.

Darwins Diagrams
I. Darwins diagrams

The idea of this talk is treat diagrams rather as we have done depictions: to suggest how our practices with them might connect with specific natural aspects of perception, while maintaining their autonomy and giving full scope to their cultural elaborations.

Thus a naturalistic tone, at this time of Darwin celebrations, like that currently in the Natural History useum, !ondon. "ts interesting to consider how the great naturalist would view #the descent of Homo sapiens, as presented today in our museums. Here are a couple of graphical displays, one from the new $pit%er Human &rigins Hall at Natural History in anhattan. '(or

source and better view of the printed timeline chart, see http:))www.handprint.com)!$)*N+)evol.html,chart -

*s diagrams, we note theyre both of the timeline sort allegedly established in mid ./th +. by 0oseph 1riestley2and that both carry forward what is famously '" think rightly- the only diagram in Origin of Species, from the fourth chapter, on 3Natural $election4., which well return to that diagram at the end. (or present purposes, lets briefly consult the labels to the New 5ork displays, defining where our human kind emerged along its hominid branch. &ne reads:

3"mages have been discovered dating as far back as 67,888 years ago. Their makers probably had the ability to use language, since both language and art reflect a capacity for symbolic thought.4

*s the chart shows, anatomically, our species is dated between 988 to .98 : years ;1,

6 but its 3modern4 form is identified by a few distinctive abilities, going back <ust =8 : years ;1. *nd the literally hard, material>culture, evidence for paleontologists are these peoples artifacts, which centrally feature carvings and markings2called 3symbols42 from which a more common topic for conferences, language, can only be inferred. ';ased on recent .=+ recalibrations, some !a ?rotte +hauvet images have been put back to that =8 : years ;1:

http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/chauvet/en/owpt25.htm )

* typical gloss from the Human &rigins hall continues:

3@e owe our creative success to the human brain and its capacity to think symbolically. @hile some other species can solve problems and communicate with each other, only humans use symbols to re>create the world mentally and dream up endless new realities.4

3Ase symbols to re>create the world mentallyBdream up new realities4: in other words, not <ust intelligence2including high levels of social organi%ation>>but consciousness: the power to represent situations 'including ourselves- to ourselves, for consideration, which is usually <oint, social, consideration.9 *nd it is in marked shapes, not spoken words, that the earliest evidence for that descends to us.

Thus diagrams of our early development, but what do we know of the early development of our diagramsC Anfortunately, even the richness of markings at !a ?rotte +hauvet holds little evidence of a part played by diagrams in this so>called 3golden age4 for human mentality, so we are left to speculate. !ets leave that for last. (irst, lets sketch a little history of what we know of the development of diagram drawing and forms of

= human cognition.

Happily, as this seminar demonstrates, today the growth of interest in diagrams and diagram>thinking is great. "ndeed, given the overwhelming amount of literature now available>><ust on diagram websites>>my academic field, 1hilosophy, has comparatively little to tell us.

II. Philosophy

(or all its importance for the emergence of 3symbolic thinking4 and thereby for our species, thinking>drawing has had short shrift in the history of 1hilosophy: certainly by comparison with the attention to language and similar structures, notably maths. 1hilosophy, historically a logo>centric field, continues to be so. This is clear in the most concrete terms: in publications, course offerings, academic programs, funded pro<ects of all kinds. 1ublish a 1hilosophy paper or book and try to get illustrations: try color2good luckD

True, this reflects broader cultural attitudes, notably in education, where literacy and numeracy are central, while graphic abilities of conception, reasoning, insight are little taught or testedE so, for many students as for researchers, behind the scenes they assist thought>pro<ects set and <udged in terms of the linguistic and numerate. '* leitmotif of the following will be a sense that digitali%ation begins to change this.-

$till, outside the broader cultural background of neglect, philosophy has had its specific reasons, namely two. The first, which " mention only briefly, is what " came up against in my own early work on our graphic way 3to recreate the world mentally4. This is

7 propositionality, the #(regean assumption that the essential mark of cognitive content is the proposition, the bearer of truth>value. "t was unclear how nonlinguistic or nonmathematical eFpressions could eFpress propositions.6 Gisual representation was thereby consigned to that marginal district of 1hilosophy termed #*esthetics, where few philosophers stray. (or 1hilosophy, we may use the terms of the physicist !agrange at the beginning of his .H// reformulation of Newtonian mechanics, 3No figures will be found in this book.4

1hilosophys second, older, deeper source of reluctance was the implication of the graphic in the senses2notably the visual. Two great Iationalist philosophers, 1lato and Descartes, made their reasons clear. Neither re<ects the senses, both make crucial use of diagrams, but, given their high standards for the cognitive, both would draw us away from the senses and the related powers of imagination.

The best>known argument in Descartes is at the beginning of

editation $iF, where he

treats the limits of sense and imagination for thinking, with his famous eFample of the chiliagon. 'Holding that the central arguments of Meditations rest on the idea of infinity, " would suggest that infinitys inaccessibility to sense and imagination is his basic main reason.- *s for 1lato, the classic passages are probably Republic G" and G"", part of an eFtended answer to his ;ook G Juestion, 3who are the philosophersC4 His answer involves an account of the education of philosophers, including a weaning away from 1latos own brilliant graphics, such as the $un, the Divided !ine diagram and the +ave, with which he, with typical irony, presents this very re<ection. aths are the purifying

studiesE dialectic, as disciplined verbal eFchange freed of images, is the way to related

M certainties in value.

5et both our philosophers, mathematically minded as they were, not only employed diagrams to argue ma<or points, but say interesting things about diagrams, useful even to our more Kmpiricist or 1ragmatist modern age.

Me no Original square n st Menon /9d>/7b: original 82sJuare, . L 9d hypotheses, solution based on diagonal c85 (or eFample, beginning students of 1hilosophy read 1latos brilliant Menon, with its b
original geometric demonstration.= 5ou will recall that the boy is there asked by $ocrates to describe that line on which a sJuare can be constructed with twice the area of an original sJuare on a given base. Through two unsuccessful efforts, a solution is found in the idea of the diagonal: a splendid eFample of diagrammatic reasoning 'thinking> drawing-, since 1latos account traces the stages of a process of thinking, through constructing a diagram.

