phase, the cuiient CIR is compaieu to the uatabase anu the
fingeipiint which is iesponsible foi the optimal cioss coiielation coefficient is ietuineu as the
cuiient position. 0WB fingeipiinting has the potential to achieve bettei accuiacies than
fingeipiinting baseu on WLAN anu is also applicable in NLoS scenaiios. The auvantage of
fingeipiinting using Receiveu Signal Stiength Inuicatois (RSSI) is that the methou uoes not
iequiie time synchionization. As a uiawback, the RSSI methou uoes not make use of the full
potential of high iesolution available with 0WB.
Kioll anu Steinei (2u1u) implementeu 0WB fingeipiinting with a giiu spacing of 1 cm. Theii
uemonstiatoi system consisteu of one tiansmittei, one ieceivei anu 6 fingeipiinting iegions,
each 28 cm x 28 cm in size. The ieseaich team was able to coiiectly iuentify each neighboi
iegion anu achieveu an aveiage position accuiacy of 4 cm.
Wang et al. (2u1u) caiiieu out fingeipiinting baseu on RSSI to localize a static 0WB ieceivei.
Baseu on a uemonstiatoi system setup, a positional accuiacy of u.SS m was iepoiteu aftei 2u
fingeipiints hau been taken fiom foui fixeu 0WB tiansmitteis on an aiea of 1.2 m 1.6 m.
Trans
mitter
Receiver
Antenna
Virtual
Anchor
Virtual
Anchor
Virtual
Anchor
Room
10UltraWideband 74
10.4 CommercialUWBSystems
A commeicially available 0WBIR positioning solution is that of 0bisense (2u11). The system
opeiates in the 6.S uBz to 8 uBz banu anu localizes small sizeu active tags equippeu with long
life batteiies. A system setup iequiies ueployment of multiple fixeu ieceiveis which incluue
antenna aiiays foi the estimation of the angle of inciuence. Position ueteimination is caiiieu out
by a combination of TBoA anu AoA with a specifieu SB accuiacy of 1S cm foi inuooi
enviionments anu an opeiating iange of aiounu Su m.
The 0WBIR system of Zebia Enteipiise Solutions (2u11) utilizes TBoA to locate tags up to a
uistance of 1uu m anu has a specifieu accuiacy of bettei than Su cm unuei line of site conuitions.
The system is paiticulaily well suiteu foi enviionments with seveie multipath.
10.5 SummaryonUltraWidebandSystems
Since achievable accuiacy of ToA measuiements is uiiectly coiielateu to the signal banuwiuth,
0ltiaWiuebanu is well suiteu foi piecise ianging. At banuwiuths of seveial hunuieu NBz anu
appiopiiate time iesolution in the oiuei of nanoseconus, ianging anu positioning at cmlevel aie
possible. 0WB is especially useful foi inuooi enviionments wheie multipath is seveie, because
the wiue banuwiuth facilitates the uetection of multiple timeuelayeu veisions of a signal
sequence. The ieason why 0WB has not enteieu the mass maiket (apait fiom a few inuustiial
implementations) is the iequiiement foi a ueuicateu tiansmitteiieceivei infiastiuctuie. An
oveiview of 0WB implementations incluueu in this stuuy is given in Table 1u.1.
Table 10.1. Localization systems using UWB and performance parameters as reported.
Name Year active/
passive
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
r
s

R
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
s

NoiseRadar
orIR(Pulse
Duration)
Principle Application Accuracy Market
Maturity
Robert 2010 active 1 4 IR(1.5ns) ToA indoorapplication notreported demo.
Stoica 2006 active 1 1 IR(750ps) ToA sensornetworks 1.5m demo.
Fischer 2010 active 1 1 IR(300ps) ToA,RTT industrialapplication 4cm demo.
Pietrzyk 2010 active 1 1 IR(65ps) ToA preciseranging 1cm2cm demo.
Segura 2010 active 4 1 IR(2ns) TDoA mobilerobot 20cm prototype
Herrmann 2010 passive 2 4 noiseMseq. bodyreflection AAL,monitoring persondetection demo.
Zetik 2010 passive 1 4 noiseMseq. bodyreflect.,ToF smartaudiosystem persondetection demo.
Kocur 2009 passive 1 2 noiseMseq. reflect,ToA throughwallpos. persondetection demo.
Meissner 2010 passive 1 1 IR virtualanchors tracking 0.5m simulation
Krll 2010 both 1 1 pseudonoise fingerprinting office 4cm demo.
Wang 2010 active 4 1 RSSIfingerprint 0.3m demo.
UBISENSE 2011 active >99 >2 IR(veryshort) TDoA,AoA automation <15cm product
Zebra 2011 active >99 >2 IR(short) TDoA logistics <30cm product


11.1SignalAttenuation 75


11 HighSensitiveGNSS/AssistedGNSS

Employing ulobal Navigation Satellite Systems (uNSS) foi positioning has the potential to fulfill
the vision of ubiquitous positioning. uNSS aie the only technique which satisfies the two
conuitions: a) inuepenuent opeiation fiom local infiastiuctuie anu b) woiluwiue coveiage.
Bowevei, inuooi spaces aie haiuly coveieu by uNSS because ieceiveis aie challengeu with the
task of tiacking satellites in an enviionment wheie signal fauing is seveie. The uifficulty of
ieceiving satellite signals inuoois has tiiggeieu piomising uevelopments involving the builuing
of highly sensitive anu assisteu uNSS (ulobal Navigation Satellite Systems) ieceiveis with
many issues iemaining unsolveu.
11.1 SignalAttenuation
The powei of the CA coue of the L1 fiequency at the uPS satellite is about Suu Watts (27 uBW)
if the antenna gain is taken into account. The fiee space path loss as a function of the satelliteto
ieceivei uistance of 21uuu km is about 18S uBW (18 oiueis of magnituue). Theiefoie, a signal
powei of 27 uBW 18S uBW = 1S8 uBW = 128 uBm can be expecteu at the Eaith suiface. The
ielevant quantity foi signal acquisition is the ieceivei specific signaltonoiseiatio (SNR) which
uepenus not only on the ieceiveu signal powei but also on the type of ieceivei amplifiei.
Apait fiom fiee space path loss, builuing mateiial causes auuitional attenuation of the satellite
iauio signal in inuooi enviionments, wheie the attenuation factoi uepenus piimaiily on
electiical piopeities of the mateiial such as the uielectiic coefficient. Penetiation of uNSS signals
thiough feiioconciete walls causes attenuation of 2u uB to Su uB (a factoi of 1uu to 1uuu)
compaieu to the signal amplituues outuoois. Loss factois foi vaiious mateiials aie listeu in
Table 11.1. While attenuation in woouen iesiuential homes is moueiate with S uB to 1S uB,
typical biick oi conciete builuings cause a loss of 2u uB to Su uB. In unueigiounu cai paiks anu
tunnels the alieauy weak satellite signals become neaily unuetectable foi uNSS ieceiveis at loss
factois of >Su uB, see Table 11.2.
uieatei tiansmittei powei woulu impiove the signal stiength anu lighten the impact on
attenuation but can haiuly put into piactice with satellites which solely iely on solai panels foi
theii powei.

11HighSensitiveGNSS/AssistedGNSS 76
Table 11.1 Attenuation of various building materials for the LBand (L1 = 1500 MHz), Stone (1997)
Material (dBW) AttenuationFactor()fora
TypicalThickness
drywall 1 0,8
plywood 1 3 0,8 0,5
glass 1 4 0,8 0,4
paintedglass 10 0,1
wood 2 9 0,6 0,1
ironmat 2 11 0,6 0,08
roofingtiles/bricks 5 31 0,3 0,001
concrete 12 43 0,06 0,00005
ferroconcrete 29 33 0,001 0,0005


Table 11.2 Signal strengths in decibel watt (decibels relative to one watt)
Environment SignalStrength
(dBW)
Differenceto
Outdoors(dB)
Comment
satellite +27 +185 referencesignalstrengthdeliveredfromsatellite
outdoors 158 0 nominalcarrierpowerreceived atreceiver(Joseph2010)
indoorsI 176 18 indoorenvironmentsnearwindows,urbancanyons
indoorsII 185 27 insideofficebuildings,multilevel carparks
underground 191 33 decodelimitforaided,ultrahighsensitivereceivers


Apait fiom attenuation of the uNSS signal, the topic of inuooi signal ieception is moie complex
anu high sensitivity is only one milestone. Phenomena such as ieflections, uiffiaction oi
scatteiing occui when iauio signals entei a builuing. In paiticulai, multipath ieception inuuces
inuiviuual time shifteu measuiements which uegiaue the quality of the ieceiveu uNSS signal anu
leau to less ieliable positioning. Inuooi fauing causeu by builuing mateiial is less well
unueistoou compaieu to the fauing taking place in the tiopospheie anu ionospheie which can
be uesciibeu by existing mouels. See Bein et al. (2uu8) foi moie uetails.
11.2 AssistedGNSS
Assisteu uNSS (AuNSS, AuPS) is a thoioughly stanuaiuizeu positioning methou in outuooi
enviionments. Applications of AuNSS incluue localization of mobile phones oi uevices with
inteinet access. AuNSS ieceiveis employ an auuitional uata link to pioviue infoimation of
satellite ephemeiis, almanac, uiffeiential coiiections anu timing infoimation which is noimally
obtaineu fiom the uNSS satellites uiiectly.
A colu stait (i.e. initial time, position anu almanac being inaccuiate) of an unassisteu uNSS
ieceivei iequiies seaich thiough a 2B space of about Su fiequency bins anu 1uuu coueuelay
chips (i.e. Su 1u2S). The seaich thiough Su fiequency bins is necessaiy because the ielative
motion between ieceivei anu satellites causes a shift in fiequency (i.e. Boppleishift). Since the
Bopplei shift is unknown in case of a colu stait, the ieceivei must seaich acioss a wiue
fiequency iange, typically Su Bopplei bins. Since it takes about 1 s to seaich all coueuelays of
one fiequency, the coiielation peaks foi all fiequencies can be founu within Su s. It takes
anothei Su s until the timeofweek anu ephemeiis uata is uecoueu, such that the total Time To
Fiist Fix (TTFF) is appioximately 6u s. In a weak signal enviionment, the fiist fix takes longei oi
11.3LongIntegrationandParallelCorrelation 77


is even not possible at all, because any lost uata bit iequiies the ieceivei to obtain anothei uata
message of Su s. In case of AuNSS, auuitional uata helps to ieuuce the TTFF significantly in two
ways. Fiist, it is possible to save the timespan of Su s which an unassisteu ieceivei spenus on
uownloauing the ephemeiis uata fiom the satellites. Seconuly, the seaich foi the coiielation
peak is facilitateu, because an AuNSS enableu ieceivei has piioi infoimation of each satellite's
position anu velocity fiom an AuNSS seivei which can be useu to effectively ieuuce the numbei
of fiequencies to be seaicheu. By pioviuing time, fiequency anu ephemeiis uata via the
auuitional uata link, a fix position is obtaineu much fastei unuei the assumption that at least
some weak signals to foui satellites can be ieceiveu. An AuNSS ieceivei has theiefoie an
incieaseu sensitivity, facilitating the use of signal stiengths below the noimal thiesholu to caiiy
out pseuuoiange measuiements. Theiefoie AuNSS is an enablei foi position estimation with
uNSS in vaiious inuooi enviionments. Betails on technical aspects of AuNSS can be founu in
Biggelen (2uu9).
11.3 LongIntegrationandParallelCorrelation
Apait fiom AuNSS, Bigh Sensitive uNSS (BSuNSS) ieceiveis make use of two fuithei techniques
which facilitate ieception of weak satellite signals inuoois. The fiist technique impioves low
signal to noise iatio by integiation ovei multiple inteivals, while at the same time accepting
longei acquisition times. Conventional uNSS ieceiveis integiate ieceiveu signals foi 1 ms, which
is the uuiation of a CA coue cycle. The integiation time can be incieaseu up to 2u ms oi even
longei by pieuicting bit tiansition in the navigation message. Bowevei, this methou can leau to
unacceptably long seaiching uuiations. The seconu technique ielies on massive paiallel
coiielatois to ieuuce the computing time foi coiielation by a factoi of Suu oi moie anu lessen
the iequiieu ieceivei powei (Eissfellei et al. 2uuS). AuNSS in combination with massive paiallel
coiielation (e.g. 1u
S
coiielatois) can still not satisfy most applications in ueep inuooi scenaiios.
Within the next 1u yeais, a new level of inuooi peifoimance with uNSS might be ieacheu with
an impioveu uPS signal stiuctuie, uL0NASS anu auuitional use of Beiuou anu ualileo signals.
Cuiiently, with the use of 44uuu coiielatois anu SBAS (Satellite Baseu Augmentation System)
1u m accuiacies can be achieveu in inuooi enviionments, e.g. 0pus III (eRiue 2u11). Skyhook
(2u11) iepoits an accuiacy of 1u m with an availability of 99.8 % anu a TimeToFiistFix of 4 s
foi its hybiiu XPS system which combines WLAN, cell towei anu AuNSS positioning. Lachapelle
(2uu4) achieveu an accuiacy of S8 m ovei integiation inteivals of 1u s to 2u s in a commeicial
builuing anu a hoiizontal positioning accuiacy in the oiuei of 1u m in a iesiuential home.
Wiesei (2uu6) assesseu peifoimances of a lowcost high sensitive ublox antenna in paitially
obstiucteu scenaiios. A high sensitive ieceivei was able to obseive a significantly highei numbei
of pseuuo ianges to the satellites compaieu to a stanuaiu ieceivei, but the pseuuoiange
accuiacy was 1 to 2 magnituues lowei compaieu to unobstiucteu enviionments (7u m insteau of
4 m). Wiesei showeu that, taking into account a piopei vaiiance mouel anu quality contiol, the
positioning accuiacy in haish enviionments with the majoiity of obseivations obtaineu fiom
obstiucteu satellites coulu be impioveu significantly (uown to S m to 2u m).
Zhang et al. (2u11) have assesseu foui static AuNSS enableu BSuNSS ieceiveis in vaiious inuooi
enviionments anu obtaineu accuiacies of 2u m to 6u m, see Table 11.S. Theii oveiall conclusion
is that theie is no cleai winnei on the BSuNSS ieceivei maiket touay.
11HighSensitiveGNSS/AssistedGNSS 78
To impiove the unueistanuing of uNSS inuooi ieception, Kjigaaiu et al. (2u1u) compaieu
peifoimances of BSuNSS ieceiveis, incluuing those embeuueu in mobile phones. The iesult of an
extensive measuiement campaign was that position accuiacy of S m can be achieveu insiue
woouen houses, 1u m in most conciete builuings anu aiounu 2u m in shopping malls. The
significant factois uegiauing uNSS peifoimance aie the numbei of oveilaying floois anu the
builuing mateiial. uNSS ieceiveis embeuueu in mobile phones geneially pioviueu slightly lowei
peifoimances.
Eissfellei et al. (2uuS) show that acquisition of uNSS signals in enviionments facing seveie sig
nal attenuation of 2S uBW oi moie (e.g. basements, conciete builuings) iequiies Assisteu uNSS.
Accoiuing to Eissfellei et al., cuiiently achieveu accuiacies in office builuings of 2u m uont allow
ioom iuentification, but this coulu be iealizeu with uiffeiential coiiections using BuNSS.
Soloviev anu Bickman (2u1u) extiacteu uNSS caiiiei phase measuiements Su uBW below open
sky conuitions (ueep inuoois), achieving cmlevel accuiacies. The appioach uses signal integia
tion times of 1 s anu auvanceu piocessing techniques to tiack the caiiiei phase. A pieconuition
foi coheient integiation of 1 s is the geneiation of a long anu piecise signal ieplica which
iequiies shoitteim clock stability of 1u
1u
ss anu iepiouuction of usei motion, i.e. the ineitial
uiift must not exceeu 1 cms which can be achieveu by employment of a commeicialgiaue IN0.
11.4 SummaryonHighSensitiveGNSS
Peifoimance of inuooi uNSS using high sensitivity technologies has been shown to be seveiely
uegiaueu, as compaieu to the level of peifoimance achievable in outuooi enviionments. uNSS
can be useu insiue builuings maue of woou oi biicks at accuiacies in the oiuei of 1u m when ac
cepting acquisition times aiounu 2u s. Bowevei, BSuNSS is not yet ieauy to be useu foi
peuestiian navigation in most public builuings anu theiefoie the maiket of emeiging location
baseu seivices cannot be seiveu with satisfaction baseu on BSuNSS alone. Bowevei, BSuNSS can
be a useful component of an IN0 multisensoi fuseu inuooi navigation system to pioviue spaise
position upuates. Table 11.1 gives an oveiview of vaiious BSuNSS solutions anu expeiimental
stuuies.
Table 11.3 Performance of AGNSS enabled high sensitive receivers during static tests
Name Year Indoor
Environment
Strategy Receiver Horizontal
Accuracy(m)
Vertical
Accuracy(m)
TTFF
(s)
eRide 2011 typical191dBW massiveparallel OPUSIII 10.0 20.0
Skyhook 2011 difficultenviron. plusWLAN SiRF 10.0 4.0
Lachapelle 2004 garage massiveparallel SiRFStarII 10.0 hotstart
Lachapelle 2004 officebuilding massiveparallel SiRFStarII 58.0 1020
Wieser 2006 harshenvironm. variancemodel ubloxTIMLH 7.7 8.4 10.0
Zhang 2011 lectureroom AGNSS NavmanJupiter32 18.4 26.4 24.8
Zhang 2011 lectureroom AGNSS SiRFGSCI5000 53.4 61.2 11.8
Zhang 2011 lectureroom AGNSS ubloxLEA4P 27.8 42.5 30.8
Zhang 2011 lectureroom AGNSS ubloxEVK5H 21.9 32.5 20.6
Kjrgaard 2010 wood&brick AGNSS ubloxLEA5H 4.0 6.0 40.0
Kjrgaard 2010 shoppingmall AGNSS ubloxLEA5H 15.0 18.0 >1min
Kjrgaard 2010 shoppingmall AGNSS Nokia,GPS5300 15.0 18.0 90.0
Eissfeller 2005 wooddome massiveparallel SiRFStarII 16.1 22.7 hotstart
Eissfeller 2005 wooddome massiveparallel SiRFStarIII 15.3 20.8 hotstart
Soloviev 2010 upto188dBW carrierphase L1onlyGPS cm

