WORKING PARTY ON FOSSIL FUELS INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

Control and Minimisation of Coal-fired Power Plant Emissions

ZERO EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGIES FOR FOSSIL FUELS

WORKING PARTY ON FOSSIL FUELS INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

Control and Minimisation of Coal-fired Power Plant Emissions

ZERO EMISSIONS TECHNOLOGIES FOR FOSSIL FUELS

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

9, rue de la Fdration, 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France The International Energy Agency (IEA) is an autonomous body which was established in November 1974 within the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to implement an international energy programme. It carries out a comprehensive programme of energy co-operation among twenty-six* of the OECDs thirty member countries. The basic aims of the IEA are: to maintain and improve systems for coping with oil supply disruptions; to promote rational energy policies in a global context through co-operative relations with nonmember countries, industry and international organisations; to operate a permanent information system on the international oil market; to improve the worlds energy supply and demand structure by developing alternative energy sources and increasing the efficiency of energy use; to assist in the integration of environmental and energy policies. * IEA member countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States. The European Commission also takes part in the work of the IEA.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into force on 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shall promote policies designed: to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world economy; to contribute to sound economic expansion in member as well as non-member countries in the process of economic development; and to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in accordance with international obligations. The original member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The following countries became members subsequently through accession at the dates indicated hereafter: Japan (28th April 1964), Finland (28th January 1969), Australia (7th June 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973), Mexico (18th May 1994), the Czech Republic (21st December 1995), Hungary (7th May 1996), Poland (22nd November 1996), the Republic of Korea (12th December 1996) and Slovakia (28th September 2000). The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD (Article 13 of the OECD Convention). OECD/IEA, 2003 Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or part of this publication should be made to: Head of Publications Service, OECD/IEA 2, rue Andr-Pascal, 75775 Paris Cedex 16, France or 9, rue de la Fdration, 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France.

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INTRODUCTION
Worldwide, coal-fired power generation presently accounts for roughly 38% of total electricity production. In some countries, such as China and India, it accounts for as much as 50%. While coal use in some of the more developed countries remains static or is in decline, significant increases in coal-fired generation capacity are taking place in many of the developing nations and large capacity increases are planned. As a consequence of the extensive investments being made in many parts of the world, and because coal resources are far more abundant than other fossil fuel resources, also because power plants have a long working life, coal will remain an important source of energy for many years. Coals on-going role underlines the importance of improving the efficiency of coalfired power plants and the minimisation of their environmental impacts, for both economic and environmental reasons. A number of pollutants emitted from coalfired power plants require consideration, although effective means for their control already exist in some cases. For instance, systems exist to control emissions of sulphur (SOX) and nitrogen oxides (NOX), or particulates. Power plants emit large quantities of CO2. With few exceptions, however, CO2 control technologies have not been adopted. And yet, incentives can be introduced for deploying technologies that lower, or even eliminate, CO2 emissions. Key examples are mandatory standards or mechanisms for internalising external costs, notably through taxes and tradable emissions permits. Such measures must be carefully balanced to encourage investment in countries where high standards have to be met, and thus prevent resources from being diverted to other countries. A range of technologies has thus been developed to minimise the emission of a variety of undesirable substances emitted from coal-fired power plants (for further information, 1 see the Website of the IEA Clean Coal Centre ). Collectively, these systems are often referred to as Clean Coal Technologies (CCTs). A CCT is a technology which, in an economically viable manner, reduces plant emissions to enable the facility to meet or exceed any emissions standards in force. CCTs are becoming increasingly important, as they provide a means for coal-fired plant to meet the requirements of the increasingly stringent environmental legislation applied in many countries.