* process, because we notice that the boys first, wilder, answer provides the basis for the constructional drawing operation that will produce a correct answer. NeFt, $ocrates immediately says that the boys right opinions have 3only been stirred up as a dream, but if he were repeatedly asked such Juestions in various ways, in the end his knowledge

H about these things would be as accurate as anyones4 '/7cd-. $uch Juestions might include whether the construction holds for all rectangles, for other parallelograms and so forth. Thus the term 3reasoning4 here goes beyond certainty, beyond successful procedure, to include understanding, fitted to the capacities of the individual2which is the sub<ect of 1latos dialogue Menon on learning, as stated in its earlier line: 3answers must not only be true, but in terms known to the Juestioner4, so that they will be understood 'H7d-.

$ince "m no mathematician, "ll focus #only on this topic of understanding, comprehension, leaving diagrammatic proof to others who understand it better.

!ets remember these ideas of the great Iationalists as we pass from mathematical standards of certainty, to a more Kmpiricist approach to diagrammatic understanding. 1erhaps that comes in two big steps: the .Hth +. beginnings of modern science, then the growing data visuali%ation challenges of the following four centuries.

III. !th " Physics

*ccording to +anadian psychologist

ichael (riendly, 3the earliest seeds of

NinformationalO visuali%ation arose in geometric diagrams Nsuch as 1latosO, in tables of the positions of stars and other celestial bodies, and in the making of maps to aid in navigation and eFploration.4 '*fter this history we will consider this big initial <ump in the history of diagrams.-

QuickTime and a decompressor are needed to see this picture.

?eometrical reasoning is obviously of great antiJuity and importance: even Newton began his Principia in terms of drawing circles and straight lines with accuracy. Karlier in Newtons century, ?alileo struggled with geometrical diagrams to reason his way through the science of accelerated motions. "n his first diagram, ?alileo used the medieval geometric techniJue of Nicolas &resme, but got things wrong since at that point
QuickTime and a decompressor are needed to see this picture.

he 'like Descartes- made distance rather than time his independent variable. !ater, ?alileo 'unlike Descartes- got it right, but also, as the late ichael ahoney observed,

moves his main figure out of the depictive realm into the truly diagrammatic.7

*gainst those who claim that Ienaissance art played a ma<or part in the development of scientific diagrams, ahoney argues that, at least for the

new physics, it became necessary to take diagrams along a different direction. "d like to summari%e the matter about a new style of diagram in two points. (irst, as ahoney pointed out, we pass from

the balance statics of *ristotle, medieval thought2even ?alileo 'inset->>to dynamics. "n

P my terms, that increasingly means that 'in physics- were no longer diagramming substances>>making pictures of things>>but rather representing their states, as variable states, as functional relationships. * crucial point for the history of thought. *lso or diagramming, as it freed diagrams to become more multivariate than allowed for by the 9D>to>6D emphasis of writers on art. Thus Descartes algebraic geometry, rather than the beautiful constructional geometry of the +lassical world. "n Regulae ad directionem ingenii, Descartes admonishes us:

"Those things that do not require the present attention of the mind, but which are necessary to the conclusion, it is better to designate by the briefest symbols [nota] than by whole figures in this way the memory cannot fail, nor will thought in the meantime be distracted by these things that are to be retained, while it is concerned with other things to be deduced.... !y this effort not only will we make a sa"ing of many words, but, what is most important, we will e#hibit the pure and bare terms of the problem, such that while nothing useful is omitted, nothing will be found in them which is superfluous and which "ainly occupies the capacity of the mind, while the mind will be able to comprehend many things together." $%ule & trans. 'ahoney(

Descartes, like 1lato, is concerned with understanding, not <ust proof procedure. No more #chart <unk, ehC @e might recall this philosophers words as we sketch the present stage of the story of diagrammatic reasoning in the inductive or statistical sciences.

I#. Inductive graphics: a $uic% history

.8 Descartes was famously impatient with what he called 3probable reasoning4. Nonetheless, as an eFperimental scientist, he was obliged to rationali%e it. *nd modern science, as it developed into the neFt century, had to be more than only physics. $o, especially as the sciences of measurement grew rapidly out of the late .Hth +, comprehension 'not demonstration->>necessary for insight and inductive inference>>put great strains on eFisting table and diagram techniJues for storing, representing and operating on data, thus on all forms of what is now called 3information visuali%ation4. ichael (riendly outlines the neFt seven stages of this development2strongly tipped toward statistical diagramming. QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ

KFcerpts Juoted from

ichael (riendly '988/-, 3 ilestones in the History of Thematic

+artography, $tatistical ?raphics, and Data Gisuali%ation4: http:))www.math.yorku.ca)$+$)?allery)milestone)milestone.pdf with minor edits N O for reading, all bold mine.

& '(() '**: +easurement and theory

*mong the most important problems of the .Hth century were those concerned with physical measurement2 of time, distance, and space2 for astronomy, surveying, map making, navigation and territorial eFpansion. This century saw greatBgrowth in theory and the dawn of practice2 the rise of analytic geometry, theories of errors of measurement and estimation, the birth of probability theory, and the beginnings of demographic statistics and 3political arithmetic4. ;y the end B the necessary elements

.. were at hand2some real data of significant interest, some theory to make sense of them, B a few ideas for their visual representation. 1erhaps more importantly, one can see this century as giving rise to the beginnings of visual thin%ing.

!(() !**: ,ew graphic forms The ./th century witnessed, and participated in, the initial germination of the seeds of visuali%ation ... planted earlier. -$trata $mith. ap>makers began to ... show more

than <ust geographical position.... *s a result, new graphic forms 'isolines and contours- were invented, and thematic mapping of physical Juantities took root. Towards the end B we see the first attempts at the thematic mapping of geologic, economic, and medical data.

*bstract graphs, and graphs of functions were introduced, along with the early beginnings of statistical theory 'measurement error- and systematic collection of empirical data. *s other 'economic and political- data began to be collected, some novel visual forms were invented to portray them, so the data could 3spea% to the eyes4. *s well, several technological innovations provided necessary nutrients. These facilitated reproduction of data images 'color printing, lithography-, and other developments eased the task of creating them. 5et, most of these new graphic forms appeared in publications with limited circulation, unlikely to attract wide attention.

/(() /0*: 1eginnings of modern data graphics @ith the fertili%ation provided by the previous innovations of design and techniJue, the first half of the .Pth century witnessed eFplosive growth in statistical graphics and

.9 thematic mapping, at a rate which would not be eJualled until modern times. "n statistical graphics, all the modern forms of data display were invented: Nfor 1layfair see "an $pence, http:))www.psych.utoronto.ca)users)spence)$pence R98'988M-.pdf O bar and pie charts, histograms, line graphs and time>series plots, contour plots. "n thematic cartography, mapping progressed from single maps to comprehensive atlases, depicting data on a wide variety of topics 'economic, social, moral, medical, physical, etc.-, and introduced a wide range of novel forms of symbolism.

