. . ... ....

sFE--f?23-

FORMATION EVALUATrON

Using Compressional and Shear Acoustic Amplitudes for ~ The Location of Fractures
.

R. 1. MORRIS MEMBER AIME D. R. GRINE T. E. ARKFELD,

SCHLUMBERGER WELL SURVEYING CORP. HOUSrON, TEX. RIDGEFIELD, CONN. ENID, OKLA.

, .1 .,

Abstract
i:irld results huve shown that fr(tcturecl ZWeS tIICiY be 1,)at<d hy their a(tetld~nt reduction of acoustic amplitude. Laboratory and theoretical investigations confirm this tech)Iiql(epbut itlterpretatiotz of amplitude logs is complicated ly the many variable factors eticountered in actual logging

()p.rations.
The acoustic a));p[itlde ittvesligatiolls covered by this [wper were lnade by Cotltinllous ttle&metttettts of the peak aniplitudes Of single, and ~ve[l defined compressionai and vllvur.wave apri~a[s. A S~mul@~eously recorded tneasureII[mt of interval tr&rft -time or total travel titne, in each case, itu!icated ,vjr~tjler or Ilot there had been a continuous wplitude tneasuttnzent of the saint wave arrival. [nvestigatiotls have Sijowtz thai the angle at which a !racture platze crosses a boreitole afidcts the attenuation Of WN[srie signals. Theoretically, horizontal ftuCtllreS [the Perpend@dar to the axis of the borehole) should cause litl~e or no ittemiation Cf the contpressioilal wave; this is ~Otlfirn&d by field e.~at@es. Shear-velocity wa WS, On tflC other /lalt/f, are Significantly attenuated by horizontal fraerures. lVh)le obliqm fractures cause c reduction o} compresantpiittide nleawre$iottal-}vave atnp[itude, silear-wave InettIs in slich cues ttlay not be GS definitive. Since the My contpressionai arrivals are not subject to interference cntnplicatiotu, as are shear arrivals, both tneasurements ~hm!d fse ,nade and Ilsec[ to wtnp!etnent each otiler.

cttting weak compressional arrivals, occurred opposite suspected fractured intervals. subsequent developments have permitted recording acoustic amplitude as well as studying scope pictures of the wave train. Several papers have shown th~d,qfefulness of these methods to locate fractures, $-: The process of fracture detectionfroms ignalamplitude variation is complex. Laboratory and field studies have shown that the effects of a number of variables must be considered in the interpretation of amplitude changes. It is the purpose of this paper toexplorethe use of the acoustic signal to detect fractures, taking into consideration the cfiect of these other variables. Propagation of The Acoustic Signal A simplified representation of the sonic waves formed by a source of sotmd in. a liquid-filled borehole is given in Fig. 1. Capital letters designate the wave when it is travcling in the mud, subscripted letters when it travels in the formation. A theoretical description of these waves for the analogous problem of wave propagation in a liquid layer over a solid half space was given by Strick~ The waves labeled P and St are the direct and Stoneley waves, respectively. The theory of their propagation in a borehole has been developed by Biot and they have been observed by Pickett? The other waves in the borehole labeled PPP and P,P, are the refracted compressional arriva[ and the shear velocity arrival. The R wave will be mentioned later. ~
The Refraded @npre83imsd Wave If compressional velocity in the formation

z ,! I ~
i

: :

Introduction

, Vp, is enough higher than mud ve!ocity C the first arrival in the sonic wa~form is a wave that has traveled from the transmitter to the formation as a compressional wave in the mud, has -been wfraded- at. the tioiehde -wall,-+md-has-traveied along the wall at the compressional-wave. velocity in the formation. In an inllnite medium, each small pafiicle affected by a compre~sional wave osci!kttes onl~ in the ditwctioh of wave propagation as the compressions and rarcfisctions trravel ~ast. h.. When a. borehole-. exist%- Panicle motion is more complex. Referrin? to. Fig. - ], as. [he P, wav~ mche; dmsg ~hc . . ..

An hportzk problem in formation cv;lutttion is the Cation of fractllred zones. Because of the rehttively low atioof fracture void to bulk volume, down-hole measurettt$of formation resistivitv. acoustic velocity. ordensitk .4
..

; , .

A Wssible ~oiufion to the probl&uwas noted on early sonic [.ogs ~,u~ ifihard fornlatfons, Cyc!e-skipl>ing, hdi. . .dice ., ---- j,,~vrly~nd i~-fj&FetyO~ Pet-ml&i Emritwrs -fi[lnuSF&~~~c,.e(v~l
.

.-, II .. . . . : I

-.

..

. .

. . .. . . .

, ,

an axiid particle motion, the -borehole wall produchg formation also movcs out into the morp compressible mud m the rock ~s compressed, Luxi LIwtsyfrom the mud as it is rarefied. This radial particle motion generates II shear wiwc h-s the formation P,,. and, more importantly, gencmtes a compressiontsl wave in [he mud, PI,P, This las[ is the conical mud wave which is the first arrival @ sonic logging if cornpressional vklocit y in the formation is higher ihan in fhe mud, Fig, 2a shows the ray ptith of the first comprcssionidwave arrival, P,,P just described. Part of [he energy of the mud wave P is refracted at level r forming P,,, which emerges at level I as P,,P, the first arrival at the reccivcr R.

The rcvcrbcratcd arrival by caCh possible poth ~dn ~v thollght of us rc,$!fed to iI f\~CllOLI T of the fjrst ~r. riviil. Since lhc )1 rcvcrbcrat!,on has, (J1 ~ ] ~ possible pwhs, the amplitude of the n the rcvcrberatlon is ~P proXinliltCly (11+...1) T. . The fo{mula does not quite apply smc~ the ChStOrt:On m t@CCllOrJm from the borehole ~ ~,all, and m transmwslon, does Stoi give ~ simple coc~. cicnt 2. However, ~hc formula ~ocs roughly describe the revcrbcrat ion LI mphtudes. Multlp],e Conlpresslonalj rCvcr. hcrations frequently fo:nl the rilLijOr pOrllOtt of Ihc no~~c , birckground for the ~mvill of the rcfractcd, shear ~,tlvc. The !hmr Velocity Arrival ]<eferring again ,to Fig. 1, if the shc:r velocity in IIlc. fornlation V, is hlghcr Ih:n ~~ud veloclt y C the Sccol)ti iIIlporfant arrival. IS a comhl nat Ion of ref~~cted shear ~Vlil ~ and Stricvs pseudo-R ayleIgh wavc. This combinat ic>llif generptcd as a confprcssional wave at [he tran\nli[lur, and trii\/els up the borehole wall at hearlY the vclocily }f i shear waye in the formation. The .refriscjcd shcw U;t,c produces a particle motion ~hich M radtal in bor~}lt,ic gcomelry. The pseudo -lbybgir W~VC }Ias out-of -ph:i~v radial and axial particle motions in h formation, lhc,c tivo waves have such simiiar velocities that they urriic too close to one another to be distinguished. In this pilllt.l, they are hereafter sunply cailcd the shear-vc]ocily ~1,. rival. The strong radid Pmlicle motion of lhc SIW,U. velocity arri vaI produces a compressiorxd wave in I II(. mud, designated on Fig 1 x l.~. 11 cm be dctcckl lU the receiver, although this is oflen di~cuh bcc;llI~L,,, arrives along with the kter comprcssionirl arrivals.
TJte Use Of Compressional Amplitude In Sonic-Arnplifude Lagging