www.iea-coal.org.uk

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Climate change is a problem of global proportions. A number of anthropogenic gases are largely responsible for driving this process forward, the most significant contributor being carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by the burning of fossil fuels. The latter provide a large proportion (>85%) of the worlds commercial energy needs and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future (Figure 1). To ensure that substantial reductions in atmospheric CO2 levels can be made during the present century and beyond, technological solutions urgently require development and application in order to control the increasing amounts of 2 CO2 being produced. The International Energy Agency (IEA) is playing a major role in addressing this problem. Recognising the potential of CO2 capture and 3 storage technologies, the IEAs Working Party on Fossil Fuels (WPFF) launched its strategy for Zero Emissions Technologies (ZETs) in 2001. With this concept, almost all conventional pollutants produced by the burning of fossil fuels are eliminated and CO2 is captured and stored, thus precluding its emission into the atmosphere. The capture of CO2 from commercial and industrial operations, followed by its storage in geological formations, is viewed as an important strategy for achieving substantial reductions in emissions levels. Widespread deployment of CO2 capture and storage technologies will depend, however, on the widespread introduction of appropriate mandatory standards or mechanisms for pricing CO2 emissions.
Figure 1 World Primary Energy Demand in a Business-as-Usual Scenario

Source: IEA World Energy Outlook 2002

2 3

Further details on the IEAs activities can be obtained at: www.iea.org WPFF Chair: Barbara.McKee@hq.doe.gov

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As the IEA has commented: Numerous technology solutions offer substantial CO2-reductions potential, including renewable energies, fossil-fuel use with CO2 capture and storage, nuclear fission, fusion energy, hydrogen, biofuels, fuel cells and efficient energy end use. No single technology can meet this challenge by itself. Different regions and countries will require different combinations of technologies to best serve their needs and best exploit their indigenous resources. The energy systems of tomorrow will rely on a mix of different advanced, clean, efficient technologies for energy supply and use. Energy Technology: Facing the Climate Challenge - paper prepared for the Meeting of the IEA Governing Board at Ministerial Level, 28-29 April 2003 While emissions need to be reduced, it is clear that fossil fuel resource constraints will not be the driver of emissions reductions in the foreseeable future. This will remain the case, in spite of anticipated cost increases, as the cheapest oil and gas reserves are depleted and transport distances increase for obtaining new supplies. Global electricity demand is rising, particularly in the developing world, where population and economic growth are greater than in developed countries and where the rate of migration from rural to urban areas is significantly higher. Developing and developed countries alike can be expected to continue using their abundant coal reserves. Clearly, in the absence of action, CO2 levels can be expected to continue increasing (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Energy-Related CO2 Emissions by Region in a Business-as-Usual Scenario

Source: IEA World Energy Outlook 2002

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Continued fossil-fuel use in a CO2 emissions-constrained world will call for more efficient fossil-fuel combustion technology, CO2 capture and storage, and switching among fossil fuels. In a future Hydrogen Economy, control of CO2 will be needed as well, because hydrogen will be produced mainly from fossil fuels.

MAIN TYPES OF COAL-FIRED POWER GENERATING PLANT

A number of types of coal-fired power plant technology are currently deployed around the world. In terms of potential for further significant development in the future, however, efforts are focused largely on pulverised fuel (PF) and integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) systems. In terms of both number of plants and installed capacity, PF plants dominate the world electricity generating market. A small, but growing, number of IGCC plants are now operating either in demonstration mode or in commercial use.
Figure 3 Layout of a PF Power Plant

PF-fired stations have been in use for more than 60 years and they remain the main form of coal-fired power generation (Figure 3). PF-based plant is found throughout the world and is in widespread use in both developed and developing nations. In operation, coal is burned in a boiler that raises high-pressure steam. This is then passed through a steam turbine and used to generate electricity. Over the years, many advances have been made to PF plant technology, including environmentally-focused measures to minimise emissions of SO2, NOX and particulates, also the application of