/5(2 /**: 3olden 4ge of data graphics ;y the mid>./88s, all the conditions for the rapid growth of visuali%ation had been established. -3uerry: http://www.math.yor%u.ca/5"5/3allery/images/guerry/guerry) 6al6i)'((s.7pg . &fficial state statistical offices were established throughout Kurope, in recognition of the growing importance of numerical information for social planning, industriali%ation, commerce, and transportation. $tatistical theory, initiated by ?auss and !aplace, and eFtended to the social realm by ?uerry and Suetelet, provided the means to make sense of large bodies of data. @hat started as the 3*ge of Knthusiasm4 in graphics and thematic cartography, may also be called the 3?olden *ge4, with unparalleled beauty and many innovations.

*((2 *0*: +odern Dar% 4ges "f the early ./88s were the 3golden age4 of statistical graphics and thematic cartography, the early .P88s could be called the 3modern dark ages4 of visuali%ation. There were few

.6 graphical innovations, and, by the mid>.P68s, the enthusiasm for visuali%ation which characteri%ed the late ./88s had been supplanted by the rise of Juantification and formal, often statistical, models in the social sciences. Numbers, parameter estimates, and, especially, standard errors were precise. 1ictures were <ust pictures: pretty or evocative, perhaps, but incapable of stating a 3fact4 to three or more decimals. &r so it seemed to statisticians. N(riendly adds:O ;ut it is eJually fair to view this as a time of necessary dormancy, application, and populari%ation, rather than one of innovation. "n this period statistical graphics became 3mainstream.4 ?raphical methods entered teFtbooks, the curriculum and standard use in government, commerce and science. "n this period graphical methods were used, perhaps for the first time, to provide new insights, discoveries, and theories in astronomy, physics, biology, and other sciences. *s well, eFperimental comparisons of the efficacy of various graphics forms were begun, and a number of practical aids to graphing were developed. "n the latter part of this period, new ideas and methods for multi>dimensional data in statistics and psychology would provide the impetus to look beyond the 9D plane. ?raphic innovation was also awaiting new ideas and technology: the development of the machinery of modern statistical methodology, and the advent of a computational power that would support the neFt wave of developments in data visuali%ation.

*5(2 *!0: 8e)6irth of data visuali9ation $till under the influence of the formal and numerical %eitgeist from the mid>.P68s B data visuali%ation began to rise from dormancy in the mid .PM8s, spurred largely

.= by three significant developments: T "n the A$*, 0ohn @. Tukey Ninventor of the computer word 3bit4 and early collaborator with Kdward TufteO, in a landmark paper, 3The (uture of Data *nalysis4, issued a call for the recognition of data analysis as a legitimate branch of statistics distinct from mathematical statisticsE NandBO the invention of a wide variety of new, simple, and effective graphic displays, under the rubric B 3KFploratory Data *nalysis4 'KD*-. B T "n (rance, 0acJues Bertin published the monumental Semiologie Graphique. To some, this NdidO for graphics what endeleev had B for the organi%ation

of the chemical elements: to organi%e the visual and perceptual elements of graphics according to the features and relations in data. T B the skills of hand>drawn maps and graphics had withered during the dormant 3modern dark ages4 of graphics. omputer processing of data had begun, NofferingO the possibility to construct old and new graphic forms by computer programs. True high>resolution graphics were developed, but would take a while to enter common use. ;y the end of this period significant intersections and collaborations would begin: 'a- computer science research 'software tools, + language, AN"U, etc.- at ;ell !aboratories B would combine forces with 'b- developments in data analysis 'KD*, psychometrics, etc.- and 'c- display and input technology 'pen plotters, graphic terminals, digiti%er tablets, B mouse, etc.-. These developments would provide new paradigms, languages and software packages for eFpressing and implementing statistical and data graphics. B they would lead to an eFplosive growth in new visuali%ation methods and techniJues.

.7 &ther themes begin to emerge, mostly as initial suggestions: 'a- B visual representations of multivariate dataE 'b- animations of a statistical processE 'c- perceptually>based theory 'or <ust informed ideas- related to how graphic attributes and relations might be rendered to better convey the data to the eyes Nmy italics and boldO

*!52present: :igh)D data visuali9ation B * few ma<or themes stand out: T the development of a variety of highly interactive computer systems and more importantly, T new paradigms of direct manipulation for visual data analysis 'linking, brushing, selection, focusing, etc.T new methods for visuali%ing high>dimensional data 'grand tour, scatterplot matriF, parallel coordinates plot, etc.-E T invention of new graphical techniJues for discrete and categorical data 'fourfold display, sieve diagram, mosaic plot, etc.-, and analogous eFtensions of older ones 'diagnostic plots for generali%ed linear models, mosaic matrices, etc.- and, T the application of visuali%ation methods to an ever>eFpanding array of substantive problems and data structures. These developments in visuali%ation methods and techniJues arguably depended on advances in theoretical and technological infrastructure. $ome of these are: 'alarge>scale software engineeringE 'b- eFtensions of classical linear statistical modeling to wider domainsE 'c- vastly increased computer processing speed and capacity, allowing computationally intensive methods and access to massive data problems. "n turn, the combination of these themes and advances now provides some solutions

.M for earlier problems.4 QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ - http://www.edwardtufte.com/66oard/$)and)a)fetch)msg;msg<id=((((27 .

#. &>he capacity of the mind? @Descartes) !ets lightly sample (riendlys stages 6 L =, including innovation from the time of 3bar and pie charts, histograms, line graphs and time>series plots, contour plots4, to remind ourselves of some of the problems of which the Iationalists warned, as easily accessed online. uch praised is the flow>line work of inard, to which well return.

emorable, fun 'note ;uenos *iress gulpD-, if of fairly low data density.M ost famous of course is his ./MP graphic of Napoleons arch. @onderful as it is,

.H

QuickTime and a decompressor are needed to see this picture.

(lorence Nightingale Juestioned not the truth, but relevance, of its bottom, temperature, gauge for the return, remarking that the heaviest losses occurred before the retreat, and that overall the losses fit eFpected curves for disease mortality2no doubt eFacerbated by cold, but not a function of it. -,ightingale: http://dd.dynamicdiagrams.com/2((//( /nightingales)rose/ . 5et, in turn, her pioneering use of the pie>chart has been critici%ed for misleading use of 3area4 to denote radius, and her #rose diagrams have been sub<ect to corrections.H &f course, pie>charts of any form are often found hard to understand, misleading 'besides often boring-. -:appiness: http:))www.math.yorku.ca)$+$)?allery)missed.html . *s for the scatterplot method, (riendly has critici%ed the mapping of wealth on happiness for being in eJual wealth intervals rather than logarithmic. ore simply, as a newspaper

graphic, my faulting it for covering the blank lower>right Juadrant with a caption is a layout designers comment on visual impression, on the guess that the blank paper would have had a visual effect different from what the editors wished.