Mos~ of the @ergy of the mud witvc P k, howqver. retlected from the hole wall at the critical angle as PP (Fig. 2b). Again, pa~t of the energy of PP is refracted at level s as ray PP,, which emerges fronl the formation W level t as PP,,P, which reaches the receiver later than P,,P by the first reverberation delay titne~ w shown in the figure. Another compressiontrl-veloci!y arrival having the same delay time k shown in Fig. 2c. In this case, part of the energy of Pp emerges at level u, forming P,,P, which. in turn, is reflected at level t, as P,,PF, to the receiver. The arrivals of Fig. 2b and 2C are the main contributors to the first reverberated arrival.: Attenuation of the sound in the mud, and distortion of the signal in reflection from the borehole wall and passing through the sonde, will lower the amp]itude of these artiva]s. The arrivals bc individually less in in Figs. 2b and 2C wifl tserefore amplitude {than the first arrival (Fig. 2a). However, since the arrivals in 2b and 2C are simultaneous, they are additive and their sum may be even linger than the first arrival. /
Borehole *G (j

An cimly piiper on sonic logging dischssed tiw indit., tion of amplitude reduction opposite fractured inlcr~.tl. Fig. 3 is an example ofa Sonic Log run through linv.~t(uw Cycle skipping, recognized as due to weak comprusi~m,,t arrivals, occurs between 10, 10(I ami 10,200, ;Ind i! i\.l\ assumed that the skipping was caused. by frac[urc~.

k \
D

x
r

.D

/ c
Vp ys P Pp PS R #

P
velocity t PpP / wove R f ,.

~
PPp t

PP

is mud velocity
is formation is formotian is the direct

-,

compressionol shear velocity

mud wove compressianal shear wove wove ., Pp

is the, refrocted

is the refr-crcted
is the pseudo . is the Stoneley .. . . . .. . . . .

Royl&gh wavti .. .

(al

(b]
1. -? .. . . . .---

)
f

fP

PpP

./

PpPP R

(c-)

,t--

..

St

Pps is the formation

PpP is ihe P5P is the
. . . .. .

shear wave draggedby drogged by JPp

mud wo;e

,.:,

.,-. :>..,1/2 , ;Z

., ,. :-.

mud wove dragged

. . . .. . .

by ps
. . . ------

,0 FIRST REVERBERATION
., . . . . .. . :..

DELAY TIME=
.,-

D ;2

. ... .. . .

,11

P . . .. ... ....-.

.-:. .s-..

-.

.,-

._

,
., ---- 1 . .,. .. ..1

,, . .

. ..

A lug from this arco is shown in Fig. 5, The sonicilmplittldc and singie-reccivcr trtivcl-tinlc curves were recorded simu Itaneous[y, The : iattcr recording serves tts indicate iithology chirnges and also monitors tool centering. The sonic transit time irnd gamma my curves are used to recognize and discount the effects of iithologic III Ilw location of fractured intervals in the shallow chalk nnomdlies other than fractures on the amplitude curve. pf north Lollisiantr. Fig, 4 is an exiunple of 1!%, Zone A is described hy cores as cherty iimestone with S,,[liu AI, :InLI Sohic-Anlplitudc Logs reccmdcd opposite u extensive, pirrtially open. steeply inclined fracturing and i[lt~rvid. Reductions in illllplilllde ift-c noted over streaks of porosity up to 15 per cent. The cwnp:essiondi /,qIcs A and B. [n the same intcrvds. the tmnsit time is amplitude is greatly reduced by such a fracture system. I,w ~ indicating little. porosity,, The zones wire interpreted The transit time indicrttes the presence of porosi~y, and .,. cimtainirrg fractures and were perforated, resulting in the gamma ray shows the zone to be clean. Other mnplit(ti[hl production flow of 252 BOPD on a 12/64-in, choke. tude variiitions follow iithology changes. I hc low wnplitude between 3,2!30 and ;3,300 also indicates These examples show, very briefly, how the Sonicri)~~iblc f~lctllrcs, hilt the interval was not tested. An~pIitude Log has been successfully interpreted and used Smaller tunplitmie changes w-e interpreted irs irnonmlies to Iocat,e fractures in some areas. J thin forrnatiot~ discontinuitics. Comparison of the amIt had been hoped that, the cornprcssionai arrival cordd I, IIIWIC vtmiations with the transit tirnc and/or resistiv& be used quantitatively and universally kt fracture Iotation, ., .urvc$ is USCd to dtfferenticde between the effect of fra&. primarily because this arrival is the cleanest and can be IIircs i[nd [he ctfect of other formation variables. A devery accurately recorded, both in time and amplitude. crtmc in amplitude corresponding to it IOW sonic travel However, investigation has shown that while the. conlfme m high resistivity generally indicates tfvz fritctured T pressionai-ampiitude measurement is necessary, it alone is /,1[11-.\. not sufficient for location of ai i fractured zones. :\ [Llcil[ study made ef the kfississippi limestone in wwhcrn Oklahonla compared core descriptions and pro(Iuction results with compressiona[-a nlplitude changes obIND. RES. ~crv;d over the fornlation. It was established empirically, 1 u itb, in a given area, that amp]itttde reduction to 5 mv- or o I Qt3ms. Icw indicated (he presence of a productive fracture system. COMPRESSIONAL AMPLITUDE ()[hcr mnplitlide ~changes were found to be indicative of 40 I ~.- -------------------------m NJ SP SONIC At ln;i[ri~ changes, Iithologic discontinltities, or minor nonI50 + IOQ us 50 [rOLlllCtiVe fracturing. mv 1 ; -- 1 3200, (1 f:: ),c~:k is the sccomt half-cycle uf I% Soni. ~rri,ql: E. F,, ,L~OmP,=,.L. rib Lhdlk

I !]< dcvck~pmcnt ot amplitndc mcnsnrements for the { ~illctlt Ilond I.0~ hd ;11s0Io the invcstig~tio[l Of ampli. !:!LICrtcording in open hole.. The open-hote Sm-ric-Anlpli!I:tlc I.og rccorck the ilfllpIltLldC d an cady significant ,.,un[mssimxd arrival. i.e., the second or E,, p~ak.j: ( XWLsf the first successful itpplicatirms of the Iog \\,as

m!