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advanced steam cycles that allow for greater plant efficiency. Typical PF plant is characterised by overall thermal efficiencies of some 36% (Lower Heating Value LHV - basis), but in some developing nations this figure can be much lower. Plants with higher steam temperatures and pressures can attain up to around 45% and, as further developments take place, efficiencies of 50-55% may ultimately be achieved. In integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants, coal is reacted with steam and oxygen in a gasifier, generating a fuel gas that consists predominantly of CO and hydrogen. This gas is cleaned using a number of available techniques and burned in a gas turbine. The exhaust heat is used to drive a steam cycle, producing additional electricity. IGCC plants allow high efficiencies to be attained even when using low grade coals. Several important demonstration/commercial projects are now operational in Europe and the United States (Figure 4), and several other projects are at the preparation stage.
Figure 4 The coal-fired Demkolec IGCC Plant at Buggenum (the Netherlands)

Of the remaining technologies, fluidised bed combustion (FBC) technology is the most important, being applied often to niche markets for co-firing of coals with various waste streams. Of the FBC variants employed, circulating FBC is most commonly encountered for power generation purposes. There are a handful of pressurised (PFBC) plants in operation.

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EMISSIONS CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED

A range of pollutants are generated from coal-fired and coal co-fired power generating plants and some are more specific to a particular technology. Historically, attention has focused mainly on controlling emissions of SO2, NOX and particulates. Numerous systems have been developed and applied for their control. Some control specifically one type of pollutant, whereas others may integrate several control systems, thus allowing for the control of two or more pollutants (e.g. combinations of SO2, NOX and particulates). Here, a range of technologies are either being demonstrated or applied commercially. Most on-going development work, for either one pollutant or integrated control systems, is focused on increasing process efficiency and/or reducing capital and operating costs, often through the adoption of simplified process design and operation. To date, work has concentrated largely on controlling emissions of the more traditional pollutants. However, emphasis has increased more recently on control strategies for a range of other pollutant species that are present in lower concentrations. When the addition of emissions control systems to a plant is being contemplated, a number of issues require consideration in order to determine the most appropriate variant(s), and many will reflect the configuration and age of the particular plant. Where, for instance, an ageing PF-fired power plant is involved, there are several possible options that may be pursued. Clearly, if the plant currently has little in the way of effective control systems, as may be the case in some of the developing nations, an option is to retrofit off-the-shelf equipment, available on a turn-key basis from many equipment vendors. But, if the plant is nearing the end of its working life and is of low overall efficiency, it may be more cost-effective to re-power it with newer, more efficient PF technology or a system based on fluidised bed combustion or IGCC technology; this is a particularly attractive option for older plants and for those facing increasing power demands. Such options can be effective for significantly increasing a plants efficiency, as well as reducing its environmental impact. Where a newer, more efficient power plant is involved, it may be more appropriate to upgrade or add to the existing emissions control systems, or to replace them with more effective variants. Again, the replacement of the existing combustion plant may also be in order. In most cases, the selection of appropriate emissions control systems will require consideration on a case-by-case basis.

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MAJOR POLLUTANTS AND MEANS FOR THEIR CONTROL

Sulphur dioxide (SO2). This is a major precursor for acid rain formation and numerous technical solutions have been developed and are widely applied today. Two basic types of control system are used, one working internally and the other externally. In both cases, these systems remove SO2 from combustion gases exiting the boiler. Some flue gas desulpurisation (FGD) systems operate within existing ductwork, primarily in PF plant, and are capable of reducing SO2 emissions, typically by 50-70%. Where larger plant is involved, FGD systems based on scrubber technologies are often used. These are more efficient and can achieve reductions of up to more than 95% (Figure 5). The extracted SO2 can be commercialised for use in producing gypsum. In some countries, such as Germany, all major power plants are equipped with some form of FGD systems. However, globally, application is patchy, especially in some of the developing nations.
Figure 5 Large FGD Unit Fitted to Power Plant in Japan