./ "n sum, while we admire the fertility of their graphic inventions, the new probabilistic sciences illustrations themselves well illustrate the concerns of 1lato and Descartes, which we might rephrase as follows. ;oth philosophers sought to isolate the powers of reason, not only because those of sense and imagination are limited but also because they are partial, and thus prone to error2as Descartes stated, due to the physical nature of our nervous systems 'human nature>>actually, 3my nature4>>as he writes repeatedly: amusingly, Descartes neglects to prove the eFistence of other human minds-. "n the spirit of editation $iF: not to be too misleading, such new diagrams need to be monitored

constantly for these contingent tendencies of our perceptual systems, which>>if not contrivances of &ne who is no deceiver>>are the results of long processes of evolution, which carry with them the idiosyncratic histories of their past structures and of the particular environments to which they are adapted. These they reveal, in eccentric patterns of error, probed by psychologists standard visual illusions, too familiar to need illustration here. '"f dogs read diagrams, theyd sniff aroma scatter>points at meetingsE and, even as we sJueak, rats nonchalantly navigate tangles of path bewildering to our poor faculties.- "ronically, although diagrams are often cited as paradigms of the #conventional in graphic presentation, " suggest that perceptual psychologists adivise us which limitations of our systems are most likely to afflict display methods by error, confusion, fatigue, boredom2perhaps because we prefer linear orders to parts of wholes.

The outcome, regarding our nature, is that the diagrammatic eFpositor needs the talents of the art designer2thus the mission of Tufte, (riendly and others.

.P #I. ,atures diagrams: notations 6y the 3rand +istress of Information Design

This sketchy little history makes clear that mathematicians, statisticians, information designers, computer programmers have much to tell us about past and current natures of diagrammatic understanding2also what to eFpect from digitali%ation. *nything left for philosophersC &r, after brief eFposure to this aspect of graphic intelligence, shall they withdraw to their accustomed focus on language and math symbols, disregarding our other powers, as the Human &rigins label said, 3to re>create the world mentally and dream up new realities4C " hope not. To begin to suggest some of what 1hilosophy might offer, lets arm it with a few image>making devices of its own. ;ack to 1lato.

Iecalling ?oethes comment, 3@e ought to talk less and draw more. " personally should like to renounce speech altogether and, like organic nature, communicate everything " have to say in sketches4 '!talienische Reise, "#$%&$$-, instead of a lecture on Menon, one might give students a drawing. Pace some of my colleagues in philosophy of science, neither Menon nor ;ook G" of Republic is essentially about maths. ;oth are about understanding2philosophical understanding. "n Menon the diagram functions as referent

98 within a wider #diagram, of $ocratic method as teaching. This is clear from $ocrates statements to enon, which frame it. NeFt, $ocrates entire discussion with enon and

*nytos is within another referential conteFt: 1latos writing a dialogue called 3 enon4, for us to figure out what enon and *nytos fail to2the fallacies of their thinking. Thus enon, which

1lato directs us over the 'hole discussion, which includes the one with

includes the one with the boy, which concerns the geometrical figure. @ith his typical sense of humor 1lato leaves it to the instructor2another, implied, boF enclosing the others2to lead students to see this, yet never telling them the answer, which would violate the dialogues philosophy of understanding: a pragmatic paradoF, eFcept for instructors who either miss the fallacies or the educational point. '1lato is the rare philosopher regarding whom, if you dont have a sense of humor you miss important points. ;ut see his tip on the #Dorian mode in (aches. Iemarking on this to you suggests an even wider enclosing boF.- Having drawn this diagram often in class, " offer it as an eFample of how diagrams may sometimes kindle thought and thereby understanding better by not eFpressing propositions. 'No wonder that 1lato presents so many of them in words2even to the last, describing the layout of *tlantis.-

NeFt, lets take up camera to see what 1hilosophy might offer regarding (riendlys history of diagrams. That, youll recall, began with a step and a big <ump to the .Hth +: 3the earliest seeds of NinformationalO visuali%ation arose in geometric diagrams in tables of the positions of stars and other celestial bodies, and in the making of maps to aid in navigation and eFploration.4 ;ut wouldnt it have begun rather earlier, at least with plans for constructions, or the locations of things2notably regarding paths that we, or our

9. game, takeC 1rehistoric people making elaborate ob<ects2including images themselves>> would have needed to plan them ahead, and this would have involved gestural prefiguring traces. NeFt, pointing is said by some to be a distinctly humani%ing eFpression of <oint attention, and the moving finger or stick that points along a path or ob<ect contour might trace that track on a surface./

KFhibit in *merican

useum of Natural History, New 5ork +ity, $pit%er Hall of Human &rigins

To speculate about more #abstract and multivariate diagrams, neither pictures nor plans, it may be that ancient people had already found them in nature, in what at called #natural diagrams. +onsider, for eFample, the terms in which the famous inard diagram is

99 praised:

3siF separate variables B capturedB. (irst, the line width continuously marked the si%e of the army. $econd and third, the line itself showed the latitude and longitude of the army as it moved. (ourth, the lines themselves showed the direction that the army was traveling, both in advance and retreat. (ifth, the location of the army with respect to certain dates.... (inally, the temperature along the path of retreat was displayed. (ew, if any, maps before or since have been able to coherently and so compellingly weave so many variables into a captivating whole.4

96 @orthy praise. ;ut, speaking of time>series diagrams of temperatures along paths of retreat, last arch in &ntario, Nature, the ?rand istress of "nformation Design,

provided not only ordinal>>with eFact interval>>diagrams of siF stages of retreat in river levels. $he combined icicle indications for another range of variables: air temperatures, increasing daily over a warming trend, with thinning ice plates.

*ccording to Tufte, Vinformation displays should be documentary, comparative, causal and eFplanatory, Juantified, multivariate, eFploratory, sceptical.V " suggest that five of the cardinal virtues appear in another of Natures diagrams, from onterey, +alifornia.