I :<. s.

,<m:ll k.z LWnk

sem

.as

the. fi r.st positi>.e

Imik

on thL. W:wernlnls

of

A ?zx=?

SP 40 mv.

1 SPAN

3, SpAN 75 *S I

---3%m:YCLE SKIPPI A dENTtJATE % , . s ~ T-

-; . ..__-,.. . ___ _.
,.,

~3300~ exumpfe sitowing ~g. *-% Sonic-At, and SOnic-Ampli!nde

indttctiorl rcsistivity, S.P., fags ill Frurtwresi %ratogn chaik, north Imuisirma. I%e WCIIis prmftlcin~~ from zone~ A and B where lower trrnplitndcs indicaie frnr[ure zones. ,. .. . . .. _. .._ _ . ,._._-,__ ..._____ _ ____ .
COMP AMR -

1 i. -. ,,. ...=I

.Y. ....

SINGLE RECEIVER TRAVEL TIME . ..4 /

SONICAf

,, 2

Jinwwtotle:. (A). I. ft.sFn,triiwtir{~s jft ~p~j~ with iof(,nticfif~tlly il~... ,.. .. ... ,., ctmtnjttc.1 cy&.9kipping. :W .... . ;. .?;:!l;%~. ~wg:+:,;-: . . .- >:- .: .. -..,>, L. -,--- -. .-..... ..-. M..-. -- .
G

.--:.

. -..-...-:.

.. . . .. .. ...- :.. ,. .-

...-.

.--: V.-

,. q,. ...

) .I .. .. ...i

,, / ,, --[ ., .

,, ,.~
<z

,, ) -. -/

;,

./--

~.

,,.

-!:----

--

I%sclurcs ,. f%cturcs in the kh-mtion reduce (1IC conlprcssionalr&d shear-velocity arrivals in three ways, First, they acl as thin beds filled with a substance with a strong impedance mismatch to the rock. However, interference of reflec~ions from the two, surfaces produces good transmission of a compressionral wave normal to the fracture if it is thin compared with the wavelength of the signal in the filling fluid, For exsunple, experiments have shown [hat a 1/16-in, oil-filled crack reduced the amplilude by 10 per cent for a 25 kc signal in aluminum. Second, fractures can affect the rugosit.y of the borehole wall since chips may be broken from the wall when ii rock drill penetrates rt frac[ured zone. Coupling the borehole signal to the forriation is reduced by rugosity because signal compon~nts rea,ching ,the boreho!e wall at different azimuths will arrive &tt-of-phase at the receiver. In addition, each c~pped area in the borehoje wall prodtices a diffracted wave which interferes with the signal. Chips with depths only one-tenth of a wavelength of the signal in wa}er (or %r in. for a 25 kc signal) have been observed to alTect signal ampIittide. The third way in which fractures tiect signal amplitude is by permitting movement of one side relative to the other in the plane of the fracture. Knopoff, et al. calculated curves of transmission coefficients for plane compressional and shear waves across an infinitely thin lubricated crack in an infinite medium. Fig, 6 is taken froin Knopoffs curves for a medium with a Poissons ratio of 0.3, which is a typical value for hard carbonate formations. The refracted compressional wave in borehole gco: metry should be similar to a plane compres~onal wave. The effect of a frhctdre on it should be similar to Knopoffs calculated effect of Fig. 6. The shear velocity arrival should show a transmission coefficient which waries with fracture dip but may ,be quite

T different from the curve for dip-p~larizcd shear shown in Fig. 6. The refracted shear wave m borehole geometry is radially polarized. This polarization correspond to circular polarization. of A shear wave in an infinite medium, sd that half of its energy could be regarded as dip-polwiz. cd and half as strike-polarized, Knopoff et al. show that a strike-polarized shear wave would be totallY reflected for all fracture dips. The refracted shear component of the shear velocity arrjval would therefore have a lower t riuysmission coefllcient than that for a dip-pol?rwed shear of Fig, 6. The pheu~o-Rayleigh component has u different p?u~clc nlotion thah the refracted shear wave. ~ts transmission curve is ribt expected to agree with either curve of Hg, 6. However, the shear velocity arrival, because it has a strong radial component, was expected to have a transmission across fractures of the same general shape as that shown for dip-polarized shear, It should be poorly trans. mitted by nearly horizontal fractures, Therefore it is indicated tha{the amplitude of the shear. velocity arrival should be more diagnostic in fracture location when the fractures are at very low or very high dip. Conversely, the amplitude of the compressional at. rival should be diagnostic when the fracture dil arc between 33 and 78. The presence of exactly vert,iid fractures should not directly increase the attenuation of either the shear ~or compkessional arrivals. If the vertical fractures lead to rugosity of the borehole wall, the sigrt:d could be reduced by coupling effects. Model Slndim on Effects of.
Fractures on the Sonic Signal