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Nitrogen oxides (NOX). NOXs are also involved in the formation of acid rain, as well as contributing to the formation of urban smog. In industrialised countries, NOXs from power plants are today captured on a broad scale. There are essentially three types of technique for controlling and minimising NOX formation. In the case of PF plant, NOX can be controlled through primary measures such as air and fuel staging and other combustion modifications. Special designs of low-NOX burners can be retrofitted, resulting in NOX reductions of up to some 60%. A technique known as reburning can also be applied, whereby natural or coal-derived gas is burned above the main combustion zone in such a way that NOX is broken down into molecular nitrogen; reduction levels of up to 70% can be attained. There also exist several downstream NOX control measures which rely on the injection of ammonia or urea into the flue gases. These are termed selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR). Such techniques can reduce NOX emissions by up to 90%, but they are more expensive than other control measures. Particulates. Coal combustion inevitably produces small particles and, as with other major pollutants, numerous national and international limits are in force, limiting the levels emitted into the atmosphere. Several main types of technology are used to control particulate emissions from coal-fired power plants and large industrial processes. These are described below. Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs). These units rely on the transfer of an electric charge to particles suspended in a gas stream and their subsequent removal via an electric field to a suitable collecting electrode. They are widely applied in power plants and are capable of achieving collection efficiencies of more than 99.5%. Fabric filters. Here, particles carried in a gas stream are retained as the stream passes through multiple filter bags manufactured from high-temperature o synthetic fibres, usually at temperatures of up to some 300 C. Fabric filtration has found growing application for both utility and industrial uses. Wet particles scrubbers. A large number of variants (foam, film, spray columns, etc) are available, most based on the use of a liquid medium to collect flue gas particulates. They are used widely for industrial coal-fired applications, but have also been used in high-temperature and pressure applications, as in IGCC and pressurised fluidised bed combustion (PFBC) plant. In some cases, particulate control may be combined with the removal of other species such as SO2, HF and HCl. Hot gas cleanup systems. This technology is considered to have significant potential for application in some forms of advanced power generation. Particles in the gas stream are trapped as the gas passes through a series of porous filters o (tubes, candles and other configurations) operating at 250-400 C. These offer potential for significantly enhanced overall plant efficiency. Several coal-fired IGCC plants have demonstrated treatment of their gas streams using either porous ceramic or metallic hot gas filter units.

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CONTROL OF OTHER POLLUTANTS

Apart from emissions of SO2, NOX and particulates, there has been increasing interest over recent years in controlling and minimising emissions of a number of trace substances produced from coal-fired power plant in much smaller amounts. Emissions of most trace elements from such plant are generally low and are not regarded as problematic or requiring control through the adoption of appropriate control procedures. Efforts are being made, however, to control emissions of mercury, the element currently of most concern. Coal-fired power plants and waste incinerators are responsible for some 70% of global anthropogenic mercury emissions. Mercury is difficult to control because, unlike other trace metals that tend to be present as particulates, it is found in flue gas as a vapour (in either elemental or ionic form). As a low concentration vapour (usually in 3 the range 5-20 g/m ), much of it passes through particulate control devices such as fabric filters and ESPs. Although such conventional control systems remove a certain percentage of mercury (ESPs can remove roughly 24%, fabric filters roughly 28%), additional control measures are required in order to achieve significant reductions. Other emission control systems may also be effective in capturing some of the mercury present. For instance, while FGD scrubbers are used to control SO2 emissions, there is also increasing interest in using these to remove simultaneously both SO2 and trace metals, including mercury (average mercury removal is around 34%). Similarly, SCR systems used to minimise NOX emissions have also proved to be effective in reducing mercury levels. In a few countries, legislation limiting mercury emissions has been adopted, and levels emitted from coal-fired power plant fall well below these limits. Nevertheless, future implementation of more stringent environmental legislation may require lower mercury levels and thus remedial action. A number of mercury capture methods are presently being deployed effectively on waste incinerators. But, although new control systems are currently being developed specifically for coal-fired power plant, these are not yet being deployed commercially. For instance, through its Fossil Energy Program, the United States Department of Energy (US DoE) is funding investigations into a range of technologies aimed at developing more effective options that will reduce emissions by 50-70% by 2005, and by 90% by 2010. Systems that show potential comprise: application of carbon filter beds (used for both acid gas and mercury removal); use of special condensing heat exchangers located in the flue gas stream; mercury capture based on the use of a noble metal; and carbon injection. The latter involves direct injection of activated carbon into the flue gas stream and it is the closest to commercialisation. In Germany, lignite coke has also been used successfully as a replacement for activated carbon. Small particles emitted from coal-fired plant constitute another area of concern. These are generally referred to as PM2.5s, a reference to their maximum diameter of 2.5 micrometres. As noted, larger particulates can be controlled effectively by a variety of