11.4SummaryonHighSensitiveGNSS 79


12 Pseudolites
The teim pseuuolite is an accepteu shoit foim foi pseuuosatellites, which aie lanubaseu
beacons that geneiate pseuuonoise coues similai to those tiansmitteu by uNSS. A pseuuolite
system also incluues mobile ieceivei units (ioveis) whose positions aie estimateu fiom uistance
measuiements to the pseuuolite beacons which aie usually ueployeu at known positions. The
main puipose of pseuuolites is to suppoit uNSS with auuitional ianges in situations wheie
satellite signals aie blockeu, jammeu oi simply not available, e.g. in inuooi enviionments.
0iiginally, pseuuolites incluueu only systems that tiansmit at uPS fiequencies L1 (1S7S.42 NBz)
anuoi L2 (1227.6 NBz) to enhance the satellite geometiy foi the usage of customaiy uPS
ieceiveis. Although utilization of the civilian signal stiuctuie of uPS is auvantageous because
existing ieceivei haiuwaie can be useu, legal bioaucasting of uNSS signals is veiy limiteu.
Theiefoie ieseaich anu uevelopment has moveu away fiom pieseiving backwaiu compatibility
with existing uNSS. Foi the upcoming ualileo system howevei, the uATE (2u11) testbeu
consisting of 8 teiiestiial tiansmitteis fulfills that stiict sense of a pseuuolite system by
bioaucasting fully compliant ualileo signals but it will opeiate only until ualileo has ieacheu
full opeiational capability in 2u14. This chaptei iefeis to a bioauei uefinition of pseuuolites
which incluues all systems that have similaiities to uNSS.
The coveiage aiea of a pseuuolite system can span up to tens of kilometeis, with its limitation
mainly uiiven by the availability of line of sight between pseuuolites anu ioveis. Although local
iegulations set uppei limits to the signal powei, the ieceiveu powei fiom pseuuolites is oiueis
of magnituue stiongei compaieu to the ieceiveu signal stiength of satellites. A combineu
pseuuolite ieceivei can acquiie anu tiack uNSS anu pseuuolite signals. This functionality
pioviues an extenueu positioning solution foi seamless tiansition between inuooi anu outuooi
enviionments.
Seveial eiioi souices aie intiinsic foi pseuuolite baseu inuooi positioning:
Nultipath is a big concein when using signal stiuctuies similai to uNSS inuoois. This
pioblem contiibutes to the uegiauation of system peifoimance. Nultipath is mitigateu
by caiiying out caiiiei phase measuiements which aie less sensitive to multipath, i.e. a
typical multipath eiioi of the caiiiei phase is in the oiuei of centimeteis, compaieu to
ueviations in the oiuei of 1u m foi multipath coue measuiements (Kee et al. 2uuS).
The neaifai pioblem aiises fiom signal inteifeience of pseuuolites with laige
uiffeiences in the uistance to a ieceivei, causing such laige uispaiities in ieceiveu signal
powei that the weakei signal cannot be encoueu. The pioblem is usually solveu by
pulsing the tiansmission of each pseuuolite sepaiately in time.
12Pseudolites 80
Time synchionization iemains a costly anu complex task foi pseuuolite iange
measuiements. This is paiticulaily the case in ueep inuooi enviionments wheie access
to atomic clocks of the uNSS satellites is not available.
A solution foi caiiiei phase ambiguities is not founu stiaightfoiwaiuly foi pseuuolite
systems ielying on phase measuiements. Nethous foi finuing an ambiguity solution aie
tiiple uiffeiencing oi keeping the ieceivei in motion while collecting caiiiei phase uata
in the initialization phase. Note that pseuuolites in contiast to satellites uont move
anu theiefoie uo not pioviue auuitional geometiic constiaints while the ieceivei is
static.
12.1 PseudolitesUsingSignalsDifferenttoGNSS
This gioup of pseuuolite systems uses a ueuicateu signal infiastiuctuie which is similai but not
iuentical to that of uNSS. An auvantage is that licensefiee fiequency banus can be useu with
bettei piospects of commeicialization. Such systems have an aichitectuie that usually incluues
uistance estimation by pseuuo ianges anu caiiiei phase measuiements.
The Locata (2u11) technology consists of a netwoik of teiiestiiallybaseu anu time
synchionizeu pseuuolite tiansmitteis which bioaucast uNSSlike signals foi kinematic
applications at cmlevel accuiacy using caiiieiphase measuiements. Two fiequencies within
the 2.4 uBz ISN banu aie useu foi bioaucasting. The Locata tiansmitteis can be synchionizeu to
an accuiacy of S ns. Beployeu Locata tiansmitteis can augment uNSS positioning in situations
wheie the ieception of uNSS signals is seveiely uegiaueu. Intenueu applications aie ueep pit
mines, wheie high walls block a significant numbei of uNSS satellites. 0peiating ianges of up to
Su km have been iepoiteu. Rizos et al. (2u1u) have conuucteu inuooi expeiiments in a hall with
an aiea of Su m by 1S m. Aftei installing a netwoik of S Locata tiansmitteis, a stanuaiu ueviation
foi static measuiements of 2 cm was achieveu. Baines et al. (2uuS) uemonstiate the suitability
of the Locata technology foi machine tiacking anu guiuance in factoiies oi waiehouses wheie
uNSS satellite coveiage is limiteu. Baines et al. (2uu7) concluue that movements of less than
1 cm can be uetecteu. Since the signals can be tiansmitteu with significantly laigei amplituues
compaieu to uNSS, Locata signals can penetiate walls, but with a uegiaueu level of peifoimance.
Tiimble (2u11) offeis a socalleu Teiialite XPS system consisting of giounubaseu tiansmit
stations which aie useu in combination with uPSuL0NASS to extenu coveiage foi a positioning
seivice in open pit mines. veiy little infoimation about the system specification has been maue
public.
Kee et al. (2uu1 anu 2uuS) uesciibe a system of asynchionous pseuuolites which have been
shown to pioviue accuiacy of 1 mm to 2 mm in static expeiiments, iespectively S mm to 1S mm
in uynamic inuooi enviionments. These iesults weie achieveu using customaiy uPS ieceiveis
with minoi softwaie mouifications that alloweu obseiving uiffeiential caiiiei phase
measuiements to foui pseuuolites.
12.2 GNSSRepeaters
uNSS iepeateis use in contiast to pseuuolites the oiiginal, unmouifieu (but amplifieu) uNSS
signal foi positioning. The puipose of using iepeateis is to enable customaiy uNSS ieceiveis to
tiack satellites in a blockeu signal enviionment. The uNSS iepeatei appioach incluues a uNSS
antenna locateu outuoois at a location with uiiect view to the satellites. A piefeiieu location is
12.2GNSSRepeaters 81


the ioof of a builuing. The ieceiveu uNSS signal is tiansfeiieu fiom the antenna into the builuing
via cable anu iepeateu wiielessly insiue the builuing by multiple tiansmitteis which consist of a
signal amplifiei anu an inteinal iebioaucast antenna. If only a single tiansmittei is useu foi ie
tiansmission, a mobile ieceivei in the coveiage aiea will always ueteimine its own location to be
that of the static outuooi antenna. The extia path uelay fiom the iepeatei cable is common to all
satellites anu thus inuistinguishable fiom the ieceivei offset. To enable positioning inuoois with
highei iesolution, multiple tiansmitteis can be ueployeu. Baseu on a sequential bioaucasting
scheme the inuiviuual tiansmitteis can be iuentifieu fiom fixeu time slots within a tiansmission
cycle. The auvantage of such an appioach is that the synchionization of the tiansmitteis is
automatically pioviueu by uNSS time. At the iovei, the position is ueteimineu by multilateiation
fiom uelta uistances (uistance uiffeiences oi pseuuo uistances) between the iovei anu the
tiansmitteis. These pseuuo uistances aie obtaineu fiom an offset in the caiiiei phase of the
ieceiveu signal at the iovei.
The implementation of a iepeatei system iequiies compliance with the iegulations foi its legal
opeiation. The ECC Repoit14S (2u1u) uetails the iegulatoiy fiamewoik foi uNSS iepeateis. In
oiuei to pievent signal inteifeience which can impact the noimal use of uNSS in the vicinity, the
iegulations limit the total gain of +4S uB foi uNSS iepeateis, which is equivalent to a uNSS
piotection uistance of aiounu 1u m foi a typical uNSS signal stiength of 16u uBW. Bowevei,
most countiies cuiiently uo not allow using uNSS iepeatei equipment at all.
Flueiasu et al. (2u11) piesent a pioofofconcept of a iepeatei system with multiple inuooi
tiansmitteis. The stateu accuiacy of theii implementation is 2 m to S m. In oiuei to ieuuce the
inteifeience pioblem foi uninvolveu uNSS ieceiveis locateu in the vicinity, the PRN coues SS to
S6 weie useu, which aie ieseiveu to suppoit pseuuolites.
veivischPicois anu Samama (2uu9) piopose a concept of socalleu iepealites (shoit foi
iepeateipseuuolites), which iepiesent a compiomise between uNSS iepeateis anu pseuuolites.
The same satellite signal is ietiansmitteu continuously onto all antennas of an inuooi setting,
but a uistinct uelay is applieu to each antenna in oiuei to avoiu inteifeience. Fiom foui uelayeu
tiacking channels, the ieceivei is able to ueteimine its own position fiom foui pseuuoianges
with an accuiacy of 4u cm. If caiiiei phase measuiements aie useu anu the phase ambiguities
can be solveu, the authois pieuict that an accuiacy of 1u cm to 1S cm is feasible.