i ,.~

., \

Laboratory experiments were made using borehole models wi(h cuts or fractures intersecting the ~oreholc horizontally,. vertically, at 45, and at 60. These periments were made to check the attenuation caused, by rklative motion of fracture faces, This &rtechanisnl \~ii\ Lo -regarded as particularly important because it producc~ b [he only unique effect of fractures on- the sonic sign;lt, k / A thin bed tNled with a s~~bstance with a strong ,inlpctkim-c , .9 mismatcl,t may be a silale stringer, and borehole rougbnm COMPRESSthNA> \ , 1 , may be. caused by features othep than. fractures, ,6 Small blocks of Indiana limestone, 5 x 5 x I z in., will) \ 9. per cent, porosity and a Poissons ratio of 0.3 WNr .7 f DIP POLARIZE D vacuum saturated with water. Anlplitud~s of the COMpIU. \ SHEAR- 9 sional- and shear-velqcity arrivals were measured by pli\<.6 ing the receiver at various distances frc}nl a fixed sourw located in the bottom of a J~ -in; or 1-in. hole drilled nlon; \k ,/ the center of the 5 X 5-in. faces. The bIocks were Ihm .5 Cttt at various angles to the ho]es; the matin~ su[fiic~~ Ill these artificial fractures were ground; and th~ blocks (vtrc .4 resaturated and as~emb]ed with the fractures shinrmd \ open 0.004 in. The anlplitude runs were then rcpcaic(l i!) \ ----- . . ...... _ ..th~ .ffracture& nlodels, The 20ft.kc.peak of .thc spcclr!l!i:. of the signal used gav~ wavelengths of 1 in. in the r(lck A 5 X 5-ft cross-section Jndian~ limestone hlocli Milll.. 1 a horizontal 0.(J4-in/ fracture intersecting its 5 in. di~lfll., eter borehole gave lhe same result as the +nud I IN m. .1 . .. / zontal fractured mode]s. Therefore, the results fron] Il}, ~small hodels should scale to fll]l-size boreholcs. o ..:,() .- .+(). ~~ . ~fj., - ~~. so . gl-j ~~ Tw~ @&~tS ~,ere .o~~erv~~- ~-n~ttenuatio~ of -t])&JI ~~ ?0 -: so DIP OF FRACTURE ( degrees ) rivals, varying with djfferent fracture angies; and an ill 11.1 ference -at th~ transducers evidently pr~duced hy a w,.1} ~ ( Poissons Rdio = .3r) )
CX.

!
1

{. i

..
1

Go..

Fig,. 6Calcul@ed curves

diffracted

from

the intersection

of any fracture

with 1111

of transmission (Knopofl, crack et al,).

voe~lcients

fnr

... . .
,, 7

plane

compression+l

and

at%ws nrr irifMieIy Ihfn Iuh-ficated

medium

plane -djp-polnrized -shear yay,es...

ili .hii-fb finite
,--

. borehole. W.herf the amplitude runs were rcpc~tcd ii11(: dOwti --and reassembling the. pieces of w krd II1>: .- . ~- . teariti~ model, the htterference effect was d ~ffIcu1t: to r~prt~~lll~~

-! ... ..1 ~
IJ

. ,.

..__

. .. .

. --,.

--

--

. . . .

: I])&!
w crc Inolk the ilSS!Xlblt2d with ~arc, ,Il;ldc thin, ,mf

/
the fr~cturcs

.-.

,..

. . .

! .. :..,.

____

of Fig. 6, ksut the crimprpssiontil transmission

coefliciwrt

borehole

smooth.

[he interference

],~~;inlc S,nmll. i ~..= I}w rcductiott in ill)lplitLtdc iS&rossufructure Wasmcrrs-, ., commsrinr? wm[itude runs acrOss a fractUre (with ,,r,.,1 ,..--. hv -,. i t .I!Iall interference; wi~h those made before thecut was ) J)EKIC i:~ the rock. .-. This . comparison crmcels out any eflccl~ of inhomogene[ttes m the originat model or of change ,11IIN absolotesignal level, !$L)llle of the experimental results are shown in the Iwst three figures. Fig. 7 shows the waveforms from u lrmsmitter-receiver pair, spaced 2 ft iipart, as they were miwcd pm.t a 0.04-in. horizontal fracture in a large limeO{UICmmlci. The shear-velocity rrrrival is seen starting .([ three divisions ,in the top arid bottom pictures, when [Iw fracture was not between the transducers. It cannot IW seen in the center picture; taken when the fracture J\as between the so-uu~~ and ~ecgiver. Fig. 8 shows the clrwt on the early compressional arrival of a 0.004-in. Ir;wture dipping ut 45 m the receiver was moved past L[in one of the smaller models. The first two half-cycles \\crc reduced by 40 per cent. Fig. 9 shows plots of comprmsionii[-arrivttl amplitude vs distance on repeated runs pmt a small-n!odel section.before rrnd after cutting vertiUJ1 (90) fractures. In this series Of experiments no ulticiure~bk effect was seen. The section of the model with vertical fractures was bounded by horizontal cuts \\l]ich attenuated the shear-velocity arrival so that the ., Mm of the vertical fracture on this arrival could not Iw determined. The attenuation of each arrival, -for the ir;wxLlre dips investigated, is listed in Table 1, Npte that LIWSQ results show that fracture dip has~an effect on the Ir:lnsmission coefficients of the conlpressional and shear \dccity ar,rivals,.. Neither arrival agrees with either curve i

I-

is Pairly close. The shear velocity arrival sho~~s lower for lower &lps. ... transmission . Field Studies of SiguUl Arrivnl ,inqdi~udc~ The above observations led to frcld studies of both compressional- and shear-velocity arrival amplitudes, These studies have been made in wells \vhich \vere cored and in \vhich core _analyses included descriptions of fracture orientation tothe borehole. Fracture orientation isdescribed as either horizontal or kertical. There seems to be no clear-cut agreement as to the magnitudes of the rrngles of inclination in classifying fractures as horizontal or, vertical from cores. However, fractures inclined at angles greater than about 60 would most Iikely be classed rts vertical: T,hus,, many of the fractures classified as VertiCtLl, under the discussion of field examples, would still be within the range (Table 1) where the. compressional amplitude would be reduced. The examples include amplitude readings of both the compressional and shear-velocity mrivals. The compressiortal amplitude log records the amplitude of the second half-cycle of an early compressional arrival (seen in Fig. S as the first positive peak in the waveform~. The shear amplitude log records the amplitude oi the second halfcycle of an early shear velocity arrival (seen in Fig. 7 as the positive half-cycle at three and a half divisions), A simultaneously recorded trave;-time ci.uve, in each case, measures the total time from T:, to detection of the nleasured signal. The interval transit-time or tota[ travel-time curves shown in the examples record compressiorml arrival time. These curves are helpful -in estimating bcd thickness. , In addition, \vhile formation acoustic imper-krnce @ a func[ion of both velocity and density, it has been observed thati the time curve often permits a rertsonable evaluation of the impeduuce contr&t from one fqrr!mtio~ :o. another when a density measurement is not availuble. With littl~ or,. no change id velocity, hence in travel time, through a recorded interval, one may expect little change % acoustic impedance through the formation, or across the formation boundaries. Therefore, the possibility ofampli,< . RECEIVER AT I 2cm.