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devices, but PM2.5s are considerably more difficult to control. PM2.5 particles may often be a complex mixture of pollutants emitted directly from combustion processes, whereas, in other cases, gases like SO2, NOX and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) interact with other compounds in the air to form fine particles. To date, their composition is defined largely by the sampling methods adopted and not by chemical criteria. This is an area of on-going debate and development. PM2.5s have been associated with a number of harmful effects on human health and on ecosystems, also with contributing to atmospheric haze and power plant plume opacity. The chemical and physical properties of PM2.5s can vary significantly between regions, with particles often containing varying levels of sulphate (from SO2), organic and elemental carbon, nitrate and crustal materials derived from soil dust. In the United States, it has been estimated that annually, roughly 138 000 tonnes of PM2.5s are emitted from coalfired plants, accounting for some 3% of the countrys total primary PM2.5 emissions. R&D efforts to provide greater understanding of the issues involved continue and various projects are underway, notably: data collection to better establish characteristics and levels of PM2.5s in air samples; data collection to shed light on formation, transport and composition of fine particulates from coal-fired systems and their impacts on air quality; and development of improvements in PM2.5 control technologies.

PRODUCTS FROM COAL CO-FIRING WITH OTHER MATERIALS

Increasingly, coal is being co-fired with different materials such as biomass and waste streams. Pulverised fuel, fluidised bed combustion and gasification-based technologies have all been applied to co-firing a range of materials that include straw, wood, miscanthus, sewage sludge, refuse-derived fuel (RDF), agricultural wastes, paper sludge and tyre-derived fuel. Several major programmes sponsored by the European Commission and US DoE have investigated the co-combustion and co-gasification of coal with biomass and wastes. Presently, a number of commercial-scale power plants (demonstrated up to a scale of 635MWe) are operational using a number of co-combustion techniques. For instance, some PF plant uses special dedicated burners for wood co-firing. The application of secondary fuels alongside coal may introduce other materials not necessarily present in the original coal feed, thus affecting the scale and type of emissions generated. For instance, co-firing of sewage sludge and waste wood can significantly increase input of heavy metals into the system and may call for remedial action. Other compounds of concern in co-firing processes include dioxins and furans. The introduction of secondary fuels such as some chlorine-containing waste-derived materials may increase the potential for the formation of such substances. Although the exact mechanisms of o formation are still unclear, dioxins may be formed during combustion at 200-400 C, although they are destroyed at the higher temperatures typically found inside power

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plants. When the exhaust gases are cooled, dioxins can be re-formed, so, where appropriate, rapid cooling and further cleanup stages are introduced to clean the gas prior to release into the atmosphere. Many questions associated with levels and impact of dioxins are still issues for debate, and further investigations continue.

CO2 CONTROL
Many systems for controlling the pollutants noted above are already in widespread use in different parts of the world. In parallel with the on-going drive for greater efficiency and lower costs for such control systems, however, efforts are also being focused increasingly on the control and minimisation of CO2 emitted from coal-fired power plants and other large industrial processes. Several possible routes exist towards this objective. Improved plant efficiency. Increased plant efficiency means that less coal is burned (producing less CO2) for the same power output. This may be achieved through more advanced development of existing (PF) plant, for instance, by applying enhanced steam conditions (Figure 6). At present, the average thermal efficiency of PF plant in OECD countries is roughly 36% (Lower Heating Value). However, in many parts of the developing world, efficiencies are much lower. Clearly, a significant reduction in the amount of CO2 emitted could be achieved by bringing such plant up to a higher standard. The latest developments in PF technology have pushed efficiency levels to above 40%, which means a drop in the level of CO2 emitted of up to 25%.
Figure 6 The Avedore Power Plant in Denmark

This is one of the worlds most efficient combined heat and power (CHP) plants. Plant electric efficiencies of around 50% are achieved, based on use of an ultrasupercritical steam cycle (courtesy SK Power).