Time is registered as season, also as seJuence>>by indication

9= of wind 'with direction-, then two sets of bird tracks, including track occlusion of big foot over small, setting them in temporal order. '+ompare such temporal causal>occlusion clues with the famous ordinal spatial depth of perspective and other pro<ective systems, provided by visual occlusion, our strongest depth>indication cue.P- Thus, an information palimpsest of three main events: wind, bird, ;ird.

Then, space, where we find detailed measures on a 9D surface, showing continuous paths, directions of paths, including changes. @e derive several space>time measures: rate of movement as shown by length of stride2even sensing rhythm of motions 'a higher derivative measure-. NeFt, mass>energy indications regarding the si%es and weights of the birds, possibly indications of change of sentience 'directions, actions->>as will be shown later by an eFpert tracker. !ight provides a whole other dimension, notably by shadow differences, on three overlying scales: overall dune shape, local changes in surface due to actions of plants, wind, birds>>then sand teFture. Thus, a multivariate natural graph, easily matching inardWs2which is, after all, a kind of tragic

track through mud and ice. !ikely, our )omo erectus ancestors, whose over million>year old footprints have recently been determined to reveal eFactly our physiology and walking actions, would have noticed this and more, from far subtler tracks.

3!ike organic nature4: philosophical suggestion is that, perhaps, rather than so much marveling at 1layfairWs, inards ingenious new graphic conventions, we might wonder istress has been tracing

why it took so long to translate to paper surface what the ?rand

on the worldWs surfaces and greater spaces. "n any case, left out of (riendlys account would seem to be many millennia of tutelage with such natural diagrams, then with

97 constructional drawing and directional path>markings, long before the first maps.

* second lesson from the ?rand

istress pertains to (riendlys phrase 3speak to the

eyes4. *lthough diagrams and most information design have a strongly visual nature, " think we are often in danger of substituting #opticentric attitudes for #logocentric ones2 as though blind people cannot understand diagrams. The boy in Menon could easily have been blind. &ne can present the proof by folding paper, for eFample. Iegarding any given diagram, it may be worth asking how much of it could be accessible by touch 'assuming lines in relief or graven-..8

(or eFample, not far from her first diagram, Nature spread a fine snow powder, on which

9M two ducks 'in what the naturalist $eton, below, termed 3the only universal tongue4inscribed the history of their arrivals 'and ones departure-, intersecting a sJuirrels story. eanwhile, the darkness and penumbral edges of tree shadows register their relative distances from the surface, whose flatness their forms affirm.

To these two critical points remarks about i- diagrammatic understanding 'and reasoningas continuous with natural perception, and ii- as not being so visual, a final comment, bringing us back to Darwins diagrams.

1opular definitions of 3diagram4 run something like: 3a 9D geometric, symbolic representation of information according to some visuali%ation techniJue.4 criticism of #visuali%ation is followed by one about #geometric. (or>>if the mathematicians present will forgive loose use of the term>>it seems to me that a basic motif of diagrams is topological, rather than geometric: that is, attention to a more basic set of invariances than outline shape, area, or other proportion. $tated more carefully, it seems to me that some main values we seek in diagrams are #topological>>in both the diagram drawing, and in what it picks out2especially as displaying the relationships continuity and enclosure, and their opposites. &ne suggestion that "d make to the seminar is to classify various forms of diagram for emphasi%ing topological characteristics, of both diagram and referents. y <ust>stated

9H

Harry ;eck !ondon tube map '.P66-

&bvious cases are common #schematics, block and circuit diagrams, ;eck route diagrams. +ontinuity and enclosure issues are of great cognitive2also psychological, visceral2natural meaning, attention to which may further relaF visual assumptions.

QuickTime and a decompressor are needed to see this picture.

9/

1urdue Aniv. civil engineering curriculum

Iobot schematic on #*rgalaF website, +anada

They are immediately salient in the early markings of a child: for eFample, one drawing a robot, who may someday cope with university curricula in order to study how to engineer one, by means of the similar diagrammatic values2although, to be sure, he is also characteri%ing shape.

@ith another such drawing, we can see how we need to distinguish, then relate, three orders of characteristics: of iphysical marks, ii-

9P entities they form, iii- what these denote. *s 0ohn @illats pointed out that as markings young childrens drawings typically consist in lines, which make 9D enclosures, with .D line and 9D enclosure attachments 'sometimes with 8D markings-, which come to define ob<ects in relationship. .. Asually, distinct units of substance are thereby indicated, larger units articulated by their combinations. (or eFample, in this drawing, .D marks 'linesare massed to make regions or kept .D, separateness of units and enclosure seem main concerns with shape secondary. '*pparently, threats to the castle are indicated simply by multiple sharp angles.- &f course, much art has to do with 'shifting- relationships among these three levels. *sked whether having a cat as the face of his birdhouse wouldnt frighten away birds, the five year>old replied, 3No, because birds know that cats arent red.4

#II. Darwins >rees

68

Karly we considered Darwins single diagram for Origin along with his ./6H notebook version. '(or the seminar: does 3" think4 refer to the diagram2is that his thought carried down the page>>its verbal gloss added laterC-

QuickTime and a decompressor are needed to see this picture.

6.

#Topological values are of course most central in all Darwins cladograms, #trees of life 'klados in ?reek meaning #twig-, where .D entities2lines>>capture the essential topological characteristic of continuity, and its opposite..9

+rucial to Darwins lines is that they make at most one .D <uncture with any otherE 'for his eurkaryotes- no reticulations. Note that his remark on the ./6H drawing, 3Thus between * L ; immense gap of relation. + L ; the finest gradation, ; L D rather greater distinction4, does two more things..6 (irst, it gives the diagram a time interpretation it wouldnt otherwise have 'to be represented later in Origin by hori%ontal bars-. ;ut, more basically, the phrases 3immense gap4 and 3finest gradation4 emphasi%e that the ordering of betweenness relationships 'with topological invariance along each line- transfer to the lines *unctures as well. Darwins main thought in Origin is about the ordering of these .D nodes, even before any time interpretation is given them. !ikewise topologically invariant, in the elaborated Origin version, is the order of rays in each 3fan4 'as he calls them-, representing degrees of difference>>for Darwin there argues that the

69 outside ones are most likely to continue..=

Here again we should separate properties of the drawing and properties of what the drawing denotes. "n Origin the trees denote temporal successions, hence are strictly one> way. ;ut it is significant that the diagram markings allow us to run our fingers forward L backward, investigating a variety of relationships, so long as they remain on path. This is essential to our ability 3to re>create the world mentally and dream up endless new realities4 'including counter>factuals-, and to discuss them, by use of physical diagrams.