~ , ~

~ .,. ~ ~ , ----~

;.:

CRACK AT 11.5 cm. ..

-,

ABOVE FRACTURE

RECEIVER AT/iCm. .. . .. . . . .,-----2

Fig. #s/cm.

AND

2mv.)crn.

-.

8--E~perimeutui rewth sItuwiiIg tlh~ effert on the &II. plilndo Of+lhc Cwnlprc!!siolmi urrivul of is. 0.00Lin. frl@U~{: $ d@iug..Ut. @:.. ..,. ,:. ,.., .. ..- ..: . ...m. / :.-

. .. .. ,,.. .&. . . . .

. .-.

. . ;!, .

..-

....+

1
,

.,/.
,.4

. . f

-..

,.

\
TABLE IATTENUATION OF COMPRESSIONAL AND St4EAR ACOUSTIC ARRIVALS Shear ValocltY Arrival CompvMonal Arrival ., Fracture .-- DIP -. -.. ---T&@@wl Tten$ml;siori - AfiCn-UatIDn Atlenuatlon (db) . $Q~~;!!q_ ~)

C]ltlllgcS frt>lll 6,520 to 6,S40

tonllillion

ft

arc

~LLc 10

/ chunges jn
kt 6,S34 fl

porusity.

A 46-ft cOrc f~oIM $4~~

o
90.,
%

0.0
4.5

Cootndont ::s

:::

0.4 I.0

0.6

,_ 0:8

lode chunges tfLIc 10 such variables is reduced. If VelOCity does vary, then amplitudes could also be affected by the
indicated Iithological changgs. depending on the velocity

contrast from one hcd to another, the bed thickness indicated, and the tsbruptncis of the velocity chwsgc. In. each of the following examples, the time curve indicts[cs ]i~t]e,velocity change. Thus,. any 8rOSSanlplitude variations should be more a function of fracture effect Ihwr of the previou..ly. mentioned variables. Fig. 10 shows both cornpressional- and shear-velocity amplitudes recorded over an interval of Mississippi limestone, The single-receiver travel-time curve, recorded in the left track, shows very Iitile change in velocity throughout the zone, discounting the possibil~ty of formation or boundary effects on amplitude. Cores: fron~ Zones ~ are described as containing long, single, vertical fractures, mostly healed. There is a small compressiordl-amplitude reduclion in these zones, but no pronounced reduction in shear amplitude. Zones B are described. as containing partially-open horizontal fractures. The shear anlplitode is reduced to half the inaximum value in both ktervals. With no vertical fracturing present, the compressional amplitude increases in value. Thus [he fracture orientation (from core description ) a~ects the arrffi]itudes in the, manner expected. A short cored interval shown in Fig. 11 was described as limestone, clean to silty and shaly. The transit-time curve shows a change in velocity between the upper and Iower half of the cored zone. The change is gradual, however, and-rather thick bedsore indicated. Only small, if any, effects of formation changes wouId be expected on the amplitude curves. A fi-ft section of core was described a.wconlaining natural, partially-open, vertical fractures. The compressional amplitude is reduced opposi[e the fractured zone hut the sheman~plitlide khows no reduction. In Fig. 12 the transit-time curve intiicates uniform velocity from 6,4S0 106.520, whereas variations in velocity from 6,520 to 6,540 indicate thut formation effects ma} appe,aron the mnplilUde curves over this in[crval. A ,Gam-. ma Ray-Neutron, not shown, confirms that the velocity ._ r >
34 ,. 30 1 $26 ;2 k if ~la BEFORE CUTTING AFTEU. CUTTING CUTTING CUTTING + A A-

descrihcd as contuihing ,prlrnardy hormmtid fractur~, appeun ~nd a plot of the nu,mber of fractures Ip,foot in the ]eft track of Fjg, ]2. The. cmnp,remwtd and Shear unlplitudes can be coenparcd wlt~ this plot. .There is ~ marked reduction fronl the maximum values m shear. velocity tunplitude which corrclat~s falrlY well with frac. turc density. These fractures do not affect the COUlprC$. sional-tmlplitmlc curve. : and Sheitr-velocilv Fig. 13 shows thccomprcssionalamplitudes rccorde~ thrOUgh a portion of the,,osage n~cll,.
\V;IS

SINGLE RECEIVER TRAVEL TIME 00 ~ 20c ) -----mv. -----500 -

)
B
A . B

.s

.l;ig. 3OCojnp~essionsd- aud kkk-vela~i~~ ywlit~l+ i; fractured Mississippi Iinmstonc. ZOIICS A cont:un IOIW,WI I,[,rin,ltto gle, %ertiml? fractures and Zones B eontxin ., I

fractures.

;
AMPLITuDE AMPLITUDE>
------%.
G-

11:- ~
, AFTER AFTER o 0, K x

SONIC At
JIS

: COMPRESSIGNAL o ~
SHEAR 40 0 ----Rrv. ---------

1
40

,
,!

VELO:&~V
----.. ,-. 4 ~ --

,.;

70
..

- ---

.,

*Q

- -, --

.8

**

ZREARC?SfkP %..

Y ~ 14

Q...?

~. ..---, -=-a-- -t,. ;

>

.-..,.
1 ,-, % . !. 1! f , -- .. ..-:--. .

-: ----.--r - -. - ..- ..- .

.-

. ..-. f.

:/

Cored T

<:---

,.. ;

,~(

d the Mississippi lin~estone. The sonic trnp~it- time the compressional arrival is in the left tritck; it irtalthick beds with little velocity contmst in euch bed C:itcs
IWr
LIIKI l:lrue COn@@ between bc~s. There +OUld4 be some

TABLE 2SHEAR

AND COMPRESSIONAL AMPLITUDES COMPARED WITH FRACTURES (EXAMPLE OF FIG. 13) Amplitudes fracture Or[enfOtlOn Shear low high I*W hish M&: Cc.mwesslonnl ,high high law 19W .

inlerval A B

horizontal 00 fe; s%~;dd H and V vertical none many verticol

change ~rtthe amplitude levels from one formation to, anJthcr. However, even in thk case large variations in the be due primarily to fracturing, iexcept VIII pli[ude should in the thick Woodford shale, section where the shea~, velocity i~rrival practically disappears. The shear and cornorcssioniil, amplitudes are conlpared with fracture desCrip,.. ti~)n from co;es in Table 2, These examples tend to cogIirm a selective effe$t of fracture orientation on the cornprcssional and shear amplitudes. ,,
Other Factttrs Affecting Sonic Amplitudes

:, ~.
F

(VI

high
Vwy iaw

The cornpressional- ,arid shear-velocity arrivals are afby many factors other than fractures. These inchidc tool ckmtralization, instrumentation, mtt~ properties, hole size, geometrical spfeoding, formation-to-mud impcdwke snatch, borehole rugosity, attenuation of sound: velocity gradients and bed boun~ries. Tbe factqrs which
fected

HORIZONTAL FRACTURES/ Ft.