Figure 12.1 System overview of Alawieh et al. (2010)
12Pseudolites 82
The expeiimental system of Niwa et al. (2uu8) incluues iepeateis fiom a iooftop antenna anu
pseuuolites tiansmitting uPS L1 coues with the PRN numbeis SS to S6 which aie not useu foi
satellites. Caiiiei phase measuiements to locate a iobot pioveu to be unieliable uue to cycle
slips which occui when the iobot is neai a wall.
Alawieh (2u1u) piesents a methou foi moueling the clock uiift of a pseuuolite system which is
cuiiently unuei uevelopment at the Fiaunhofei Institute IIS. The system aichitectuie incluues a
special uiffeiential technique which employs auuitional iefeience ieceivei stations which
estimate the clock bias of the pseuuolites anu foiwaiu the value as a time coiiection to a iovei,
see Figuie 12.1.
12.3 SummaryonPseudoliteSystems
Seveial uifficulties have limiteu pseuuolite systems to few applications in uNSSchallengeu
enviionments such as open pit mines. These uifficulties aiise piimaiily fiom the neeu foi
multipath mitigation, time synchionization anu ambiguity solving. The tempting appioach to
bioaucast the uPS L1 signal oi to use uNSS iepeateis is impeueu by iegulatoiy iestiictions.
Theiefoie, pseuuolites of commeicial systems always bioaucast theii own signal stiuctuie.
While an aiea of seveial kilometeis can be coveieu outuoois, the inuooi application is limiteu to
a single ioom oi pait of a builuing. An oveiview of pseuuolite systems incluueu in this stuuy is
given in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Localization systems using pseudolite technologies and reported performance parameters.
Name Year Principle Reported
Accuracy
(m)
Coverage
Area(m
2
)
Frequency Application Market
Maturity
Rizos(Locata) 2010 carrierphaseranges 2cm 50km 2.4GHz pitmines,alsoindoors product
Trimble 2011 notdisclosed cmdm km notdisclosed pitmines product
Kee 2001 carrierphaseranges 12cm 9m
2
1.0GHz factories,indoornav. study
Fluerasu 2011 GNSSrepeaters 23m building 1.6GHz,L1 emergency,firefighters simulation
VervischPicois 2009 repealities <1m 400m
2
1.6GHz,L1 commercialindooruse study
Niwa 2008 carrierphaseranges cmm 100m
2
1.6GHz,L1 robotsforeverydaylife study
Alawieh 2010 carrierphaseranges 4cm 100100m
2
notdisclosed enhancednavigation study


13.1ZigBee 83


13 OtherRadioFrequencyTechnologies

A majoi class of inuooi positioning systems utilizes piopagation of RauioFiequency (RF) signals
emitteu by eithei ueuicateu beacon stiuctuies, notably 0ltia Wiue Banu Rauios (Chaptei 1u)
anu RFIB tags (Chaptei 9) oi alteinatively via common wiieless communication stanuaius via
an existing netwoik of ueployeu noues such as WLAN (Chaptei 8). This chaptei uiscusses
communication piotocols such as ZigBee (Section 1S.1) anu Bluetooth (Section 1S.2) which have
like WLAN been uesigneu foi shoitiange wiieless tiansfei. The existing infiastiuctuie of
shoit iange BECT phones (Section 1S.S) as well as wiueaiea uigital television (Section 1S.4) anu
Cellulai Netwoiks (Section 1S.S) can also be useu foi inuooi positioning. Systems baseu on RF
signal ieflection aie uiscusseu in Section 1S.6 (Rauai). Chaptei 1S concluues with a uiscussion
on positioning using longiange FN Rauios (Section 1S.7).
13.1 ZigBee

ZigBee is a wiieless technology stanuaiu which can be iegaiueu as a low iate Wiieless Peisonal
Aiea Netwoik (WPAN). It is paiticulaily uesigneu foi applications which uemanu lowpowei
consumption, but uont iequiie laige uata thioughput. The signal iange coveiage of a ZigBee
noue is up to 1uu m in fiee space, but in inuooi enviionments typically 2u m to Su m. Bistance
estimation between two ZigBee noues is usually caiiieu out fiom RSSI values. Since ZigBee
opeiates in the unlicenseu ISN banus, it is vulneiable to inteifeience fiom a wiue iange of signal
types using the same fiequency which can uisiupt iauio communication.
Laiiaaga et al. (2u1u) ueployeu a ZigBee netwoik consisting of 8 iefeience noues in an office
space aiea of 4S2 m
2
. RSSI values weie useu foi locating a mobile ZigBee noue. Insteau of
geneiating a map of fingeipiints, the uistances between the known positions of the iefeience
noues weie useu to obtain infoimation about the ieal piopagation chaiacteiistics of the
scenaiio. An aveiage localization accuiacy of S m was achieveu. In a similai stuuy caiiieu out by
Tauakamaula (2uu6) it was concluueu that the main eiioi contiibution is causeu by the
ianuomness of RSSI anu the uepenuency on the useis oiientation anu the useis bouy. Ny
Bouyguaiu (2u11) offeis a tiacking system foi peisons anu objects baseu on ZigBee foi inuooi
aieas anu uNSS otheiwise. NyBouyguaiu is supposeu to uelivei ioomlevel accuiacy at a
13OtherRadioFrequencyTechnologies 84
measuiement iate of u.2 Bz. The beacons batteiy powei is specifieu foi an active signal
tiansmission uuiation of S yeais.
13.2 Bluetooth

Bluetooth is like ZigBee a wiieless stanuaiu foi Wiieless Peisonal Aiea Netwoiks (WPANs).
But in contiast to ZigBee, the Bluetooth stanuaiu is a piopiietaiy foimat manageu by the
Bluetooth Special Inteiest uioup. The auvantage of using Bluetooth foi exchanging infoimation
between uevices is that this technology is of high secuiity, low cost, low powei anu small size.
The highest specifieu powei level (class S) of the Bluetooth stanuaiu has a maximum powei
output of 1 mW (u uBm) which enables communication ianges of S m to 1u m uepenuing on the
piopagation conuitions such as L0S, mateiial coveiage anu antenna configuiation. Since the
Bluetooth sensoi uoes not stay in inquiiy moue foi S s uuiing its 1u s cycle, the offtheshelf
Bluetooth uevice has latency unsuitable foi iealtime positioning applications.
Accoiuing to Cheung et al. (2uu6) the consensus in publisheu woik on Bluetooth positioning
implies that the stanuaius anu intiinsic chaiacteiistics of the piotocol uo not favoi conventional
timeofflight baseu positioning methous. Reauing RSSI foi an unmouifieu stanuaiu Bluetooth
uevice is not in option eithei, since the host contiollei commanu foi ieauing the ieceiveu signal
stiength values is not implementeu by uefault (Aalto et al. 2uu4). Theiefoie, the Cell of 0iigin
(Co0) methou is noimally applieu as the basic positioning piinciple. Aalto et al. implementeu the
RealTime Navigational Assistance (0RNA) system to enable the tiansfei of locationbaseu
infoimation between Bluetoothenableu mobile phones. 0sing Co0, the position accuiacy was
stateu as 1u m to 2u m, which was the achievable iange of uevice uiscoveiy uuiing tests caiiieu
out in a coiiiuoi. 0RNA is uesigneu foi locationawaie mobile auveitising to mobile phones.
Being awaie that RSSI is not a ieliable measuie of Bluetooth haiuwaie, Baigh anu ue uiote
(2uu8) useu a fingeipiintbaseu localization methou which ielies only on the Response Rate
(RR) of Bluetooth inquiiies. It was shown, that the measuieu RR uecieases with iespect to the
uistance, e.g. foi 2 m RR = 97% anu foi 1u m RR = 86 % at vaiiances of 1 % to S%. An extensive
fingeipiinting captuie was necessaiy to achieve subioom accuiacy.
Z0NITB (2u11) offeis an inuooi positioning mouule which consists of ueployeu Bluetooth
beacons (each coveiing one oi moie iooms) anu Bluetooth uevices, such as those integiateu in
mobile phones, woin by the people to be tiackeu. 0n a giaphical inteiface, it is possible to view
the employees locations. Z0NITB pioviues ioomlevel accuiacy sufficient foi applications of
woikei piotection anu automatic alaim uispatch.
13.3 DECTPhones

Phones baseu on Bigital Enhanceu Coiuless Technology (BECT) aie common uevices foi talking
wiielessly aiounu the house. BECT phones communicate with a single base station within a
typical uistance of 2uu m to Suu m.
13.4CellularNetworks 85


Kianz (2u1u) uemonstiateu the feasibility of using BECT phones foi positioning in uiban inuooi
anu outuooi scenaiios. Bis fingeipiinting methou on BECT RSSI outpeifoimeu that of WLAN uue
to the high numbei of BECT stations (12 to 17) which coulu be ieceiveu at a single subuiban
location. Aftei taking fingeipiints of 1 to S m sepaiation, a localization accuiacy of up to S m was
achieveu.
Schwaighofei et al. (2uuS) have taken a uense giiu of 6Su RSSI fingeipiints fiom typically 1S
suiiounuing BECT phones in an assembly hall of 2Su m 18u m. Bue to uynamical changes
causeu by moving cianes anu people, the RSSI fluctuateu by 1u uB. An aveiage ueviation of 7.S m
was achieveu by builuing uaussian piocess mouels foi the RSSI uistiibution.
13.4 DigitalTelevision

Bioaucast signals of uigital television stations can be utilizeu foi positioning in uiban aieas
incluuing ueep inuooi enviionments with accuiacy of about 1u m. Since uigital television hau
staiteu in 1998, most countiies have establisheu a netwoik of teiiestiial bioaucast stations
(1u km to 1uu km uistance between stations). The unmouifieu uigital viueo bioaucast is suiteu
foi pseuuoiange estimation anu multilateiation in inuooi enviionments uue to seveial ieasons:
uigital television has a signal powei auvantage ovei uPS of 4u uB allowing ieception in ueep
inuooi enviionments
the signals have a wiue banuwiuth of S NBz 8 NBz facilitating multipath mitigation
uemouulation of the uata is simplifieu by a guaiu inteival in the message
emitteis of uigital television aie synchionizeu with uPS time allowing to timestamp the uata
anu ueteimine T0A pseuuoianges.
Bowevei, the weak uensity of teiiestiial emitteis is low causing the uiiect signal to aiiive at
low elevation angles neai the hoiizon. With such a netwoik configuiation, only 2B positioning is
feasible anu multipath is seveie since the uiiect signal is usually blockeu.
Rabinowitz anu Spilkei (2uuS) have shown that the infiastiuctuie of uigital television can be
exploiteu foi obtaining positions in paiking gaiages anu in office builuings. In the giounu flooi
fiom an office builuing an accuiacy of 1u m was achieveu.
Seiant et al. (2u11) uesciibe a pseuuoiange estimation methou baseu on uigital viueo bioaucast
signals anu uemonstiate that pseuuoianges can be ueteimineu with an accuiacy of 2u m even in
the piesence of NL0S signals anu blockage of the uiiect signals. With auvanceu piocessing
techniques the ieseaich team was able to impiove these iesults to below 1u m.
13.5 CellularNetworks

This section is ueuicateu to positioning techniques which solely iely on the mobile cellulai
netwoik, notably the seconugeneiation wiieless telephone technology uSN (ulobal System foi
13OtherRadioFrequencyTechnologies 86
Nobile communication). It uoes not incluue navigation techniques which make use of sensoi
components being integial pait of smait phones such as INS (NENS acceleiometeis, gyioscopes,
anu magnetometeis), uNSS, cameias anu WLAN. See Chaptei 14 foi solutions baseu pm INS
suppoiteu peuestiian navigation.
Nobile netwoiks such as uSN anu 0niveisal Nobile Telecommunications System (0NTS) foim
the basis of mouein aieawiue wiieless communication infiastiuctuie. uSN netwoiks aie
peivasively available in most countiies. With cell sizes of up to SS km, uSN fai outieaches the
coveiage of WLAN. Theiefoie, obtaining position estimates foi the mobile usei even with low
accuiacy sees mass maiket applications such as location baseu seivices anu emeigency
assistance. Foi locating a mobile phone, it is not necessaiy to make an active call. 0nlike WLAN,
uSN opeiates in the licenseu banus, wheie theie is no inteifeience fiom othei uevices opeiating
at the same fiequency.
All mobile phone tiacking methous have in common that they use the locations of neaiby
antennas mounteu at iauio toweis to infei the mobiles position. These aie: RSSI fingeipiinting,
RSSI uistances, AoA, ToA, TBoA anu Co0 (see Section S.S foi an explanation). Ingensanu anu
Bitzi (2uu1) uesciibe the common methous foi uSN positioning anu show the auvantages anu
uisauvantages of these methous. The achievable accuiacies aie listeu anu consiueiations on the
impiovement of accuiacy aie maue. A uetaileu theoietical backgiounu of the common methous
foi mobile positioning incluuing the ueiivation of funuamental peifoimance bounus can be
founu in uustafsson anu uunnaisson (2uuS).
13.5.1 GSMFingerprinting
The most common methou of uSN inuooi locating is fingeipiinting baseu on the powei level
(RSSI). uSN fingeipiinting has two auvantages: Fiist, the posei level obseiveu by a mobile
uevice exhibits a significant vaiiability at aiounu 1 m to 1u m in inuooi spaces. Seconuly, the
haiuwaie of customaiy mobile phones can be useu. The shoitcomings of uSN fingeipiinting aie
low ieliability uue to vaiying signal piopagation conuitions anu the neeu foi an aieawiue, but
also uense giiu of fingeipiints. Even foi inuooi positioning the uSN signal tiavels mostly
outuoois anu is affecteu by changing weathei, foliation anu constiuction (Popleteev 2u11). In
contiast, vaishavsky et al. (2uu7) show that the uSN signal is extiemely stable ovei time. Note
that RSSI baseu localization is not possible foi CBNA netwoiks wheie the tiansmission powei is
uynamically aujusteu at the iauio toweis accoiuing to the cuiient neeus.
vaishavsky et al. (2uu7) conuucteu expeiiments on RSSI fingeipiints collecteu in multiflooi
builuings. By ieauing up to 29 uSN channels at a time anu taking uSN fingeipiints 1 m to 2 m
apait, they weie effectively able to uiffeientiate between floois of the builuing. Bepenuing on the
numbei of measuiements pei location as well as the numbei of ieceiveu channels anu uata
collection giiu size, they achieveu a positioning accuiacy of 2 m to 4 m.
13.5.2 DistanceBasedGSMPositioning
The pioject iepoit of SoLoc (2uu9) uesciibes the uifficulties that aiise fiom uistancebaseu
positioning on uSN. Fiist, phone pioviueis keep theii locations concealeu. Seconu, it is uifficult
to finu a suitable signal piopagation mouel auequate foi vaiious scenaiios. SoLoc useu the
WalfischIkegami mouel which consiueis builuing heights, antenna heights anu even stieet
wiuths. uustafsson anu uunnaisson (2uuS) uemonstiate that accuiacy of 1uu m is iealistic foi
uistancemouel baseu uSN positioning.
13.6Radar 87