The various printed versions of Darwins trees feature another important level of information. Their tree lines are printed by small dots, indicating, Darwin says, thousands2even ten>thousands2of generations between the hori%ontals..7 *lthough the lines produced are to be treated as topological continuities, the dots that form them remind us that the lines represent lineages, successive generations>>not smooth #flow> line currents of germ plasm. Kach dot stands at its mortal post, an essential generational, ordinal link in a temporal chain. '&nce again, we should not call such spatial representation #visual: imagine the dots to be in ;raille.-

;ack to Nature. *lthough we call such diagrams #tree, #branch and leaf, #arborescence, note that Natures own cladograms are more compleF, their temporal states reflecting dynamic pasts. (or the shapes of their branches carry information not only about their growth outward, but also of the reactions of other parts of the tree, as Darwin emphasi%ed, in interacting systems of 3organic life4.

66

*s they grow, twigs respond to the growth of other twigsE heavier branches draw their supports down, and so are forced to change direction themselves. $o the present states of past records need to be interpreted partly in terms of later records, which are then reinterpreted. Thus the ability to read a trees own #diagram calls for more than that to read a tree>diagram. 5et all the information was there for our ancestors, not <ust for their eyes.

$uch looking at Nature diagrammatically is good practice, since, to Juote Tufte, 3Nearly all serious analysis reJuires multivariate>thinking, comparison>thinking, and causal> thinking. Develop such thinking.4 Ase more diagramsC

6= #III. Diagram dialogue

;efitting the pro<ect, 1hilosophy and 1lato, Juestions raised in discussion led to further thoughts on three themes2" hope for future eFamination and development.

*. #&n the &rigin of Diagrams

" offered a few tentative speculations about the prehistory of diagramming. @hile amidst a certain richness of depictive carving, drawing and painting, there are plenty of uninterpreted petroglyphic and other prehistoric markings, " know of no generally accepted cases of what we could call diagrams. This seems unsurprising. The +hauvet *urignacian paintings we considered suggest much lost practice in sunlight, above ground, where functional diagrams were more likely to have been useful, thus vulnerable. Kven the early eras of historical marking show little diagramming, because such utilitarian artifacts would not usually be made on permanent materials. The !ouvres Ar %iggurat plan survives only because it was part of a sculptureE finding tracing floors for ?reek temples has been difficult enough. +lay tablets were reused, as were the three #ps: papyrus, parchment, paper>>being dear. *ll of us have scribbled many little maps and diagrams, yet if we went through our files " doubt wed find many eFtant. $till, "m confident that anthropologists could provide a multitude of ingenious artifacts from various cultures that had diagrammatic use 'perhaps combined with others-.

* #likely story would be based more on suppositions about activities than on remains. There we should eFpect heterogeneity. *s suggested above, for eFample, pointing is taken as an important human trait. "n pointing, as related to path>tracing, 3the moving

67 finger writes4>>as does the pointer stick>>and it seems plausible that such tracks would be transferred to surfaces, gestural actions into marking actions, by people practiced in controlled surface>marking for a variety of purposes.

1ath finding, remembering, sharing are vital, common human activities, but our species, lacking keen smell, any echolocation, rodent brains 'probably, the rats of Genice rarely stray- needs all the help it can get. "n connection with remarks in the last section, continuity is a crucial factor in path>finding, hence in its recording. &n land and sea, hard>to>find passages need to be noted. *nd regarding another theme of that section, perceptual access to such guides need not be visual, especially where used in the dark or with eyes on the path ahead. The +anadian (riendly might recall the "nuit, by whom, for over three centuries:

3Three>dimensional maps of coastlines B were usually carved from driftwood B made to be felt rather than looked at. The "nuit hold this map under their mittens and feel the contours with their fingers to discern patterns in the coastline. The land is very abstract. "t is limited to #edges that can be felt on a dark night in a kayak. $ince they are made of wood they are impervious to B weather and will float if B dropped overboard B . N$uch a chartO will B last longer that one that is printed.4.M

"t seems plausible that at least the

agdalenians were as ingenious. *rea mapping and

constructive drawing in transferring shapes seem two other likely sources for sorts of diagrams. *s to more #abstract issues, marks for counting and for personal adornment 'including clothes and skin- might constitute others. "t would be interesting to see

6M archaeologists and anthropologists have to tell us here.

However my speculations were focused less on prehistory than on what might be the bases for transfers from #natural diagrams to drawn ones, as information forms. ;y 3natural diagram4 " mean not only the things such as fossils, tree>rings, rock strata usually given that description but also the way we often perceive things: perceiving diagrammatically. *ccording to modern sciences, perception is typically active, channeled, reconstructive, the sense systems operating by series of filters, whose products are recombined. $o it appears misleading to say, as often, that diagrams leave things out 2#are not photographic. Gisual perception isnt photographic, either>>which is why photos, which lend themselves well to #aesthetic distance or contemplation, often derive meaning from trivial detail2that is, from what is background noise for the visual system. $trange details meet in the surrealism of a street. Due to their common false>attachment effects, photos could as <ustly be said to #leave out the separation of substances, a main interest of perception typically made clear in diagrams. How then might using diagrams be like perceiving itself, as thus channeledC

;. Diagrams and depictions

+ompare depictions with diagrams in that regard. Depictive practices seem rooted in spontaneous, natural eFperiences, but it isnt clear that diagram practices are, which might eFplain why the history of diagrams appears to be so recent. " approve of an initial distinction between diagrams and depictions, as two types of 'heterogeneous- marking or shaping activities. This is because " understand both as functional conceptions, but use :endall @altons imagining>perceiving theory for depiction while thinking of diagrams

6H as essentially forms of information coding and storage..H Therefore "d like to keep their conceptions distinct, even should most of their instances overlap, then to approach their natural bases in parallel but different ways.

The issue of natural roots for diagram or depiction would be double, pertaining to how its practice began and to why it works so well. '+p. the Juestions of how alphabetic writing began, and why it works.- Iegarding depiction, on @altons make>believe approach to representation, " accept that some spontaneous cases of imagining, such as with this cast

of characters, could become depictive representations <ust by assuming imagining>seeing as one of their functions. However, there is much more represented by depictions than can be eFperienced as seen in them, and that content is not spontaneously given, whatever spontaneous cases 'e.g. this &edipus stump- stimulate us further to imagine. (or, as representations, depictions are artifacts, situations understood as being formed 'or left- as they are on purpose for purposes. Therefore their states have reasons, not <ust causes, and we perceive them accordingly, whereas with #&edipus the Juestion why the bark is off and there is a dark, decayed hole isnt relevantly answered in terms of purposes. &n this artifact view of

6/ depictions, although they are rooted in natural recognition responses, their representational contents are taken into the social compleFity of other artifacts>>notably 3symbols4, as the museum caption called them. * Juestion is whether diagrams, too, have some such root connection and artifactual growth. "d like to eFplore this in two ways, by a return to the topic of the natural diagrams of causal eFchange, and by more speculative ideas about perceiving, itself, as mental diagramming.