GOMF! AM? o
m v.

8 6 4 ,2,0 / ,

VEI.. AMF! ,SONIC At 40 mv. g---------SHEAR

22.5

.-

655

0!

.,
with

- .-3 --- . . -----. .

<:.

,,

ki~.12ES~mp[e Sl,oWing tllecoqrela:ionof

:lfttplituderedllctio~ foot ill lim&t~ne.~*e
!

shenr-~eloeity

nunlberof

horizontal frmtures per

thecOmpres-

fr*~ture~ donotresince

siomsl ampli:ude%

..
g 40 ) ., A ~-----r

,,,
SONIC A?
COMPR5SS10~AL AMPLITUOE 20 l-w. SHEAR VCLOt31TY AMPLITuDE ;

may have significant effect. on amp[itude are briefly dis cussed. Poor tool centraliziition reduces amplitude because comJ ponents of the signal leaving the transmitter at different ~ azimhths have different travel times to the receiver, These components ,then add out-of-phase with one another to reduce amplitude. Fig. 14 shows a plot of compressionalarrivaI amplitude vs the distance eccentered in. inches. A 50 per cent reduction im amplitude occurs when the ~ j 1 ,, tool is eccentared by % in. Hole elfiPicitY maY Produce 1 a similar effect. ., Different muds change coupling of the signal from mud to formation and back if Ihey have different acoustic. ! impedances (i.e., different products of density times sound, velocity). A more important effect is the attenuation of the sigrfal by a gas-cut mud, when the gas is presertt in btJbbles. The low amplitude caused by the bubbles will I probably not repeat because the bubble distribution usual- , Iy changes with time. Hole size affects amplitude in two ways: (1) the longer ,,, ~ the path, through the mud, the greater the Ioss of ampli, tude, and (2) changes in curvature of the mud-formation , interface affect the focusing of the signal. . As Iithology ch~pges, so do the formation-to-mud im- . ! . pedauces and fhe transmission coefficients. Since these i affect the compressional- atid shear-velocity arrivals across the mud-formation interface, any Iithology variations must be considered.. Coupling of the borehole sigrtqb to the formation is reduced by rugosity of the borehole wal[. This effect has been mentioned previously. Radial gradients of velocity are caused by the drilling . process and by inviision of the formation by mud filtrate, Velocity gradients affect amplitude by refracting sound ~ -either toward ot away from the borehole. For example, invasion of a gas zone by mud t?ltrate would raise the
I

40

70

~=

. . .
I

. ... .,. .

. . .- . ___ . , -----------.. ( j .. . )

.: .+..

_LY-L
r

4 :

...-.

,.

..

- ----- . .;C:--:
l . .

-.

,,

Cl .

DIST&NCE

.ECCWERED.

.! .- Fig.. 14+lmi~i~&i[}ikd nrri,voi t@]imdc vs dle distmuw! itl --, iuches by. whicfi a iuol R eci%witctied in flpmr;lloleo --- . . .,

.-

., ... .... .. .. . . . .. . .

,, .. . . . . ..

,. , . . . .. .....?

comprcssirxtal velocity ncrrri the hole. The vhcily wuuld grirduidl y drop Jo the vck?city in virgin formation outside

the invtrsion zone. Such a velocity grtrdicnt will rcfrisct compressional energy awrty from the borehole resulting in an apparent high atteinration of the cornprcssionrd arrival. Bcd boundaries lower the qmplitttdes of the compTcssiorml- itnd shear-velocity arrivals by reflcc[ing part of the sigrial. Both acoustic impedance and hcd thickness arc importrmt in detern~ining the amount of signal transmitted. The impedance contrast across the bounckwy determines the transmission coetTrcient. Trsrnsmiision across a thin bed, such as i shale stringer, is also affected by interference of reflections from the two. interfaces ,. and thus by the thickness of the bed. Assuming that there is good tool centralization and that, the borehole remains at bit size, the effects of bed thickness and changes in acoustic impedance across bed boundaries arc the factors which are of primary inlport- /. / ance in amplitude studies,
Further Fichl Examples
Litholbgic and Fracture of Effects

Fig. 15, represents a complex picture of both lithologic and fracture effects on the amplitudes. The transit-time curve shows time changes of 55 to 58 microsec. Sharp. changes between the two values occur at short intervals, suggesting considerable interbeddii-rg with velocity contrast and thin beds. These conditions .shotiid effect some reduc[ion of the amplitude. The curv,$ shows less cent rast from 7,740 to 7,760 and 7,820 to,,$,860. Assuming the effect of fracture orientation on the amplitudes, the shear-velocity amplitude indicates horizontal fractures in the intervals from 7,?50 to 7,784, 7,792 to 7,802, and 7,814 to 7,82$. Sornc vertical frrtcturing should be expected as shown by the lower cornpressional amplitudes between 7,?80 to 7,818 an-d 7,826 to 7,860, As indicated by the smoother time curve, less formation efl jet .. is expected in the latter interval, In an analysis of the logs it would appear that both horizontal and vertical fractures are indicated by the amplitudes, with the fracture effect superimposed on) the effects of other formation discontinuitiei. Core -desciiption verifies this interpretation to an acceptable degree. Considerable interbedding is indicated from 7,760 to 7,82o.
PARTIALLY AMR mv. O PEN FRACTURES per Foot SHEAR VEL. AMi?