0sing two locally ueployeu souices of uSN cellulai signals, Loctionix (2u11) claims to achieve
meteilevel accuiacy baseu on Bopplei ianging. Apait fiom ueuicateu uSN beacons, the system
can make use of vaiious signals of oppoitunity such as those fiom uSN cell toweis, uigital
television, WLAN anu uNSS. Bepenuing on the availability of signals, the system achieves
accuiacies of 1 m to 1S m. At the time of wiiting, piouucts weie not yet on the maiket.
13.5.3 AngleBasedGSMPositioning
The iesolution in AoA (Angle of Aiiival) uepenus on the antenna configuiation. uSN base
stations aie typically equippeu with uiiectionally sensitive antennas which pioviue ciuue angle
infoimation, e.g. 12u angles foi a Ssectoi antenna. Some iauio toweis equippeu with gioup
antennas establish sectois of Su. Foi the inuooi case, AoA infoimation is fuithei uiluteu uue to
the piesence of NLoS anu multipath piopagation.
The Enhanceu Cell of 0iigin (ECo0) methou has been specially uesigneu foi mobile phones,
which iefeis to a cellsectoi positioning methou to pioviue angulai infoimation anu uistance
estimation to cell toweis by measuiing the Rounu Tiip Time (RTT). In case of Line of Sight (LoS),
ielatively goou uistance accuiacy can be achieveu by RTT, but LoS conuitions aie not common in
inuooi enviionments. Shen anu 0ua (2u1u) showeu in theii simulations that ECo0 coulu be useu
to estimate uiiection with an accuiacy of 11 in a Rayleigh fauing enviionment, i.e. assuming
NLoS conuitions. 0sing ECo0 anu RTT measuiements, they pieuict a 2B position accuiacy of
1uu m to 1Su m at a cell towei spacing of 4 km.
13.6 Radar

Rauai (RAuio Betection Anu Ranging) is a technique to ueteimine the iange anu angle of
inciuence to an object. The oiiginal piinciple of iauai was to measuie the piopagation time anu
uiiection of iauio pulses tiansmitteu by an antenna anu then bounceu back fiom a uistant
passive taiget (piimaiy iauai). If the object ietuins a tiny pait of the wave's eneigy to the
antenna, the iauai uevice measuies the elapseu time. The angle of inciuence is estimateu fiom a
uiiectional antenna. This oiiginal concept of iauai assumes passive object ieflection anu
involves only one station which compiises both, tiansmittei anu sensoi. This concept has two
uisauvantages: most of the signal eneigy gets lost by the ieflection anu the use of steeiable
uiiectional antennas is impiacticable. Theiefoie, the concept of iauai has been extenueu to
incluue moie than one active tiansmittei (seconuaiy iauai). Insteau of passive ieflection, the
singleway tiavel time of the iauai pulse is measuieu by ToA anu then ietuineu actively. Some
methous such as FNCW Rauai (see 1S.6.1) tiansmit a signal continuously. If the tiansmissions in
each uiiection aie sufficiently sepaiateu in fiequency, the ietuin can occui immeuiately. Insteau
of using uiiectional antennas, the angle of inciuence can be ueteimineu inuiiectly by
multilateiation fiom seveial tiansmitteis at fixeu positions. The two concepts have in common
that the Rounu Tiip Time (RTT) is lineaily ielateu to the uistance.
13.6.1 FMCWRadar
Fiequency Nouulateu Continuous Wave (FNCW) iauai is a shoitiange measuiing technique,
wheie the tiansmittei fiequency is lineaily incieaseu with the time. The ietuineu echo is
ieceiveu with a constant offset t, which ielates to the tiavelleu uistance, see Figuie 1S.1. An
13OtherRadioFrequencyTechnologies 88
auvantage of FNCW is its iesistance to the Bopplei effect. The Bopplei movement only
intiouuces a shift in the fiequency which is canceleu out by uiffeiencing.
Appling the FNCW technique foi uistance measuiements between two uevices, accuiacies in the
oiuei of a few centimeteis can be achieveu. Nost FNCW Rauai implementations make use of
multilateiation baseu on RTT uistance estimates between a mobile tiansmittei anu multiple
fixeu tiansponueis. The tiansponuei bioaucasts a iauio signal in the fiee ISNbanu (S.72S uBz
to S.87S uBz) which is ieceiveu, piocesseu anu echoeu back to the tiansponuei by each
tiansmittei without time uelay. The echo is coueu with the iespective tiansponueis
iuentification in oiuei to allow the tiansmittei to sepaiate each tiansponueis answei.

Figure 13.1 Linear frequency increase of transmitted signal (solid). Received echo (dashed). The constant
time delay t relates to the distance.

Stelzei et al. (2uu4) have piototypeu a local positioning system baseu on FNCW iauai with a
system aichitectuie of multiple fixeu base stations anu a lightweight mobile tiansponuei
opeiating at S.8 uBz. Baseu on TBoA ianges at cmlevel piecision measuieu unuei LoS
conuitions, a positioning accuiacy of 1u cm ovei Suu m has been achieveu. At a measuiement
iate of 1uuu Bz, the system can be useu to tiack fast vehicles at iace couises.
Symeo (2u11) offeis the 2B local positioning system LPR2B which can be useu to ueteimine
the position of a mobile tiansponuei within accuiacy of up to S cm. At least S uistance
measuiements to S fixeu iefeience tiansmitteis mounteu in a uistance of up to 4uu m aie
iequiieu. Combineu inuooioutuooi use is possible fiom an integiateu uiffeiential uNSS
ieceivei. The system is ueuicateu foi opeiation unuei haish inuustiial conuitions to guiue
vehicles anu cianes. A uetaileu system uesciiption has been publisheu by Rohi anu uuluen
(2uu9). ABATEC (2u11) offeis the SB positioning system LPN baseu on FNCW iauai foi
vaiious applications such as spoit analysis anu infotainment.
13.6.2 ChirpSpreadSpectrum(CSS)
CSS is a spieau spectium technique similai to FNCW (1S.6.1) which uses wiuebanu lineai
fiequency mouulateu chiip pulses insteau of continuous waves. A chiip of CSS is a sinusoiual
signal whose fiequency incieases anu uecieases ovei a ceitain amount of time. Figuie 1S.2
shows an example chiip. In contiast to FNCW the chiip pules have a fixeu uuiation of 1 s
followeu by an inteival with no signal, which ieuuces the iequiieu tiansmission powei.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
5.7
5.75
5.8
5.85
5.9
5.95
time [ms]
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

[
G
H
z
]
t
13.6Radar 89


The main auvantage of using CSS is iobustness to noise anu multipath owing to the wiue
banuwiuth useu to piouuce a chiip signal. Piecise time synchionization between the uevices is
not iequiieu. The chiip pulses can be useu foi iange measuiements with low powei
consumption. In contiast to FN iauios (Section 1S.7) which opeiate between
88 NBz to 1u8 NBz, CSS is useu in the 2.4S uBz banu. Nanotion Technologies (2u11) has
maiketeu an RF positioning kit which uses a netwoik of up to 16 noues that can eithei be
configuieu as beacon oi mobile noue. Positioning is caiiieu out on CSS ianging at an accuiacy of
1 m. Solcon (2u11) offeis a similai location system baseu on CSS fiequency mouulation. The
uistances aie ueteimineu by Symmetiical BoubleSiueu Two Way Ranging (SBSTWR), a ianging
methouology that uses two uelays.

Figure 13.2 Frequency modulated chirp, a (t) = sin (2t (0.1 + t))

13.6.3 DopplerRadar
Bopplei iauai is a special iauai technique foi the uetection anu tiacking moving taigets. It is
common foi aiiboine applications but can also be applieu foi infiastiuctuie fiee inuooi
navigation. Bopplei iauai utilizes Bopplei ianging, i.e. ielative velocity measuiements fiom the
Bopplei shift between an emitteu iauai wave anu the ietuin signal aftei ieflection fiom an
obstacle (e.g. a wall). It can only be useu to ueteimine the iauial component of a taigets velocity.
Yokoo et al. (2uu9) use two continuous wave Bopplei iauais to tiack a vehicle. Without
employment of othei sensois, the positioning technique of Bopplei iauai shows a stiong uiift
uue to unstable oiientation (2 m ueviation foi a 2u m tiajectoiy). Neveitheless, when suppoiting
the Bopplei iauai with uata fiom a gyio sensoi the accuiacy impioveu by a factoi of Su (6.8 cm
insteau of 2 m). The intenueu application is peuestiian navigation foi fiist iesponueis.
13.6.4 WaveFieldAnalysis
The piinciple of uistance measuiement is to establish a stanuing wave between the tiansmittei
anu ieceivei unit in oiuei to ueteimine the phase shift. Seveial such phase measuiements aie
caiiieu out sequentially foi a uisciete set of fiequencies in the spectium between 2.4 uBz to
2.48 uBz. A change of 1 NBz foi example, causes a phase shift of ca. 24 at a ceitain uistance, but
will be 48 foi the uoubleu uistance. The final uistance is than ueteimineu by Fouiiei analysis.
The auvantage of such a phase measuiement technique is that theie is no neeu foi accuiate
synchionization oi time measuiements.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
time [s]
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

[
m
]
13OtherRadioFrequencyTechnologies 90
The company lambua: 4 Entwicklungen umbB (Lambua:4 2u11) is piototyping a positioning
system using wave fielu analyses foi the puipose of iescuing people buiieu by an avalanche oi
locating fiieman in a hazaiuous enviionment. The system measuies uistances between a
hanuhelu locating uevice of appioximately 1.2 kg anu an active tiansmittei of matchbox size.
Positions aie ueteimineu fiom multiple uevices via multilateiation oi uiiection estimation using
RSSI fiom an antenna aiiay. The system is capable of uetecting the tags with an accuiacy of less
than 1 m foi the LoS case anu 1 m to S m accuiacy in the case of NLoS, i.e. walls in the uiiect
signal path. 0nuei LoS conuitions it can covei uistances up to 1uu m. Accoiuing to
Reimann (2u11), a static system with constant antenna oiientation can achieve millimetei
accuiacy.
13.7 FMRadio

FN iauios iepiesent a wellestablisheu bioaucasting technology oiiginally ieseiveu foi
Fiequency Nouulation (FN) to convey infoimation ovei a caiiiei wave by vaiying its fiequency.
FN nowauays iefeis to any iauio wave opeiating in the fiequency banu 87.S NBz to 1u8.u NBz
no mattei what type of signal mouulation is applieu. The auuio signals tiansmitteu by FN iauio
bioaucasting toweis can be useu foi inuooi navigation. ToA anu TBoA methous have not been
iegaiueu as feasible because the FN signal lacks timing infoimation. But signal stiength baseu
fingeipiinting techniques which aie inuepenuent of clock synchionization can be applieu on
bioaucast FN signals. The employment of FN iauios foi positioning benefits fiom the existence
of iauio towei infiastiuctuie pioviuing almost ubiquitous coveiage in inuooi anu outuooi
enviionments, high ieceiveu signal powei anu the possibility of using lowcost, lowpowei
haiuwaie. Bue to the passive natuie of the client uevices, FN can be useu in sensitive aieas
wheie othei RF technologies aie piohibiteu foi safety oi secuiity ieasons. 0n top of that, FN
technology is ieauily available in many mobile uevices.
Noghtauaiee et al. (2u11) have implementeu an RSSI fingeipiinting positioning system baseu on
FN iauios in an office enviionment. Aftei obtaining FN fingeipiints consisting of 17 senseu FN
channels at 1Su giiu points within an aiea of 2SS m
2
, a mean accuiacy of S m coulu be achieveu.
Bowevei, unuei the same conuitions, the WLAN fingeipiinting showeu highei accuiacy.
In contiast to Noghtauaiee et al., Popleteev (2u11) concluueu in his PhB thesis that inuooi
positioning baseu on bioaucast FN stations is compaiable to WLAN in teims of accuiacy anu
outpeifoims othei RF technologies in batteiy life anu coveiage. Popleteev caiiieu out RSSI
fingeipiinting on a 1 m giiu of calibiation points. 0sing RSSI values fiom 76 active FN
bioaucasting stations anu S local, selfinstalleu FN tiansmitteis, he achieveu a positioning
accuiacy of S m (1 m meuian). Papliatseyeu et al. (2uu9) iely exclusively on shoitiange, self
ueployeu FN tiansmitteis. Theii fingeipiinting methou achieveu similai iesults of S m accuiacy.
13.8 SummaryonRadioSystems
Any iauio signal can be useu foi inuooi positioning at any fiequency, signal iange anu piotocol,
see Table 1S.1. Bowevei, peifoimance levels anu applicability vaiy gieatly uepenuing on seveial
factois such as the use of pieexisting iefeience infiastiuctuie, peivasiveness of uevices, signal
ianges, powei levels etc. Signal stiength fingeipiinting anu uistance baseu methous can be
13.8SummaryonRadioSystems 91


consiueieu. While fingeipiinting at metei level accuiacy is impiacticable uue to the iequiieu
piecalibiation, timeofflight measuiements iemain unieliable inuoois uue to complicateu
signal piopagation. The outstanuing submillimetei accuiacy which inteifeiometiy offeis is only
of ielative type anu theiefoie haiuly applicable foi inuooi navigation.
Table 13.1 Localization systems using various RF technologies and reported performance parameters
Name Year Wireless
Technology
Reported
Accuracy
(m)
Area(m
2
)or
No.ofRefer
enceNodes
Principle Prior
calibra
tion
Application Market
Maturity
Larraaga 2010 ZigBee 3m 432/8=54 RSSIdistance minimal context,LBS study
Tadakamadla 2006 ZigBee 3m 192/5=48 RSSIdistance yes WSN,tracking study
MyBodyguard2011 Zigbee room 1perroom CoO no tracking product
Aalto 2004 Bluetooth 20m 2E4/9=2222 CoO no advertising study
Bargh 2008 Bluetooth room subroom fingerprinting yes LBS study
ZONITH 2011 Bluetooth room 1perroom CoO no employeetracking product
Kranz 2010 DECTphone 5m 900/12=75 fingerprinting yes seamlesspositioning study
Schwaighofer 2003 DECTPhone 7.5m 4E4/15=3E3 fingerprinting yes LBS study
Rabinowitz 2005 DigitalTV 1020m 15km
2
pseudoranges no emergencyresponse study
Serant 2011 DigitalTV 1025m 80km
2
pseudoranges no urbanLBS study
Varshavsky 2007 GSM 4m building/29 fingerprinting yes indoorlocalization study
Loctronix 2011 GSM 115m 325/2=176 Dopplerranges no LBSoncellphones product
Shen 2010 GSM 150m 12km
2
/tower ECoO,RTT no mobilephoneLBS simulation
Stelzer 2004 FMCWradar 10cm 500x500m
2
multilateration no racetrack study
Symeo 2011 FMCWradar 5cm 4E4/3=1.3E3 RTT,beacons no forklifttracking product
ABATEC 2011 FMCWradar 3cm 1km
2
multilateration no sportanalysis product
Nanotron 2011 CSS 1m 216beacons ToA,beacons no lossprotection product
Solcon 2011 CSS meter >2perroom TWR,beacons no facilitymanagement product
Yokoo 2009 radar 0.3% 25m
2
Dopplerradar no firstresponders study
Lambda:4 2011 radar 1m 1ormore lateration,RSSI no avalancherescue product
Moghtadaiee 2011 FMRadio 3m radiostations fingerprinting yes indoornavigation study
Popleteev 2011 FMRadio 5m radiostations fingerprinting yes employeetracking study
Papliatseyeu 2009 FMRadio 4.5m 72/3=24 fingerprinting yes employeetracking study