+. "nformation * theme from the beginning of the talk has been the autonomy of images relative to language. 5et, as artifacts, arent the informational intentions of diagrams partly eFpressed by verbal and numerical labels and glossesC 'Didnt Darwin add, even in his own notes, a verbal gloss to his tree drawingC- To be sure they are: labeling is a crucial issue in display design../ $till, " dont think this essential to visual displays, and suggest that in use images may #have their own legs, like the "nuit #grope chart. *s with other artifacts 'including language and maths-, one acJuires skillful use by #going on with them as others do, with little dependence of words. Anless filed for future use, our own working diagrams usually go unlettered.

However, the modern age, made possible by shared displays in multiple copies for varying interpreters at different sites 'and preserved through time-, needs additional uniform #notae. ;y contrast, we pick up #diagrammatic information from nature by physical conteFt, its causal laws for information eFchange being universal2although of course the kinds of information we seek vary greatly. +onsider, for eFample, how a skilled tracker #reads the #diagram of a foFs hunt across a winter landscape in

6P anitoba. Krnest Thompson $eton put in words information that he or a native tracker could find, absent labels and glosses, even any verbal eFpression, spoken or thought..P

$etons narrative time series runs: at *, foF pulled garter snake from holeE from D to K, shorter steps show foF went more slowly, scenting gameE at ( 3stood still for some time, with feet set down in the snow. $o it was written4E at ? 3deeply imprinted marks of both hind feet4 show where it leapt for preyE at U landed with partridge flushed from snowdrift cover 'nearby hole showing that one escaped-, etc. 'The garter snake probably laid by in advance for insurance on the trip back.- * particularly #fine touch is $etons observation that on the bend after D the foF paused with upraised paw: 3" found his record of the act 'X-. The little mark there was not a full track but the paws tip print, showing that the (oF had not set the foot down, but held it poised . . . as his nose was harkening to the telltale wind.4 *nimals pick up like information, wordlessly.

Anderstanding such #natural diagrams has a causal basis. &ne might thus wish to distinguish them from the diagram and map artifacts whose history (riendly relates: those whose information content>>so it might be thought>>is not produced by the phenomena themselves. However very important eFceptions begin in (riendlys 3?olden *ge4 of the

=8 latter .Pth +, when, for eFample with areys sphygmograph, mechanical trace recording

devices, including photographic, come to wide use.98

The hypothesis of informational continuity is partly that our modern techniJues are well rooted in such natural 'but educable- environmental information pick>up methods. Now "d like to consider the reciprocal situation. ;esides perceiving natural states as diagrams of conditions and events, might perceiving itself be understood as a sort of diagrammingC Here is a photo of an every day event in an urban street market, to suggest several #diagrams that normal interested perception uses, beginning with the standard perspectival, beloved of cognitive researchers.

=.

"t is clearly in perspective, standard edge>lines to G1s and metal armature lines providing simple picture, also scene, structures2a diagram the photographer must sense2yet, as with the actual situation, this is only as background to what interests us: things and events. These would be primarily human actions and social relationships. Thus in this picture edge>lines gathering to vanishing points mainly function to separate pairs of them: inside)outside, stationary)transient, merchant)customer, while suggesting that the situation runs down the street. To show these focus actions and relationships, a different kind of diagram seems necessary. *s rough beginning, blue lines show the physical processes wed most likely be observing: assembly of parts, cooking, transfer,

=9

handing over2the yellow tracing the strongest energy path, hence source of danger. *ll track paths through the physical space, strongly suggesting continuity, while allowing considerable stretching and bending 'as the fuel line illustrates-. "f present, we would place all that in a wider conteFt of social relationship of eFchange2in this case, economic 'represented by paths in orange, arrows in both directions-. ;ut to grasp the situation, we need to distinguish another economic eFchange 'magenta- of selling the food upfront: thats what the scale is for. The scent of the cooking, combined with the actions <ust described, is mainly to entice customers 'who have observed the simple process- to buy the materials to cook at home.

(urther to indicate whats salient in the event, a third diagram showing an organi%ation of scene and picture by the main focus for five central people and for us the tipped skillet,

=6 among other ga%e directions. ;ut this is all too geometrical: after all, ga%e lines spring from acts of looking, from whole human bodies, in interaction even when not strongly in #shared awareness. Thus an always interesting array of attitudes.

*nother diagram, containing lines we actually draw, reflects our keen sensitivity to postural cues 'which we share even with out pets-. @orking artists will not be surprised by mirror>neuron research, habitually miming as they do attitudes and tensions of bodies that they draw, their own bodily attitudes and kinaesthetic senses diagramming what they are trying to see, audience that they are of the great human dance. Here, in sketchbook #notae, we see the shifts of attitude, bodily tensions, ways of regarding:

==

raising of the shoulder of server, tension of head rotation, folded>in but observant, eFpectantly contained, straining to see, nonchalantly observing.

Thus a few informal diagrams, leaving out the gravitational framework, light, also color relationships. ;ased partly on recent well>known studies of agnosias of shape, face, ob<ect, posture>recognition etc., and partly on introspection, " think that we can postulate the cognitive reality of at least some corresponding perceptual modules among these: separable but interacting frameworks. "n accordance with contemporary psychology, it seems that our #symbolic powers 3to re>create the world mentally4 might arise directly from our ability, shared with other animals, to 3re>create the world4 in the first place>> since that is how perception works. $uch symbolic powers would include these kinds of diagramming.

$o, in addition to the track eFamples, where ob<ects of sight constitute natural #diagrams, there may be independent natural sources for diagramming, in interested perception itself,

=7 coordinating files of distinct diagrams. That is often clear to the image>maker, anyway, for whom the latter three diagrams need to be mentally separated from the first, perspective one, which shows a factor over which the photographer has separate control, by positioning the camera. That independence shows up consciously, even verbally as subteFt '3get a better view4, 3change perspective4-, since the image>maker often has to think about them deliberately as separate, then relate them. 9. "n addition, as is often noted, the 3view>centered4 perspectival schema represents the viewers positions in addition to those of things in scenes, since, as 0. 0. ?ibson remarked, 3perception points two ways.4

Thus the con<ecture that, besides tracks and other information>bearers in the environment, processes of perception themselves combine different frameworks, which, from #bottom up, might serve as sources for technological diagramming techniJues, rather than those techniJues being #abstracted 'as is so often said- from #top down fuller scene descriptions. There should be ways of testing this hypothesis, tracing the contingencies of what Descartes called our 3nature4 and perhaps turning this to practical use in diagram techniJues.