0 SONIC A?

CCW

:-

70

.lrS

40

O-.---?K---9QQ -. --f . ------------; -- --

f,go

.;. -m ~

:4 E:2
. / -.:--.<.-.* ---:7800 .. --: ------ , ,. - ------ > ,. -.
:

Sihsionc predominates. will] )hin hcds Of Sihy, shaly Iimc, shale, and cherty sihstonc. The, Intctvid f~onl 7,@ to 7,860 is dcscribcd m sihstonc ~lih some, ltnlc inclLlsions, A comparison .belween [rttcture descnp:ion fronl, core analysis irnd the mtcrprctutlors of the relat]vc amPli_ ,, t udes is shown in Table 3. These corrclitt ions of interprctatiorr with core descri~ , tion indicate thiil the conclusions. misde frotp log exan}i- I nation arc essentially corr,ect. It WIII he no!ed that no Cc,n. , g clllsions are nlade regarding fmcturc dcns!ty and possible productivity of the fractured begs. There IS no p~rti:ulilr correlation bet wcen shear amphtude a:d -the .itumbcr f open fractures per foot from core description m the horj. zontdlly fractured intervals. The sam~ remark holds for the compressifonal ampli!ukie. @ the verhcal~y frilc[tlred zones, The superimposed effects of other formation di~. continuities and possible coupling changes are. no do~tht, factors in this lack of correlation. fikewise, and poisibly for the wfrme reason, the a,,,~t;. .......... tude values cann~t be related to possible productivity. The ,. interval shown in Fig. 15 and a lower zone were u3~.~. forated and treated. E~en with the relatively extensive ~r~i. ~ turing indicated by the logs, only a small amount of )il was recovered on swab, and the well was finally CO1ll. pleted in another formation. .1 Fig. 16 shows, in another. well, the same fornmtit}ll in~ervsd..shown in Fig. 15: The transit-time curve ;ig;Li,, indicates considerable interbedd ing. but with more v~loc. ity contrast. Cycle-skipping occurs from 7.850 to 7,S.$7. From these observations. one should expect cficcts frolll both formation-impedance changes and thin-bed rctl,.c. t ions. Horizontal fracturing is suggested by lower ~llrar amplitude from 7,7S4 to 7,860. Scattered \-ertical fr;[c. tures are suggested by intervals of reduced cpmprcssioa:il amplitude between 7,770 to 7,832. More extensive vcrti. cal fracturing is indicated by very. low comprcssiofl;, I amplitudes from 7,846 to 7.85S and from 7&60 to 7.x11 (I. Lithology is described by core analysis as h:lvin: ;I high degree of iriterbedding. Limestone predon~ina[m. 1$ iIII thin beds of shaly, silty limestone, siltstone, SIXIIC;IINI chert. Fracture description is tabulated against IOg an;t[}.i. in Table 4. This comparison of interpretation wilh tori dcscrip tion indicates that conclusions obtained from the CIVN-. pressional amplitude are essentially correct and th:lt c{m- chtsions drawn from [hc shear ump]itode arc SOIIWN hJI optih~istic. Again, there is nocorre!~tion between t}]c 1111111. ber Of open fractures per foot and shear or con]prc~~i(}l[,ll amplitudes except at 7.846 10 7,85S. ]t appears th;l[. Nill) the exception nf this latter zone, the anlp]itudcs Urc Nlfected not only by fractures but also by other forma[ i(fn dis~ontinuities, ancj possible coupling changes. The interval was perforated as shown, and ]ofvcrZO(IC. : . were also perforated. The WCI[ is p~odtlcin~ ,. . hot th~ pr,l. . , f { ..
TABLE 3COMPARISON OF 10G If WERPRETATION AND FR=URI DESCRIPTION (EXAMPLE OF FIG. 13) Demh Interval In ferpretdian (ft) ---1. ~.==..~,-=v > .--F!@ ,=_____ D --horizontor wimtiril$ honzunlrl. 775G.?7S4 , f,aaure$ bleeding oil or pritiorily horizonfol, 7792 .78;2 horizontoi ffacfures bleeding eil or s?s vdrficoi fmctvtes ond v.:< fro., hori<onfol 7E14;~<6731A:20 ond harizo..fc.l !I-,,QO, f,ocfvres at 7S22.30

,,

I ~

LO(3

---

gas

,,..,.,. ,,,.
..! ,,.!

>

,,,,,

,.

..-

s<l,e%

fe~, Drimorily .$,1: <61fl.Cl.,,.,, .

., -..

..
D..~,h (11)

.. .. . -. . . . ... .. . . -----la> Inteterelotion h~rl=nt~l fmchl:os

,.. . . .. .. . . .-----------LOGANALYSIS

-.

. .. short total travel time is often associated with kriown vertically fractured intervals and low compressional tut\plitude. Repeat runs through the zone of interest generally show no chaqce i~ total time or in amplitude. It seems , that in many ~nstances the short total travel time, when repeautblei is a result of phenomena ot her thrm centering effects. No valid explanation for, the anomaly has yet been folmd. , , .,,
Amplitude And Attenuirti,onof the Acoustic Signal All of the exsanples showing amplitudes of the compressiofial- and shear-velocity arrivals have been taken from wells in northern Oklahoma. The selective effect of

,/

.,

j,\f)~E 4:

FRAC1URE OESCR(PIICN TABULATED AGAINST [EXAMPLE OF FIG. 16} . .

~In4.7n50

j770.7832

Ica tared ve;tical fractures extensive ve;ticnl fra<tures vertical fractures

Fracture Description -. .... scotletod horizontal frn<tures from 7764.86, ?802.04, 7810.23, 7fJf0..t2, few $cattered shows bleeding oil or gas scottered (verfitol frahre$ from 7770-90, 7795.7800, 7808, 7818.7W18 many hairline vertical fractures accompanied br aerodly and ~cod show of OH cnd gas hairline vertical fractures with no show

78 A6.78>8

7360 7W6 ,, _..

ion ctml ribu! ion of the seveml perforated intervals known. Empiricts! studies in the area have shown flm[ a compressiomkuuplitude reduction to S mv or IVWindicfitcs a probable productive zone. This. observation, plus the core description,, suggests that the better producing zone is at 7,846 to 7,!3S8 and that the other in!ervats contribute little, if any, production. Tbc presence of fractures is indicated by the amplitudes in thcs~ examples. Howevek, it is also evident that a cautious approach to interpretation of the amplitude v,ah.tes i\ necessary when the formation is composed of thin beds u i[h impedance confmsts. it has been shown that small changes in 1oo1 centering [lyiy have a large effect on the signal amplitude. Such cwrtering changes should be detected by comparing the
duuI is no[