14InertialNavigationSystems 92
14 InertialNavigationSystems
This chaptei outlines Peuestiian Beau Reckoning (PBR) appioaches baseu on Ineitial
Navigation Systems (INS) consisting of an Ineitial Neasuiement 0nit (IN0) anu a piocessing
unit as the main components. Since an INS has a significant uiift, it is usually fuseu with
complementaiy sensois which pioviue absolute location infoimation.
An INS is an electionic uevice which pioviues estimates of position, velocity anu oiientation
fiom an IN0. The custom IN0 consists of thiee oithogonally aiiangeu acceleiometeis (motion
sensois), thiee gyioscopes (angulai iate sensois) anuoi a magnetometei (S peipenuiculai
sensois foi measuiing the stiength anuoi uiiection of a magnetic fielu). If the initial position
anu oiientation aie known, subsequent positions, oiientations anu velocities (uiiection anu
speeu of movement) of the moving platfoim can be upuateu continuously via Beau Reckoning
(BR) without the neeu foi exteinal iefeience positions. The main aigument to use INS foi
peuestiian navigation aiises fiom inuepenuent opeiability at least tempoiaiily without
exteinal infiastiuctuie, making navigation possible in enviionments, wheie the installation anu
maintenance of such infiastiuctuie is not affoiuable. Compiehensive infoimation about the
moues of opeiation anu applications of an INS is given by }ekeli (2uu1).
14.1 INSNavigationwithoutExternalInfrastructure
0sing BR, an INSbaseu guiuance system is continually auuing uetecteu changes to its
pieviouslycalculateu positions. Since BR is only sensitive to changes, the INS can only measuie
ielative position anu oiientation. Thus, the accuiacy of the piopagateu position uepenus heavily
on the quality of the pioviueu stait position anu uiiection. Nost notably, owing to the uouble
integiation of noisy acceleiometei measuiements, INS suffei fiom accumulation of position
ueviation anu magnification of the angulai ueviation ovei the tiavelleu uistance (Abbe eiioi).
The shoitei the integiation time the highei is the pieuicteu position fiom an INS. If absolute
position oi oiientation upuates aie obtaineu by anothei sensoi souice at a high iate, the INS can
be useu to uelivei positions with much highei piecision compaieu to geometiic inteipolation
between suppoiting points.
In peuestiian navigation, the accumulating positioning ueviation of BR oiigins fiom two majoi
types of ueviations: the alongtiack ueviation mainly causeu by the step length impiecision anu
the ciosstiack ueviation mainly causeu by the impiecision of the azimuth measuiement. While
the accuiacy ueteiioiates ovei a long opeiation time by vaiiance accumulation, the INS can
pioviue as mentioneu above veiy high shoit teim accuiacy anu uetaileu shapes of the
tiavelleu ioute. Theiefoie ueau ieckoning baseu on INS is optimally utilizeu foi pioviuing shoit
14.2PedestrianDeadReckoning 93


teim solutions in shauow oi tiansition aieas which aie not coveieu by an absolute positioning
system.
Nowauays the utilization of Nicio ElectioNechanical System (NENS) sensois allows
integiating all system components in a mobile smait phone (Lukianto et al. 2u1u). The
miniatuiization is keeping costs, powei, weight anu iequiieu space to a minimum. Theiefoie
NENS baseu INS sensois aie paiticulaily efficient foi the puipose of peuestiian navigation. Note
that SSuu aie consiueieu lowcost compaieu to high piecision INS at a cost of up to
1Suuuu . Since an INS opeiates selfcontaineu the availability anu continuity of seivice aie
usually guaianteeu. Nost ciitical foi the applicability of an INS aie the peifoimance metiics
accuiacy anu integiity. Accuiacy of peuestiian navigation systems is usually inuicateu in the
iatio between ueviation anu coveieu uistance oi elapseu time. The iatio expiesseu in peicent
ueviation of tiavelleu uistance vaiies gieatly between u.1 % anu 2u % uepenuing on the useu
methouology anu employment of complementaiy sensois. In Table 14.1 vaiious INSbaseu
navigation appioaches anu theii components aie chaiacteiizeu.
Nathiassen et al. (2u1u) built a lowcost test IN0 suppoiteu with obseivations fiom
magnetometeis anu a baiometei. Nagnetometeis anu baiometeis aie not of high accuiacy anu
ieliability, but pioviue absolute quantities which can suppoit a selfcontaineu IN0. While
simulateu vaiiance piopagation pieuicts 1u m uiift ueviation within 6u s, fiist iealwoilu tests
yielueu 6S m ueviation within the same time inteival baseu on a stationaiy unit. Befoie such a
lowcost system becomes applicable, the gyioscope uiift as the main eiioi souice neeus to be
impioveu.
14.2 PedestrianDeadReckoning
Fiom continuous upuates of the walkeu uistance anu heauing, the position can be piopagateu by
Beau Reckoning (BR). The funuamental mechanism of peuestiian ueau ieckoning ieaus
j
x
k
y
k
[ = _
x
k-1
+l
k
sin(0
k
)
y
k-1
+ l
k
cos(0
k
)
_, (14.1)
wheie l is the step length, the cuiient heauing estimate anu (x, y) the cooiuinates in the
hoiizontal plane. Inuex k is an abbieviateu foim of t(k) uenoting the numbei of a uisciete point
in time.
14.2.1 StepLengthEstimation
A peuestiians acceleiometei output can be useu foi step uetection, step count anu step length
estimation. Foi this puipose it is necessaiy to fiist categoiize the human physical activity into
walking, iunning, ascenuinguescenuing staiis, taking an elevatoi, stanuing still anu iiiegulai
movements. Biffeient uynamics in the movements can be iecognizeu fiom acceleiometeis
integiateu in a mobile uevice which is caiiieu on the waist oi helu in the hanu. Wheie anu how
the uevice (i.e. the IN0) is caiiieu by the peison is uecisive foi the piocessing anu affects the
peifoimance. Foot mounteu uevices allow applying auuitional constiaints (such as zeio
velocities while walking) anu special algoiithms. Theiefoie, foot mounteu appioaches aie
uiscusseu sepaiately in Section 14.4.
Sun et al. (2uu9) make use of the wavefoims of all thiee acceleiation components to classify
ielevant peuestiian activities. Fiom the acceleiation signal, ueuuceu quantities such as velocity,
uistance, signal magnituue, mean anu vaiiance can be ueiiveu anu analyzeu foi activity labeling.
14InertialNavigationSystems 94
Bao anu Intille (2uu4) iuentifieu uiffeient activities with a success iate of ca. 9u %. Shin et al.
(2uu9) uemonstiateu the impoitance of behavioi classification (such as situown, walk anu iun)
foi IN0baseu peuestiian navigation. Context awaieness of a peison can be obtaineu by a step
length estimatoi impioving the navigation peifoimance of a system significantly. The steps aie
uetecteu by iuentification of peiiouicities, typically by filteiing the signal magnituue of the
peuestiians acceleiation. In oiuei to ueteimine the tiavelleu uistance the steps aie counteu anu
the step lengths aie estimateu fiom the step fiequency. As shown in Figuie 14.1, the step length
incieases lineaily with the step fiequency. In auuition, the acceleiation vaiiance can also give an
inuication of the step length, see Figuie 14.2. When an absolute position is available, the step
length can be iecalibiateu uuiing the walk. Such an online calibiation technique auapts veiy well
to a ceitain context oi a new situation.

Figure 14.1 Step length in relation to the step
frequency according to Shin et al. (2009)
Figure 14.2 Acceleration variance versus step length,
Shin et al. (2009)

14.2.2 StepHeadingEstimation
The heauing can be ueteimineu with azimuth ieauings of a leveleu compass with a typical
accuiacy of S (uusenbauei et al. 2u1u). The ieliability of compass ieauings is compiomiseu by
magnetic peituibations causeu by powei lines oi iion ieinfoicement anu misalignment of the
uevice (i.e. the line of sight of a peuestiian uoes not coiiesponu to the uiiection of walk). A moie
ieliable anu theiefoie moie common appioach foi uiiection estimation is the use of a gyioscope.
14.3 INSPedestrianNavigationUsingComplementarySensors
Since the position ueviation of ueau ieckoning giows with the time anu uistance tiaveleu,
position upuates fiom an exteinal souice aie necessaiy fiom time to time. Since in inuooi
enviionments uNSS aie often seveiely uegiaueu, the iequiieu exteinal positioning infoimation
is typically obtaineu by beacon baseu systems such as WLAN, 0WB oi ultiasounu. In piinciple
any othei absolute positioning system can seive this puipose. The peuestiian navigation system
can help to navigate thiough aieas wheie the complementaiy system has pooi oi no coveiage.
Integiation of the INS with a complementaiy system can have the foim of loose coupling up to
ultiatight coupling. In a loosely coupleu system the exteinal positioning souice is autonomously
calculating a navigation solution anu afteiwaius integiateu in the INS solution. 0ltiatight
coupling combines the iaw obseivations into a navigation filtei anu makes use of a tiacking
feeuback loop.
14.3INSPedestrianNavigationUsingComplementarySensors 95


The main challenge in the implementation of hybiiu localization algoiithms is the foimulation of
the piocess anu the measuiement mouels. By applying Kalman oi Paiticle filteis, uata fiom a
laige numbei of sensois can be fuseu such that the uiawbacks of each sensoi can be
compensateu with infoimation fiom othei sensois.
Sensois foi peuestiian navigation can be subuiviueu into the two main classes: a) infiastiuctuie
inuepenuent sensois anu b) sensois which iequiie ueployeu local infiastiuctuie. The seconu
impoitant ciiteiion foi subuivision is whethei the sensoi can measuie an a) absolute quantity oi
b) ielative changes to the taiget quantity. E.g. an acceleiometei measuies the absolute
acceleiation, but since position oi oiientation angles aie the taiget quantities, acceleiometeis
belong to the class of ielatively measuiing sensois in this context.
If an IN0 uoes not take auvantage of local infiastiuctuie, the eiioi giowth iesembles a quauiatic
function with the elapseu time (}ekeli 2uu1). In oiuei to inciease longteim stability, the
position estimates neeu to be suppoiteu by a complementaiy system pioviuing absolute
position anu possibly oiientation iefeiences. Sensois employeu to uelivei absolute position
infoimation aie typically uNSS (foi SB) anu baiometiic piessuie sensois foi the height
component. Apait fiom uNSS, any othei sensoi technology uesciibeu in this iepoit can be useu
(see Sections 14.S.2 to 14.S.S ). The absolute oiientation iefeience can be obtaineu fiom
compasses (azimuthal oiientation), magnetic fielu sensois (all thiee uimensions) oi inclination
sensois (twoaxis hoiizontal oiientation). Alteinatively, the oiientation can be ueiiveu fiom the
position tiack if absolute positions (such as those obtaineu fiom uNSS) aie available.
14.3.1 CombinationofINSandGNSS
Nost peuestiian navigation appioaches incluue uNSS ieceiveis in theii system aichitectuie. The
auvantage of a combineu technique is that peuestiian ueau ieckoning anu uNSS uo not iequiie
local ueployment of infiastiuctuie. Theiefoie, the fusion of ineitial navigation anu uNSS allows
foi infiastiuctuiefiee positioning, which is a iequiiement foi many applications, such as foi
iescue, fiieman anu soluieis. Since uNSS pioviues an absolute initial position anu uiiection
when enteiing a builuing, it is a ciucial component foi any INSbaseu inuooi application. uNSS is
also useu foi calibiation anu valiuation of peuestiian navigation systems, e.g. Beauiegaiu (2uu6)
who mounteu the sensois on a helmet oi Sun et al. (2uu9) who piefeiieu attaching the system
on a peuestiians belt. Renauuin et al. (2uu7) mounteu an AuNSS ieceivei on a peuestiians cap
anu fuseu the uNSS obseivations with thiee ineitial systems uistiibuteu ovei the bouy.
Bowevei, the ueteiioiation of AuNSS inuoois (Chaptei 11.2) causes the system to iely solely on
INS while the peuestiian walks in a builuing.
14.3.2 CombinationofINSandAoA
Kemppi et al. (2u1u) accommouate absolute location estimates fiom an anglebaseu localization
system. The azimuth anu elevation angles of the mobile ieceivei aie ueteimineu by uiiectionof
uepaituie piinciple fiom a multiantenna aiiay. A builuing map is also useu foi map matching
anu fuseu the with the IN0 anu angle measuiements. Kemppi et al. iepoit a ueviation of 7 m
aftei walking 2.S minutes (19u m) anu a ueviation of 1S m subsequent to a walk of 6 minutes
(27u m) using a single antenna.
14.3.3 CombinationofINSandOpticalMeasurements
Aufueiheiue anu Kiybus (2u1u) piopose a uualtiack system combining ineitial anu optical
measuiements as a loosely coupleu system. The cameia pose is estimateu fiom coiiesponuing
image featuies between successive fiames fiom a monoculai viueo cameia. Theiefoie, theii
14InertialNavigationSystems 96
appioach is also categoiizeu as a cameia system with iefeience fiom image sequences
(Chaptei 4.2). The knowleuge of the cameia position is useu to bounu the uiift of the ineitial
system foi long tiack uuiations. Conveisely, pose estimations fiom IN0 uata limit the seaich
space foi featuie tiacking. Peifoimance assessment is not yet possible because the system is
cuiiently unuei uevelopment.
Kelei et al. (2u11) use a iotating lasei scannei anu alteinatively a monoculai cameia to aiu
theii peuestiian navigation system. The scan uata is useu to geneiate a 2B map anu navigate
within this map. ueometiical constiaints insiue builuings (e.g. oithogonality of stiuctuies) aie
useu to iecognize if a place is ievisiteu. Fiom the cameia images the cential vanishing points aie
ueteimineu to ieuuce the heauing uiift of the IN0. Complementaiy to the visionbaseu attituue
aiuing methou, the position can be uiiectly ueteimineu fiom compaiison of images in a
uatabase. Tests with closeu loops, which have been walkeu twice, show consistent paths.
The SLAN (Simultaneous Localization Anu Napping) appioach of Liu T. et al. (2u1u) combines
IN0, lasei scannei anu image baseu localization, all integiateu in a humanopeiateu backpack
system which can be useu to geneiate SB mouels of complex inuooi enviionments. The
positions aie ueteimineu fiom uata captuie baseu on two lasei scanneis anu an IN0 with 6
Begiee of Fieeuom (BoF). An aveiage positional eiioi of 1 % of the tiavelleu uistance is
iepoiteu. The localization peifoimance can be impioveu by making use of the cameia images
which have been taken in an offline phase. The images can be useu to iefine the six paiameteis
of the cameia pose anu impiove the quality of the SB textuieu mouel.
14.3.4 CombinationofINSandRSSI
Seitz et al. (2u1u) fuse lowcost acceleiometei uata with WLAN RSSI fingeipiinting
measuiements using the Biuuen Naikov Nouel. Theii peuestiian navigation system is ueuicateu
foi lowcost, lowpowei sensois integiateu on smait mobile phones anu achieves S m accuiacy
in inuooi enviionments. Fink et al. (2u1u) also fuse the INS motion vectoi with iauio localization
using ieceiveu signal stiength. Theii peuestiian navigation system is uesigneu foi the uetection
of maintenance staff in longwall mining, which is an unueigiounu coal mining technique. With
the combination of WLAN pathloss uistances anu INS ieauings they iepoit a position accuiacy of
u.7 m in contiast to a solution on WLAN fingeipiinting of S m accuiacy. With such an
impiovement the secuiity zone can be ieuuceu anu the mining can be caiiieu out moie
efficiently.
Apait fiom WLAN, it is also possible to use a netwoik of ZigBee noues at known locations to
peifoim fingeipiinting in combination with a peuestiian navigation system. Schmiu et al. (2u1u)
pieuict that such a system has the potential to pioviue S m accuiacy within builuings.
14.3.5 UltraHybridSystems
Klingbeil et al. (2u1u) piesent a mouulai fusion system foi peuestiian navigation oi iobotic
applications. The sensoi platfoim incluues common selfcontaineu sensois woin on the peison.
Foi iefeience position upuates uNSS can be useu but it is also possible to utilize any othei
technique as iefeience such as ueployeu ultiasounu noues oi iauio fiequency beacons. The
system aichitectuie is set up in such a way, that in piinciple all sensoi moualities can be
employeu as contiol input oi biought in as obseivations foi a paiticle filtei. The piocessing is
baseu on a Bayesian iecuisive estimation algoiithm.
14.4FootMountedPedestrianNavigation 97