=M N&TK$

*s can be seen at Darwin>online http:))darwin>online.org.uk)graphics)illustrations.html

much of his work was fully2sometimes famously2illustrated. Darwin often eFpressed himself with

diagrams, e.g.:

* few days following this papers presentation, primatologists announced 'their- first evidence of

chimpan%ees envisaging future events and planning for them: http:))www.guardian.co.uk)science)988P)mar)8P)chimp>%oo>stones>science

6

The great deal written about Nelson ?oodmans .PM/ (anguages of +rt, +n +pproach to a Theory of

Symbols '"ndianapolis: ;obbs> errill, .PM/E 9nd ed. "ndianapolis: Hackett, .PH/- hardly reflects what was most revolutionary about the book at the time: a nonpropositional cognitive program 'via 3labels4made by a leading logicist epistemologist, $u%anne !angers earlier propositional efforts having been neglected.

*ccording to maths historian 1rofessor 0ohn +orcoran, Department of 1hilosophy, $AN5 at ;uffalo. $ee ichael $. ahoney, VDiagrams and Dynamics: athematical 1erspectives on KdgertonWs

ThesisV '.P/7-, available Y http:))www.princeton.edu)Zmike)articles)diagdyn)diagdyn.html,NQ69Q

M

ichael (riendly has assembled

inards diagrams Y

http:))www.math.yorku.ca)$+$)?allery)minbib.html, inard:./M7e
H

" will be consulting Nightingales remarks in the ;ritish !ibrary collection. (or an account of her

methods, see Hugh $mall, http:))www.york.ac.uk)depts)maths)histstat)small.htm . * spirited dialogue about her charts by Kdward Tuftes board 'including his comments- is at http:))www.edwardtufte.com)bboard)J>and>a>fetch>msgCmsgQid[8888Ho
/

(or eFample, in

ichael Tomasello, The ultural Origins of )uman ognition '+ambridge,

ass.:

Harvard Aniversity 1ress, .PPP-, Jualified by later papers on primatology.

P

&n visual occlusion as premier depth>ordinal cue, see 0ames +utting L 1.

. Gishton, 31erceiving

layout and knowing distances: The interaction, relative potency, and conteFtual use of different information about depth4, in @. Kpstein L $. Iogers 'eds.-, Perception of Space and Motion '$an Diego: *cademic 1ress '.PP7-, pp. MP>..H.
.8

*s in the blind drawing eFperiments by 0ohn :ennedy, where a pen makes groves in the paper.

$ome of this work is available Y http:))www.utsc.utoronto.ca)Zkennedy) @hile writing this, " miFed up two pills and, failing to distinguish them by use of a strong glass, found " could easily by touch, one being smoother.
..

$ee, for eFample, 0ohn @illats, +rt and Representation, -e' Principles in the +nalysis of Pictures

'1rinceton, N.0.: 1rinceton Aniv. 1ress, .PPH-.

.9

" lack access to Horst ;redekamp, .ar'ins /orallen0 1r2he 3volutionsmodelle und die Tradition

der -aturgeschichte ;erlin ';erlin: @agenbach Gerlag, 9887-E (r. transl.: (es corau4 de .ar'in, Premiers mod5les 6volutionnistes et tradition de l7histoire naturelle '1aris: 1resses du I)el, 988/-.

.6

The fuller passage ' http:))darwin>online.org.uk)content)framesetCitem"D[+A!>D*I.9..>

Lviewtype[sideLpageseJ[6/on - reads: 3" think )+ase must be that one generation then should be as many living as now. )To do this L to have many species in same genus 'as is- reJuires eFtinction.)Thus between * L ; immense gap of relation. + L ; the finest gradation, ; L D rather greater distinction. Thus genera would be formed. 2 bearing relation to ancient types. 2 with several eFtinct forms for if each species an ancient '.- is capable of making .6 recent forms, twelve of the contemporarys must have left no offspring at all, so as to keep number of species constant. 2 @ith respect to eFtinction we can easy see that variety of ostrich, 1etise may not be well adapted, and thus perish out, or on other hand like &rpheus being favourable many might be produced. 2 This reJuires principle that the permanent varieties produced by inter confined breeding L changing circumstances are continued L produced according to the adaptation of such circumstances, L therefore that death of species is a conseJuence 'contrary to what would appear from *merica- of non>adaptation of circumstances. 2Gide two, pages back. Diagram4
.=

3B NTOhis will generally lead the most different or divergent variations 'represented by the outer

dotted lines- being preserved and accumulated by natural selection4 'P.-. The ./6H diagrams topic, eFtinction, corresponds better to p. /= of Origin, ref. below.
.7

+harles Darwin, On the Origin of Species B '9d, ./M8, ednE &Fford: &Fford Aniversity 1ress, 988/-,

p. P..
.M

http:))spacecollective.org)mslima)6998)"nuit>@ood> aps

Touch topology: as in the inset chart of the ?reenland coast, for smaller carvings, they can run up one side and down the other.
.H

*n implication of this is not accepting Nelson ?oodmans distinction in (anguages of +rt '.PM/-,

based on syntactic and semantic differences.

./

*lthough ?ombrich neglects to note in his +rt and !llusion '3Truth and $tereotype4- comment

'image same but label changed, image content changes radically-, the complement also holds.
.P

Krnest Thompson $eton, 3* +hapter of (oF>life4, in +nimal Tracks and )unter Signs 'ca .P=M-. http:))www.sciencemuseum.org.uk)broughttolife)techniJues)pulsemeasure.aspF . (or an eFcellent areys trace recording as it eFtended into photography, see arta ;raun, Picturing Time:

98

account of

The 8ork of 3tienne&9ules Marey :"$;<&"=<>?, +hicago: Aniversity of +hicago 1ress, .PP9 and http:))visuali%ation>wiki.stanford.edu)Cn[ ain. arta;raun
9.

&ur topic not aesthetics, we omit consideration of another mental diagram that operates

independently: that relating the shapes in the picture to the shape and surface of the picture. "n this eFample, a strong foreground vertical is used to emphasi%e the distinction of server and customer, and, by false attachment to top and bottom edges of the image, to organi%e the depiction as a design on a flat surface.