[ivo-receiver transit time with the single-receiver total lnLve\ tiqle which. is recorded simultaneously with amp]i-

fracture orientation on the amplitudes appears to be well defined in these cases. Further investigation of the phenomena in tither wells and other areas is necessary. Also under study is the ratio of amplitudes logged at two receivers it different distances from the transmitter. Signal attenuation in decibels can be obtained using the expression, (20/x) log A ,/A,, where x is the. distance in feet between receivers, A, is the amplihlde at the near receiver and A, is the amplitude at the far receiver. Using amplitude-ratio or attenuation measurements, the. ,effects 0{transmitter signal coupling to formation of tool centering should be cancelled. However, our field recordings of such measurements have not yet produced any positive ,. results. {
Conclusions r- J The Sonic-Amplitude Log, measuring the amplitude of the compressional arrival,, has successfully located fracture. s~stems. Howeve~, experience has shown that this measure-. ment is not universally applicable. Thcoretica[ and laboratory work, followed by field studies in cored wells, show that fracture orientation may have an i~porta,nt preferefi[ial effect on the amplitude of the cornpressional- and i.hear-velocity arrivals. Consequently, better fracture location should be pfovided by having an amplitude meaiiyrement of each type of arrival. Other borehole and foriuation. parameters aho affect the signal a~plitude, so that judicious interpretation ,approaqhes are necessary. Some of these other variables may

:5 la:;$
I
..
,

(ULIC.Fig. 17 shows a schematic .Iog comparing sonic [ransit [ime with total travel ~ime. If the, tool remains centered, the total travel time should change proportionMcly with the transit-time changes as at A and B. If the loot becomes eccentric to the borehole axis, the total travCI [ime should show a lower tiine compared to transit Iiflwas at C. The signal amplitude at C wou]d qlso be Icss according to the degree of eccentricity. If eccentricity is so indicated by the logs, repeat runs through the zpne may show differences on both the total time and ~mplitude curves. ,. The greatest care i$ taken in assuring good centraliza~ [ion. Even SO, field observations have indicated that a

,, .-,

COMP

AMP

PARTIALLY per Foot

mv

22 OPEN FRACTURES
.

SONIC

A!

SHEAR VEL. AMP I

<: ..

..
I
I I 1

erfs.

TOTAL TRAVEL TIME #us 400 200

SONIC 70 As

At 40

~-:.:

--

- -

,.

;-.

.-

#.=.-=-

7s00

--:---

. .,

.~.:

=.;::.2. . ---= =

_=

.... ._

.-

-.

. . . . . .- ..

-----;-:- ----.-=~-*--> *. ..=. -

-L-

.-

.-. .

.-

. <

1;

1>

---1

%&Z=-

---=%

----

. . ... . . . .

-.- ..- .-.

Fig. 17Ctmtpttriwns {}iiill~lc.rec.eivt.r rcreivcr trunsit time fm. tgonitnring (Awnmtic).

tottil Iisniiwitll twn. nf hol cqstering

,9 i

bc climimttcd by mcusuring signal Mtcnuaiion. However, our field experience with attenuation measurements !0 date has no{ yielded any conclusive results regarding a possible advant~ge c)fthis method over straight amplitude logging. Further studies may prove the measurement to be of significant value. Efforts to provide improved methodsof fracture location may lead to improved methods of.a?c~!atelY m=surirtg and recording Such data as shear-veloclty tr~vel time
Continued investigation will, no doubt, extract other useful information from the acotrstic signal.

WW.WAmm& Wuw ibm-ding, ljrlw:]li~d at kourth AIIIIUU] Logging Symposinm, SJ~J.A, Oklahonlu fitY (1963). 6, Strick, E.: Propa~alion :f !iIastk, Waw hlotion from uri I,n. U].qiveSource a]ong a k luIlf/ SaJld Interface, l!, ~l]ewetical ~ressufe llesponse, 1S1rlIo I~curio.Rny}ci~hwa~e, TIa;s,, ~Qy Sot. London (1959) 2514 No. 1~~~, 7. Biot,M. A,: ProPagatissn of Illustic Waves in a Cylindrical Bore Containing a FluId; Jour. Ap,u. RLYS. (MM 23, No, $s, 8. Knopoff, L., et al: 2nd AnwaL R~Port, ~rnic Scattering Proj. cct, ]nsthrte of Gcophysie4 UCLA (Arrrd, 1957) Chap. 12. 9. Wyllie, M. R. ~., Gardner, G. H. F. and Grwory, A. R.: Stu&~, of Elastic Wave Attenuation in Porous ~ledia~ GeoP@.~;cs (1962) 27, No. 5. **

Acksrowledgmcnts
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance and guidance given by F. P. Kokesh, J. E. Chapman and W. P. Biggs in the preparation of this paper. In, particular, the authors e%pfess their appreciation tO the oil companies for permission to pubhsh the field examples, and to J-eon Knopoff for .Permission to use Fig. 6. We also wish to thank J. DennisJ-orenOf the Shell Development Co. for several helpful comments on this paper. References

L Tixier, N. p., Ahz% R~ p. and Doh, C. A-: sonic ~@@* .Iam. . . pet. Tech, (May, 1959) XI, NIJ.5,106. 2. Pickett, G. R. :-Aco&tic Character Logs and Their Applications ,
in Formation Evaluation; Jour. Pet. Tech. (June, 1963) 659. 3. Anderson,-W. L.and Walker, Terry: Application of Open HoJe

etlgiR.; L. MORRIS (right), is the regional. rfevebvnent neer in the FieId lnterptetation Section for Schhlbergcr Well Surveying Corp. in Houstou. A graduate. Of the U. O! ~alifornia, where he received a BS degree, he ioimd Schlwnberger in 1937 as a field engineer. D. R. GUNW
(center) is a member of Schhonhergers Sonics Research

Acoustic Amplitude Measurement%Paper SPJLI?2, presented at 36th Annual Fall ~feetihg, Society Petroleum En~meers; Dallas
(1961 ). 4. Walker, Terry: Progress Report on Acoustic Amplitude Logging for Formation E\,aluatiorr~ Paper ,SPE.451, presented at 37th Annual Fall Meeting, Society Petroleum Engineers, Lcs Angeles .(1962). 5. Wslker, Terry and Riddle, Georee: Field Investigation of Full

Section. He received BS, MS and PJID degrees jrom MIT

in geophysics, and has wor!ied for Geophysical Service. ~ inc. and done explosives resea?ch at Stanford V. T. E. ~ graduated fronf Oklahoma State U. witli ARmtm? (left) a BS in electrical engineering and joined -Schhonbergcr it] 1952 os a fieid engineer, He is presently slationfc! at

Enid, Okla., as a sales engineer, ..,.

t .,-

<,-

,. ,, . _. .. ., ~., ... . . .,. ....... . ... . ,i-....-..

. e. .,..-.. ..,, .! . ...>

,. }, i. /, .. ., ,

..

..
2

.
., ,

,.,.=.,...

.,.