14.3.6 CombinationofINSandMapData
The iequiieu absolute position upuates uo not necessaiily neeu to oiigin fiom exteinal ueployeu
infiastiuctuie. Alteinatively, uetaileu map uata can be useu, known as map measuiements. If
available inuooi maps such as micioNap oi a CityuNL aie stoieu locally in the uevice, self
containeu navigation becomes feasible. Foi coiiection of position anu oiientation, constiaints
fiom a map can be compaieu with the movement pattein to cieate complementaiy geometiic
infoimation. This piocess is known unuei the teim Nap Natching (NN) anu useu to coiiect the
cuiient position tiack onto a map. The map matching appioach exhibits a poweiful backup
stiategy foi coiiecting the position of the Beau Reckoning (BR) system. While caiioaumap
matching is alieauy an establisheu tool in outuooi navigation, the less constiaineu movement
pattein of a peison iequiies special map matching algoiithms tailoieu to peuestiian navigation.
veitical uisplacements of peuestiians in builuings have been useu by uusenbauei et al. (2u1u) to
iuentify an elevatoi oi ascenuinguescenuing staiis. Wagnei et al. (2u1u) use a topological Nap
Natching (NN) algoiithm to feeu back a Kalman Filtei when uNSS positions aie not available.
Waluei anu Beinoulli (2u1u) piopose the use of a builuing infoimation mouel foi theii map
matching appioach. The mouel pioviues two impoitant constiaints to a peuestiians tiack: a)
the polygons of the outline of accessible aieas anu b) tiansition objects such as uoois oi staiis.
Piessl anu Wiesei (2uu6) piesent a peuestiian navigation system tailoieu to the neeus of
visually impaiieu people in an uiban enviionment. By integiating IN0, uNSS anu map matching
the system achieves an absolute accuiacy of 1 m to 2 m.
14.4 FootMountedPedestrianNavigation
The installation of an IN0 in a shoe has the puipose to mitigate the ineitial uiift. Foot mounteu
peuestiian navigation systems benefit consiueiably fiom suppoiting the IN0 integiation
piocess with a Zeio velocity0PuaTe (Z0PT) oi a ZeioAngulai Rate 0puate (ZAR0). Buiing the
foot is in stance stage the velocity estimation is iecalibiateu fiom the integiateu acceleiation
with a zeio value. These upuates can be useu as obseivation input to the Kalman filtei in oiuei
to efficiently ieuuce the eiioi accumulation of an IN0. The uifficulty of the Z0PT appioach is the
uetection of the moment of zeio velocity unuei changing conuitions such as vaiious types of
motion anu speeus oi uiffeient flooi covei.
The Z0PT methou allows ieplacing cubic in time eiioi giowth (t
S
uiift) with an eiioi
accumulation lineai to the numbei of steps (Wan anu Foxlin 2u1u). Figuie 14.S illustiates how
velocity upuates ciicumvent a cubic eiioi giowth. The zeio velocity upuates can be intiouuceu
into the EKF (Extenueu Kalman Filtei) as velocity measuiements, with the puipose to ueuuce
anu coiiect the uiift ueviation (Figuie 14.Sb). The compaiison of cuiient peuestiian navigation
systems in Table 14.1 shows that a uiift of less than 1 % can be achieveu by foot mounteu
systems, compaieu to IN0s attacheu to othei bouy paits with uiifts typically exceeuing 1 % of
the tiavelleu uistance. Bespite supeiioi peifoimance compaieu to hanuhelu uevices, shoe
mounteu IN0s aie consiueieu as less piactical foi consumeis, because such systems iequiie a
special aiiangement to integiate an IN0 into a shoe.
Nilsson et al. (2u1u) have uevelopeu a methouology foi peifoimance assessment of foot
mounteu anu Z0PT assisteu IN0s. As a iesult fiom vaiiance piopagation, the achievable
peifoimance foi such a system is in the iange of u.1 % to u.44 %, uepenuing on exteinal
influences.
14InertialNavigationSystems 98

Skog et al. (2u1u) stuuieu the peifoimance of uiffeient zeiovelocity uetectois foi foot mounteu
ineitial navigation. Foui uiffeient stiategies of zeiovelocity upuates have been investigateu,
namely the acceleiation moving vaiiance uetectoi, the acceleiation magnituue uetectoi, the
angulai iate eneigy uetectoi, anu a new uevelopment, iefeiieu to as SB0E uetectoi. The last two
zeiovelocity upuates showeu the highest position accuiacy with u.14 % ueviation of the total
tiavelleu uistance.
InteiSense Inc. is cuiiently piototyping a foot mounteu ineitial navigation system nameu
NavShoe
TN
foi the puipose of guiuing fiist iesponueis in hazaiuous enviionments. The position
uata fiom a ueau ieckoning mouule can be fuseu with uNSS oi alteinatively with RF
obseivations. The unassisteu system of Wan anu Foxlin (2u1u) ieacheu a uiift ueviation of
u.27 % of the tiavelleu uistance.
14.4.1 CombinationofFootMountedINSandMaps
As with the geneial application foi navigational IN0s in combination with maps (see 14.S.6),
foot mounteu ineitial uata can be fuseu with map matching. A peuestiian guiuance system foi
assisting iescue teams has been suggesteu by Waluei anu Beinoulli (2u1u). The appioach uses
Z0PT wheie the constiaints fiom a semantic Builuing Infoimation Nouel (BIN) aie assumeu to
be available. The positioning accuiacy uepenus on the piopeities of the BIN anu the quality of
the mapmatching algoiithm.
14.4.2 CombinationofFootMountedINSandSignalStrength
The foot mounteu system pioposeu by }imnez et al. (2u1u) ielies on Receiveu Signal Stiength
(RSS) fiom active RFIB tags placeu at known cooiuinates in a builuing. At an emission fiequency
of 1 Bz, the batteiy life time is expecteu to suppoit the INS baseu peuestiian navigation system
foi 6 months. In oiuei to take auvantage of Z0PT, the INS sensoi is attacheu to the foot. In
auuition, Zeio Angulai Rate 0puates (ZAR0) uuiing stance stages of the walk aie useu. Fiom the
selfcontaineu infoimation alone a ueviation of 1 % of the tiavelleu uistance is iepoiteu. As with
RSSI fiom RFIB, signal stiength fiom WLAN can be combineu with foot mounteu INS. Fiank et al.
(2uu9) ieuuceu the mean position ueviation fiom S.2 m to 1.6 m by fusion of WLAN
fingeipiinting anu shoe uata.
14.4.3 INSMountedonBothFeet
Placing IN0s on both feet pioviues the Z0PT appioach with fuithei ieliability, ieuunuancy anu
continuity of seivice. Nounting a NENS ineitial unit to each foot of a peuestiian pioviues two
inuepenuent navigation solutions. Buiing the human gait cycle the sepaiating uistances between
these two position solutions can be useu as constiaints. Bancioft et al. (2uu8) integiateu the
ineitial uata of two IN0s into a single Kalman filtei anu compaieu the single IN0 appioach anu

Figure 14.3 Drift of foot mounted IMUs according to (Wan and Foxlin 2010), using a) ZUPT, b) EKF zero
velocity pseudo measurements
14.5SummaryonINSBasedSystems 99


the twin appioach with each othei. Test iuns showeu that the position accuiacy coulu be
impioveu by moie than 6u %.
14.5 SummaryonINSBasedSystems
The peifoimance of INS baseu peuestiian navigation uepenus on seveial factois: the fiequency
of absolute positioning upuates pioviueu by a complimentaiy sensoi system, the quality of the
IN0 useu anu the amount of auuitional infoimation ueiiveu fiom the humans gait cycle. Foot
mounteu systems can make use of zeio velocity uuiing the foot is in stance stage anu have
theiefoie a uiift of less than 1 % of the tiavelleu uistance compaieu to IN0s mounteu at othei
bouy paits with uiifts being typically laigei than 1 %. INS baseu navigation is the only appioach
which can be useu without any infiastiuctuie at least foi a ceitain time span. A compaiison of
INS baseu appioaches incluueu in this suivey is given in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1 Pedestrian navigation approaches, sensors used and performance parameters as reported
Name Mounting
BodyPart
orDevice
Accuracy
(%ofDistance
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LocalReference IMUSensors EKF Maturity

Lukianto phone 3 3 y y y WLAN,Bluetooth MTIGXsens y suggest.
Mathiassen unspecified 23%,10m/60s 3 3 y 3 y GNSS,Barom. ADIS16405 y study
Sun belt 2% 3 3 y y GNSS AK8976A y study
Beauregard helmet few% 3 3 3 y GNSS MT9Xsens study
Bao limbs activitydetection 9 ADXL201 study
Shin phone 1%5% 3 3 3 MEMS study
Kemppi waist/pocket 16%,17m 3 3 map,beacon Accelerometer PF study
Aufderheide camera 3 3 3 images MEMS y suggest.
Keler chest/foot 3 3 y y y y images SCA/ADIS16255 y study
LiuT. backpack 1% 3 3 3 scanners,Images InertiaCube3 study
Seitz phone 5m 3 3 y y WLANRSSI BoschBMA150 study
Fink belt 0.67m 2 1 y RSSI LIS3LV y study
Schmid body 5%,3m 3 3 y ZigBeeRSSI MTIGXsens y study
Klingbeil waist 1m6m 3 3 y 3 y y GPS,US,RF,CSS Accelrometer y prod
Gusenbauer phone 4% 3 y y y map,AGNSS N97 y study
Wagner phone/car 115m y y y y map builtinCAR y test
Pressl Belt 12m 3 1 y 3 y y map,GNSS PNMVectronix y prototype
Nilsson foot 0.1%0.44% 3 3 y KF simulation
Skog foot 0.140.20% 3 3 y y MicroStrain3DM y study
WanNavShoe foot 0.14% 3 3 y testwithout NavChip y prototype
Walder foot buildingmodel 3 3 y y y y mapmatching MTIGXsens y study
Jimnez foot 1%1m 3 3 y y y RFIDRSSI MTIGXsens y study
Frank foot 1.6m 3 3 y y y WLANRSSI MEMS y study


15MagneticLocalization 100
15 MagneticLocalization

Positioning systems using aitificial magnetic anu electiomagnetic fielus aie uesciibeu in this
chaptei. Nagnetic fielus can be geneiateu fiom peimanent magnets oi fiom coils using
Alteinating Cuiient (AC) oi pulseu Biiect Cuiient (BC) fielus. Electiomagnetic fielus can also be
useu foi positioning in combineu use of theii electiic fielu anu magnetic fielu. The two souices of
electiomagnetic fielus aie static chaiges piouucing electiic fielus anu cuiients piouucing
magnetic fielus. 0scillating chaiges piouuce electiic anu magnetic fielus.
15.1 SystemsUsingtheAntennaNearField
The NeaiFielu Electiomagnetic Ranging (NFER) uses the piopeities of iauio waves, wheie the
neai fielu encompasses an antenna oi, moie geneially, any electiomagnetic iauiation souice
with an appioximate spheie of iauius 16 of the iauiation wavelength (Capps 2uu1). In NFER,
the uistance fiom a small tiansmittei antenna is ueiiveu fiom the phase ielation between the
electiic anu the magnetic fielu components of an electiomagnetic fielu. The ieceivei unit must
be able to ieceive the two signal components sepaiately anu compaie theii phases. Close to the
antenna, these components have a maximal phase uiffeience of 9u. Since the phase uiffeience
uecieases with the uistance to the antenna it can be useu foi iange ueteimination within a
ceitain pioximity to the antenna. As a majoi auvantage NFER uoes not iequiie synchionization
oi signal mouulation. Seconuly, if low fiequencies aiounu 1 NBz aie useu, the signals have the
potential to penetiate walls. 0n the othei hanu, the use of low RF fiequencies iequiies laige ie
ceivei units since an efficient ieceivei antenna neeus to be within a quaiteiwavelength in size.
The 2B location system QTiack, chaiacteiizeu in Schantz et al. (2u11) makes use of the NFER
piinciple. The system is uesigneu foi an opeiating iange of (2 )
1
wheie the applieu
wavelength is = Suu m (1 NBz). Neasuiements aie taken in an office enviionment with non
lineofsight conuitions (i.e. thiough the walls). The iepoiteu aveiage uistance ueviation is SS cm
with an opeiating iange between 1.4 m anu 2S m. An accuiacy of 1 m is iepoiteu foi 8S % of the
x anu ypositions which aie ueteimineu fiom multilateiation using S fixeu ieceiveis.
15.2 SystemsUsingMagneticFieldsfromCurrents
Nagnetic fielus aie piouuceu by magnetic mateiial oi electiical cuiients. A type of positioning
system makes exclusive use of the stiength anu the uiiection of the magnetic fielu. Two ielateu,
15.2SystemsUsingMagneticFieldsfromCurrents 101


but sepaiately tieateu measuies exist foi the magnetic fielu: the magnetic fielu stiength H (Am)
anu the magnetic flux uensity B (Tesla). The ielation of the two quantities is
B = E, (1S.1)
wheie is the a mateiial uepenuent paiametei known as peimeability. The peimeability vaiies
not only with the conuuctivity of the mateiial but also with the tempeiatuie anu the fiequency
of the fielu. Bespite the vaiiability of , pioviueis of magnetic positioning systems use the
simplifieu teim magnetic fielu consiueiing H anu B to be piopoitional.
Biiect Cuiient (BC) magnetics use pulseu uiiect cuiients wheie the cuiient fiequency is low
enough to be consiueieu static. Static magnetic fielus aie causeu by uiffeient uiiect cuiient
souices, such as coils oi wiies.
15.2.1 SystemsUsingCoils
An aitificial quasi static magnetic fielu can be cieateu by electiical coils. A useful piopeity of a
coil baseu magnetic fielu is that it can be well pieuicteu fiom a theoietic mouel. The flux uensity
of a veitically oiientateu coil is
B(, r) =

0
uIF
4nr
4
1 +Ssin
2
, (1S.2)
wheie
u
is peimeability of vacuum, u the numbei of loops, I the electiic cuiient, F the aiea of
the coil, the elevation angle of a point P in ielation to the coil anu r the uistance of that point to
the coil. Bue to iotational symmetiy of a coil, the flux uensity B is inuepenuent of the hoiizontal
angle. At a mobile magnetic fielu sensoi, B can be measuieu at any point P within the fielu.
Equation (1S.2) can be iesolveu foi uistance r anu elevation angle . If multiple coils geneiate
magnetic fielus at known locations, the ielative SB position of the sensoi can be ueteimineu. The
coilbaseu appioach has seveial auvantages: a) it can be useu unuei NLoS conuitions, b) the
magnetic fielu is not affecteu by ieflection oi multipath anu c) kinematic tiacking is possible at
high measuiement iates with an unlimiteu numbei of sensois.
Blankenbach anu Noiiuine (2u1u) have built an expeiimental mouel using a coil with u.S m in
uiametei anu 14u loops. A ianging accuiacy of a few centimeteis was achieveu foi shoit
uistances of less than 1u m. Foi laigei uistances, the magnetic fielu tuineu out to be too weak
anu theiefoie vulneiable to noise. 0ne of the iesults was that theie is a uisciepancy between
theoietical mouel anu obseivation, which inuicates a iequiiement foi piioi system calibiation.
Ascension (2u11) pioviues the coil baseu system tiack STAR which uses pulseu BC magnetic
fielu tiansmitteis with opeiating ianges between u.8 m anu 4.2 m. Foi the veision with laige
aiea coveiage of 4 m, the positioning accuiacy of static objects is stateu as S.8 mm.
Aiumuam et al. (2u11) have useu an emittei uiiven at S87 kBz consisting of 4S tuins of a coppei
wiie to geneiate a magentoquasistatic fielu. Theoietical iesults ueiiveu fiom infinitesimal uipole
appioximation aie compaieu with expeiimental iesults, inuicating that uistances up to Su m can
be estimateu with an accuiacy of 2u cm.
15.2.2 SystemsUsingACMagnetics
0nlike systems baseu on coils using pulseu BC technology, AC (Alteinating Cuiient) baseu
magnetic tiacking systems aie less affecteu by the Eaiths magnetic fielu anu aitificial magnet
fielus fiom electiic uevices.
15MagneticLocalization 102
The electiomagnetic tiackei system LIBERTY fiom Polhemus (2u11) uses AC magnetic fielus
anu up to 16 sensois to obseive position anu oiientation of an object at upuate iates of 24u Bz.
Accoiuing to the iepoiteu submillimetei accuiacy, meuical applications aie possible within an
opeiating iange of 1.S m which can be extenueu up to 4.6 m.
InfiaSuivey (2u11) is offeiing the unueigiounu positioning system 0uPS baseu on low
fiequency AC magnetic fielus. It has been uesigneu foi measuiing position anu oiientation of
objects in unueigiounu enviionments such as mines, tunnels, caves oi pipes, but can also be
useu foi inuooi positioning. Baseu on uistance measuiements between static ieceiveis ueployeu
at the suiface, it is possible to locate an active magnetic tiansmittei weighing 8 kg within 1 m
piecision at a uistance of 1uu m anu a maximum opeiating uistance of 2uu m. The position of the
abovesuiface ieceivei stations aie ueteimineu by uNSS. The piinciple of 0uPS is illustiateu in
Figuie 1S.1.
Figure 15.1 Principle of Underground GPS, InfraSurvey (2011)
15.3 SystemsUsingPermanentMagnets
The seconu methou of using the magnetic flux uensity foi positioning is thiough magnetic fielus
cieateu by peimanent magnets. A typical system consists of multiple static magnetic sensois
which measuie the magnetic flux uensity of a mobile magnet. Alteinatively, multiple static
peimanent magnets at known locations can be useu to locate a mobile magnetic fielu sensoi.
Cuiient appioaches inuicate a measuiement volume of 1 m
S
, which iestiicts the methou to close
iange usage, such as meuical applications. A majoi challenge in positioning using peimanent
magnets aiises fiom the complexity of the magnetic fielu. Nathematic mouels involve high oiuei
nonlineai equations which cieate a multimoual objective function with multiple local optima foi
the position solution.
Song et al. (2uu9) locate a cylinuiical peimanent magnet fiom 64 ueployeu magnetic sensois
within a space of u.S m
2
. At a measuiement iate of 67 Bz anu a latency of 1S ms, they achieve an
aveiage position ueviation of 1.8 mm anu an angulai ueviation of 1.S in the magnets
oiientation. The system auuiesses the application of SB positioning of a capsule enuoscope in a
human bouy.
15.4SummaryonMagneticLocalization 103


Liu W. et al. (2u1u) combine optical tiacking anu magnetic localization in oiuei to oveicome the
occlusion pioblem that optical systems face. A peimanent magnet is tiackeu by a uense aiiay of
sensois which measuie the magnetic flux intensity in thiee uimensions within a cubic shapeu
magnetic fielu. The auvantage of using a magnetic system component is that line of sight
between the magnetic sensoi anu the tiackeu object is not a iequiiement. The optical mouule is
a ieuunuant system component which consists of 4 viueo cameias anu is useu to enhance the
iobustness to uistuibance by feiiomagnetic objects within the woiking volume. The iepoiteu
positional accuiacy foi the combineu system is 1 mm within a volume of 1 m
S
.
15.4 SystemsUsingMagneticFingerprinting
The iuea of magnetic fingeipiinting aiises fiom animals that ueteimine theii position fiom local
anomalies of the Eaiths magnetic fielu. Likewise in builuings, each location has its unique
signatuie of its magnetic flux uensity. These fluctuations in space aiise fiom natuial anu man
maue souices, such as metal builuing mateiial, electiic powei systems anu inuustiial uevices.
The anomalies of the magnetic fielu have sufficient vaiiability in space to be uetecteu by a
magnetometei. 0nuei the assumption that the magnetic fielu insiue a builuing is appioximately
static, a fingeipiinting methou can be applieu. A magnetic map of the iooms is taken in a setup
phase, anu the cuiient location is ueteimineu by compaiing the cuiient flux uensity with the
flux uensity values stoieu in the uatabase.
Baveiinen anu Kemppainen (2uu9) have mounteu a Saxis magnetometei on a iobot to
ueteimine its location within a builuing by magnetic fingeipiinting. The magnetometei has been
mounteu at the enu of a iou with a length of u.4 m to avoiu influence of the ambient magnetic
fielu fiom the iobots motoi. Subsequent to a calibiation phase, the uetection of the iobots
location along a path length of 278 m was possible. The iobot neeueu to tiavel 2S m on aveiage
in oiuei to get localizeu by compaiing the magnetic flux values. Along that oneuimensional
path, the iepoiteu accuiacy was u.2 m.
15.5 SummaryonMagneticLocalization
0nlike othei technologies, magnetic localization uoes not iequiie the maintenance of a lineof
sight between sensoi anu souice. Theiefoie, the use of electiic anu magnetic velocity fielus is
auvantageous if walls neeu to be penetiateu anu is the only way to uetect stiuctuies buiieu ueep
unueigiounu. Biffeient appioaches iange fiom systems ueuicateu foi suigeiy with less than
1 m
S
volume opeiating at mmaccuiacy level up to laige coveiage, low accuiacy fingeipiinting
systems, see Table 1S.1 foi a compaiison.
Table 15.1. Approaches based on magnetic localization techniques and reported performance parameters
Name Year Principle Coverage
Area
Application Reported
Accuracy
Market
Maturity
QTrack 2011 nearfield 23m NLoSoffice&industry 50cm experimentalsystem
Blankenbach 2010 DCfield,coils 10m NLoSindoor fewcm experimentalsystem
Ascension 2011 DCfield,coils 4.2m medicalinstr.guidance 14mm commercialsystem
Arumugam 2011 DCfield,coils 50m Americanfootball 20cm experimentalsystem
InfraSurvey 2011 ACmagneticfield 200m caves,mines,tunnels 1m commercialsystem
Polhemus 2011 ACmagneticfield 1.5m(5m) head&bodytracking 0.7mm commercialsystem
Song 2009 permanentmagnet 0.5m endoscope 2mm experimentalsystem
Liu 2010 permanentmagnet 1m assistedsurgery 1mm experimentalsystem
Haverinen 2009 fingerprinting 280m(1D) robotlocalization 20cm experimentalsystem

16InfrastructureSystems 104
16 InfrastructureSystems
This chaptei outlines inuooi positioning appioaches which cannot be matcheu to any of the
technologies uiscusseu in the pievious chapteis. These technologies make use of existing
builuing infiastiuctuie oi embeu auuitional infiastiuctuie into the builuing mateiial. The
uevelopeu systems can be hiuuen fiom its useis into the stiuctuies of the builuing.
16.1 PowerLines
Powei Line Positioning (PLP) is a fingeipiintingbaseu methou to pioviue subioom positioning
in a householu baseu on the existing electiical giiu. In compaiison to RFIB systems which
iequiie uense ueployment of RFIB chips, PLP simply uses the powei line infiastiuctuie in a
builuing. The piinciple of PLP is that unmouulateu caiiiei wave signals in the fiequency iange
between a few kBz to 2u NBz aie geneiateu by an inteiface mouule pluggeu into an electiical
outlet in a home. These signals consist of eneigy iich electiical tiansients anu can be wiielessly
ieceiveu by passive tags. At the tags iesonance fiequency, the iesonatoi inuuctively couples
back a signal into the powei line. This signal can be uetecteu in a socalleu powei line inteiface
as a uecaying swinging. If multiple tags with uiffeiing iesonance fiequencies aie useu, an
inuiviuual iuentification of the tags becomes possible.
Patel et al. (2uu9) piesent a pioof of concept of theii powei line location system baseu on
batteiyless tags. Foi the cuiient system the ieau uistance along the powei line is S m to 4 m anu
the maximal ieauing uistance between the tags anu the electiical wiiing is Su cm. At this stage,
the system only pioviues the uetection of the tags iathei than an actual location which can be
associateu with a positioning accuiacy. Bespite these limitations Patel et al. see applications as
finuing lost items anu the uetection of the absence of a taggeu item. Stuntebeck et al. (2uu8)
have employeu wiuebanu signals with fiequencies between 447 kBz anu 2u NBz anu taken 66
fingeipiints in a u.9 m by u.9 m giiu. Theii iesults show that it is possible to achieve giiulevel
accuiacy. A uiawback of the system is its low tempoial stability anu the uegiauation of the
system in enviionments with uistuibing electiical equipment. As a fingeipiintingbaseu
technology, theie is also the iequiiement of an initial site suivey which incluues signal
amplituue measuiements at seveial fingeipiints locations.
16.2 FloorTiles
Passive, unobtiusive inuooi tiacking of human beings can be achieveu using multiple flooi tiles.
The main auvantage is that they aie invisible to the usei anu that the useis uo not neeu to be
equippeu with any tags. Such systems can uetect a stanuing human in 2B up to an accuiacy of 1
16.3LeakyFeederCables 105


um, allowing foi applications in healthcaie anu AAL. Theie aie uiffeient sensoi techniques that
builu on the concept of smait caipets.
The tile tiack system of valtonen et al. (2uu9) is baseu on measuiing the capacitance between
multiple flooi tiles. When a peison is stanuing ovei a tile, the capacitance between the human
feet anu a tiansmittei incieases. The system can tiack multiple peisons, if they stay at least one
tile apait fiom each othei. valtonen et al. iepoit an accuiacy of 1S cm foi a stanuing human anu
41 cm foi a walking peison. A laigeaiea capacitive system uesigneu foi Ambient Assisteu Living
(AAL) has been uesciibeu in Steinhage et al. (2uu7) anu commeicializeu unuei the name
SensFlooi (2u11). The inuiviuual mats of the textile unueilay system SensFlooi uelivei the
acquiieu uata to a cential unit via a iauio link. Rimminen et al. (2uu9 anu 2u1u) piesent a flooi
sensoi system, which uses the electiical neaifielu foi falluetection.
Anothei way of builuing a tile tiacking system is to measuie the piessuie unuei humans feet.
Aiiays of foicesensitive iesistois can uetect the piessuie on tiles ueployeu on the flooi.
Richauson et al. (2uu4) uesciibe the piessuiebaseu flooi tiack system ZTiles that ueteimines
the position thiough a seiies of hexagonal tiles, which join togethei to foim a flexible piessuie
sensing suiface. In oiuei to foiwaiu the piessuie infoimation, a selfoiganizeu netwoik is set up.
Richaiuson et al. iepoit a iesolution of 4 cm anu a iesponse time of a few milliseconus foi theii
system which has been piimaiily uesigneu foi inteiactive uance floois anu gaming.
16.3 FluorescentLamps
The piinciple of optical communication can be useu to employ lamps foi the puipose of inuooi
guiuance. It is possible to employ fluoiescent light tubes which have become a common type of
light souice in office builuings. Fieespace optical uata tiansmission using electiomagnetic
waves in the visible oi infiaieu banus is enableu by mouulation of the lamp cuiient. A switch
moue contiol uevice piouuces a vaiiation of phase oi fiequency of the lamps AC cuiient,
cieating a mouulation of the piouuceu luminous flux anu geneiating a signal with a coue being
unique to eveiy lamp. The mouulation fiequency is chosen to be gieatei than 2u kBz, such that
auuible noise is avoiueu. As a light sensoi on a mobile platfoim passes the mouulateu light
souice, its position is ueteimineu by ieauing the unique coue of the neaiest lamp.
Liu et al. (2uu6) have uemonstiateu feasibility foi an implementation of an inuooi guiuance
system foi the blinu using fluoiescent lights. A positioning system baseu on light communication
has been combineu with an IN0 baseu navigation system by Nishikata et al. (2u11). The
appioach uses visible light signals to pioviue absolute position upuates foi a ueau ieckoning
system.
16.4 LeakyFeederCables
A Leaky feeuei consists of a long coaxial cable ueployeu along coiiiuois to pioviue iauio
seivices in builuings anu unueigiounu enviionments. As its name implies, a leaky feeuei is
uesignateu to let iauio signals leak out of the cable along its length. While this technology was
oiiginally uesigneu foi communication, existing infiastiuctuie of leaky feeuei cables can be useu
foi inuooi positioning baseu on iauiateu RF signals. Although homogeneous iauio signal
coveiage thioughout the cable is wanteu foi communication, theie is an unavoiuable attenuation
along its entiie length. The loss in signal stiength can be useu to cieate a RSSI fingeipiinting
map which shows a uistinct ielation between location anu signal amplituue. The position of a
16InfrastructureSystems 106
ieceivei can be ueuuceu uuiing an online phase via compaiison of the cuiient fingeipiint anu
those in the uatabase. The auvantage of using RSSI of leaky feeueis is the iobustness to
enviionmental changes. Rauio technologies useu foi leaky feeuei cables aie uSN anu WLAN.
Webei et al. (2u11) caiiieu out expeiiments with a 4u m WLAN leaky feeuei ueployeu on the
ceiling of an office hallway. Baseu on 41 fingeipiints with a sepaiation of 1 m, it was possible to
ueteimine the 1B position with an oveiall accuiacy of 4 m.
Peieiia et al. (2u11) caiiieu out similai stuuies on an existing leaky feeuei cable installeu
thioughout the tunnel foi the LBC acceleiometei in Switzeilanu. The leaky feeuei supplies the
whole tunnel of 27 km peiimetei with uSN signal coveiage. Fingeipiints weie taken in inteivals
of 2uu m along the entiie tunnel wheie the longituuinal attenuation (with factois of about
4 uBkm) coulu be ielateu to the tunnel chainage within an accuiacy of ca. 2uu m. This iesult
coulu be impioveu by an incieaseu iesolution of the calibiation map.
16.5 SummaryonInfrastructureSystems
Existing builuing infiastiuctuie as well as infiastiuctuie ueployeu unobtiusively in the builuing
inteiioi foi the puipose of inuooi positioning can be successfully useu foi pioviuing positioning
seivices within a builuing at vaiious levels of accuiacy anu costs. In Table 16.1 peifoimance
paiameteis of uiffeient infiastiuctuie baseu systems aie quantifieu.
Table 16.1. Infrastructure based systems
Name Year Principle Existingor
Deployed
Infrastructure
Coverage Application Reported
Accuracy
Market
Maturity
Patel 2009 powerlines existing 3m4m findinglostitems detection study
Stuntebeck 2008 powerlines existing building locationawarehomes 1m3m study
Valtronen 2009 floortiles deployed 2.42.0m assistanceforelderly 15cm40cm prototype
SensFloor 2011 floortiles deployed 50m
2
assistanceforelderly dm product
Rimminen 2009 floortiles deployed 19m
2
falldetection 21cm prototype
Richardson 2004 floortiles deployed <4m
2
dancefloor >4cm prototype
Liu 2006 fluorescentlamps existing building guidancefortheblind study
Nishikata 2011 fluorescentlamps existing building robotguidance 10cm study
Weber 2011 leakyfeeder deployed 40m indoorlocalization 4m study
Pereira 2011 leakyfeeder existing 27km unmannedprocessing 200m study


17.1Outlook 107


17 ConcludingRemarks
17.1 Conclusion
The uiveisity of uiffeient technological solutions foi inuooi positioning anu navigation shows
how piofounuly inteiuisciplinaiy the fielu is anu ieflects that almost any signalsensoi
technique can be exploiteu foi this puipose. Bespite the abunuance of appioaches which exist to
tackle the inuooi positioning pioblem, cuiient solutions cannot cope with the peifoimance level
that significant applications iequiie. In shoit, iequiiements foi the mass maiket incluue 1 m
hoiizontal accuiacy, flooi iuentification, absence of coveiagegaps, >99 % availability anu
minimal costs foi local installations. Apait fiom insufficiency in position accuiacy, coveiage anu
availability, the neeu foi extensive noue ueployment anu maintenance is the main ieason why
system implementations aie not sufficiently economical. A goou fiaction of ieseaich appioaches
aie also missing appealing usability to enable wiuescale consumei auoption.
17.2 Outlook
To impiove this situation of insufficiency in peifoimance, two tasks neeu to be peifoimeu. Fiist,
usei iequiiements neeu to iefineu, i.e. specific ueteimination anu quantification of iequiiements
paiameteis foi eveiy application. These figuies pioviue essential guiuelines foi futuie focus in
ieseaich anu implementation of efficient inuooi positioning systems. The seconu task is
thoiough peifoimance benchmaiking of implementeu systems. In this context, benchmaiking
shoulu not be unueistoou as simple compaiison of uiffeient inuooi positioning systems, but also
as the task of finuing the optimal match between quantifieu iequiiements anu assesseu
peifoimance paiameteis foi each application sepaiately. Fulfillment of the two tasks is not
stiaightfoiwaiu uue to a laige numbei of uiffeient peifoimance ciiteiia which neeu to be
weigheu against each othei in the foim of a piioiity list. Completion of benchmaiking was out of
scope foi this woik. In oiuei to be successful, useis, pioviueis, uevelopeis anu manufactuieis of
inuooi positioning systems must collaboiatively uiscuss potential achievements foi each
application. While solutions can be founu foi specific inuooi positioning tasks with a limiteu
aiea of influence, an oveiall solution such as uNSS foi outuooi enviionments can only be
founu aftei agieement on stanuaius in communication anu piotocols.

Acronyms 108
Acronyms
Acronym Expansion / Meaning
2B Two Bimensions
SB Thiee Bimensions
AAL Ambient Assistant Living
AC Alteinating Cuiient
AuNSS Assisteu uNSS
AuPS Assisteu uPS
AoA Angle of Aiiival
AP Access Point
AR Augmenteu Reality
ATR Automatic Taiget Recognition
BIN Builuing Infoimation Nouel
BN Blinu Noue
BS Base Station
CAB ComputeiAiueu Besign
CCB Chaige Coupleu Bevice
CBNA Coue Bivision Nultiple Access
CIR Channel Impulse Response
CityuNL City ueogiaphy Naikup Language, a common infoimation mouel foi the
iepiesentation of SB uiban objects
CN0S Complementaiy Netal 0xiue Semiconuuctoi
CRLB CiamiRao Lowei Bounu
CSS Chiip Spieau Spectium
uB Becibel, (= u.1 Bel)
uBm Powei iatio in uecibels (uB) of the measuieu powei iefeienceu to one milliwatt
uBW Becibel Watt, a unit foi the signal stiength expiesseu in uecibels iefeienceu to one
watt
BC Biiect Cuiient
BECT Bigital Enhanceu Coiuless Technology
BuNSS Biffeiential ulobal Navigation Satellite System
BoF Begiees of Fieeuom
BPN Bominant Path Nouel
BR Beau Reckoning
ECC Euiopean Communications Committee
ECo0 Enhanceu Cell of 0iigin
EBN Electionic Bistance Netei
EKF Extenueu Kalman Filtei
EPAN Extenueu Phase Accoiuance Nethou
FCC Feueial Communications Commission
FN Fiequency Nouulation
Acronyms 109


FNCLR Fiequency Nouulateu Coheient Lasei Rauai
FNCW Fiequency Nouulateu Continuous Wave
FP Fingeipiinting
uIS ueogiaphic Infoimation System
uL0NASS ulobalnaja Nawigazionnaja Sputnikowaja Sistema, a uNSS system
uNSS ulobal Navigation Satellite System, any of the existing oi pioposeu satellitebaseu
positioning systems, such as uPS, uL0NAS, ualileo anu Beiuou
gon 0nit wheie a ciicle measuies to 4uu uegiees
uPS ulobal Positioning System, a uNSS system
uSN ulobal System foi Nobile communication
BF Bigh Fiequency (S NBz to Su NBz)
BSuNSS Bigh Sensitive ulobal Navigation Satellite System
Bz Beitz, SI name foi cycles pei seconu
IB Iuentification (numbei)
IEEE Institute of Electiical anu Electionics Engineeis
iuPS iuPS (inuooi ulobal Positioning System) a laseibaseu SB measuiement system
offeieu by Nikon Netiology
IN0 Ineitial Neasuiement 0nit
INS Ineitial Navigation System
IR Infiaieu
ISN Inuustiial, Scientific anu Neuical iauio banu, ieseiveu inteinationally foi the use of
iauio fiequency othei than communications
}CuN }oint Committee foi uuiues in Netiology
KF Kalman Filtei
KNN KNeaiest Neighboi
LAN Local Aiea Netwoik
LBS Location Baseu Seivices
LEB Light Emitting Bioue
LF Low Fiequency (Su kBz Suu kBz)
LBC Laige Bauion Colliuei, a paiticle acceleiatoi neai ueneva
LoB Level of Betail
LoS Line of Sight
LPS Local Positioning System
NAC Neuia Access Contiol (layei)
NENS Nicio ElectioNechanical System
NBS Nulti Bimensional Scaling
NIN0 NultipleInput Nultiple0utput
NLS Naximum Length Sequences
NN Nap Natching
NS Nobile Station
NT Nobile Teiminal
NWN Nulti Wall Nouel
NFER Neai Fielu Electiomagnetic Ranging
NLI Natuial Language Instiuctions
NLoS Non Line of Sight
PB Phase Biffeience
PBR Peuestiian Beau Reckoning
PLP Powei Line Positioning
PoA Phase of Aiiival
PRN Pseuuo Ranuom (sequence) Numbei
PSB Position Sensitive Bevice
RABAR RAuio Betection Anu Ranging
RF Rauio Fiequency
RFC Receptive Fielu Coocuiience
RFIB Rauio Fiequency IBentification
Acronyms 110
RNSB Root Nean Squaie Beviation
RR Response Rate
RSS Receiveu Signal Stiength
RSSI Receiveu Signal Stiength Inuicatoi
RTLS Real Time Locating System
RToF Rounutiip Time of Flight
RTT Rounu Tiip Time
SBSTWR Symmetiical BoubleSiueu Two Way Ranging
SFCW Steppeu Fiequency Continuous Wave
SBF Supei Bigh Fiequency (S uBz Su uBz)
SLAN Simultaneous Localization Anu Napping
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
SoL Safety of Life
TBoA Time Biffeience of Aiiival
ToA Time of Aiiival
ToF Time of Flight
TTFF Time To Fiist Fix
TWR Two Way Ranging
0BF 0ltia Bigh Fiequency (Suu NBz S uBz)
0S 0ltia Sounu
0TNS 0niveisal Nobile Telecommunications System
0WB 0ltiaWiuebanu
vBF veiy Bigh Fiequency (Su NBz to Suu NBz)
WLAN Wiieless Local Aiea Netwoik
WPAN Wiieless Peisonal Aiea Netwoik
WSN Wiieless Sensoi Netwoiks
ZAR0 ZeioAngulai Rate 0puate
Z0PT Zeio velocity0PuaTe

Symbols 111


Symbols
Symbol Expansion / Meaning Symbol Expansion / Meaning
A amplituue m numbei of fingeipiints
o
P
estimateu vaiiance of a point P n numbei of points noues
a
P
aveiage position ueviation of point P n
m
numbei of mobile positions
aveiageu fast fauing teim n
r
numbei of ianges
B magnetic flux uensity n
s
numbei of static noues
b banuwiuth peimeability
c empiiical pass loss penetiation factoi
u
peimeability of vacuum
c RSSI calibiation vectoi P position vectoi
C
x
vaiiancecovaiiance matiix P

estimateu position
c
u
speeu of light in vacuum p path loss exponent
cor coiielation coefficient P
R
ieceiveu powei
d uistance P
T
tiansmitteu powei
d vectoi of uistances heauing
f fiequency spectium elevation angle
t time inteival q numbei of joints
F aiea of a coil r iange
f iauio fiequency rr iange iesolution
f fingeipiint r (t) multipath signal
G
R
antenna gain of ieceivei r
t
RSSI ieceiveu at time t
G
T
antenna gain of tiansmittei s (t) tiansmitteu signal
mouel paiametei foi slow fauing stanuaiu ueviation
H magnetic fielu stiength o
P
stanuaiu ueviation of position P
h mouel paiametei foi fast fauing uelay of a piopagation path
I electiic cuiient T tempeiatuie
i point noue numbei t time
j fingeipiint numbei u numbei of loops of a coil
k numbei of floois v velocity, speeu
L total pass loss x, y, z cooiuinates
l step length x state vectoi
wavelength z (t) ianuom noise

References 112
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