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Alternatively, a different form of coal-fired technology may be adopted. For instance, circulating fluidised bed combustion (CFBC) power plants are often capable of burning low grade coals much more efficiently than a corresponding PF unit. Similarly, more advanced coal-based systems such as PFBC and IGCC combine the use of steam and gas turbine-based cycles, resulting in higher efficiencies than conventional PF power plant. The levels of CO2 emitted are correspondingly lower than in equivalent PF facilities. CO2 capture. The main approach to controlling CO2 emissions is to capture it from the combustion flue gases. Some types of CO2 capture technologies (based on both chemical and physical absorption) are well established and have been in use for several decades. The majority of chemical-based methods rely on scrubbing systems that utilise amine solutions to remove CO2 from exhaust gases. Amine scrubbers have already been applied to different types of coal-fired industrial process and power station. In most cases, the systems used are similar in concept and configuration and usually employ a regenerable amine, such as monoethanolamine (MEA) as the working solvent. Depending on the particular application and type of flue gas being treated, such systems can recover up to 98% of the CO2 present, and produce a CO2 stream of up to 99% purity. Historically, many processes have relied on MEA. Recently, however, more advanced amines have been developed, for instance by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI), and are now being applied commercially. Such new amines are claimed to suffer less degradation and to have lower consumption rates and energy requirements than conventional MEA-based solvents; significant improvements in performance have been reported. Here, technological developments have been instrumental in both improving product quality and reducing operational costs. A number of commercial-scale physical absorption-based technologies are also in use, generally applied to systems operating at higher pressures. These rely on a range of solvents that include methanol and propylene carbonate. For IGCC applications, processes based on the use of proprietary solvents such as Union Carbides Selexol are considered to be the most applicable. Such solvents are favoured where high concentrations of CO2 are present in the flue gas stream. They also impose low energy requirements on the system. In the United States, Selexol-based systems have been demonstrated at the Texaco Cool Water IGCC plant and used commercially at the Destec-based Plaquemine facility. In general, further development of physical solvent-based systems would be advantageous in order to broaden their range of operating conditions. Alternative capture technologies that may also be applicable to coal-fired power plant in the longer term include systems based on the application of specialised separation membranes and cryogenic technologies. With the latter, CO2 can be separated from other gases through cooling and condensation; cryogenic separation has been used widely for the purification of gas streams, typically of high pressure and containing more than 90% CO2. The technology is less applicable, however, to more dilute gas streams. Much further development will be required before such systems can be considered for application to full-scale power generation facilities.

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RD&D REQUIREMENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS

Since coal-fired power plants are likely to remain dominant in the future energy supply, further technical development will be a crucial factor for improved economic performance, energy security and environmental protection. The latter is being driven by the adoption of increasingly stringent legislation, and the former by the need to compete in what is often a highly competitive market. Important areas of development taking place are described below. For PF technology, a major effort is on-going to develop reliable, affordable solutions for increasing the steam conditions in place. The application of supercritical steam conditions, focusing on boilers capable of operating at steam conditions of up to o o 300 bar, at 600 C/620 C, is resulting in higher plant efficiencies (up to 47%), as well as reducing fuel costs and levels of CO2, SO2 and NOX emissions. Development of improved construction materials is playing a major role in this process. Further developments are also taking place with emissions control systems applied to PF plant. For instance, SO2 control is being tackled by improving existing systems (increasing desulphurisation efficiency and plant reliability, while reducing system complexity and costs) and the development of innovative technologies such as those based on electron beam treatment and use of dry sorbents. NOX-related issues are being addressed through the continuing development of improved low NOX burners and enhanced air and fuel staging techniques, plus the evolution of advanced control systems. With SCR-based NOX control systems, efforts are being made to reduce catalyst costs and improve their lifetime and performance. Improvements being sought with particulate capture technologies include enhanced designs of ESP and fabric filter systems, as well as hot gas cleanup technologies, based on the use of high-temperature ceramic and metallic materials. Novel control strategies for trace species such as mercury are also being pursued. There are a number of major coal-fired IGCC plants now operating in either demonstration or pre-commercial mode. This technology currently offers the cleanest coal-fired power generation attainable. However, some of the first generation plants have, of necessity, been over-complex and expensive. It is expected that the next generation of IGCC plants will benefit from this experience; concerted efforts are being made by technology developers to increase plant reliability and reduce capital and operating costs. Based on todays technology, IGCC efficiency is in the region of 46-47% although future improvements may increase this, possibly up to some 55%. The improvement will result from a number of technological developments taking place, notably with advanced designs of both steam and gas turbines.

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With both PF and IGCC technologies, the increasing importance of developing and applying advanced emissions control systems has been recognized. Computer-based controls are becoming an essential component in the increasingly sophisticated environmental control systems now coming into use. Such systems can allow for the optimisation and integration of boiler operating conditions and emissions performance, thereby increasing plant efficiency and minimising environmental impact. For instance, approximately 35 PF power plants (representing roughly 20 000 MWe capacity) have now been equipped with an artificial intelligence-based system known as The Generic NOX Control Intelligent System (GNOCIS). Application of GNOCIS has resulted in reduced NOX levels and amounts of unburned carbon in flyash, as well as increased overall plant efficiency. Similar systems addressing other pollutants or combinations of pollutants are under development.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
A number of important configurations of coal-fired power plant exist, each with its own advantages, disadvantages and requirements for further development. Alongside this, there are also a number of systems and techniques for the control of pollutants generated from each, some being specific to a particular type of power plant, others being equally applicable to several variants. Systems for the control of major pollutants such as SO2, NOX and particulates are available commercially and applied widely, although, in all cases, efforts remain on-going to deliver further process improvements and reduce associated costs. Consideration is also being given increasingly to the control of various trace elements present. Technological progress is a precondition for withstanding the pressure of increasingly competitive energy markets. It is also a precondition for meeting future obligations in response to environmental concerns. However, an additional requirement that now needs to be considered is that of minimising emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere. This can be achieved through increased process efficiency and/or the application of CO2 capture techniques. To date, only limited application of the latter has occurred. There is therefore a need for such capture technologies to be optimised for large-scale power plant application, for the associated costs to be reduced significantly and, ideally, for integration with the various other systems controlling plant emissions to be increased.

The IEA is an autonomous body that implements an international energy programme and co-ordinates wide-ranging energy cooperation among its 26 member countries. Its aims are to regulate oil supplies, promote rational energy policies, provide market data, aid policy integration and encourage energy efficiency measures. The IEA vigorously supports the development of an extensive portfolio of technologies and maintains active involvement in networks and collaborative exercises promoting joint research, development and demonstration programmes (RD&D). Although renewable energy sources have an important role to play in mitigating CO2 emissions, on their own, their overall impact will be inadequate. Since the future deployment of nuclear power looks uncertain in many countries, further initiatives are required to minimise CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. The capture of CO2 from commercial and industrial operations, followed by its storage in geological formations, is therefore viewed as an important part of the strategy for achieving substantial reductions in levels of CO2 emitted. The aim of the IEAs Working Party on Fossil Fuels (WPFF) is to advance the RD&D on Zero Emissions Technologies (ZETs) for fossil fuel applications in the medium to long term. In order to achieve this goal, a number of key factors have been identified that focus on dissemination of information on the technologys importance as a means of mitigating global climate change. These factors include: collaborative efforts to further develop individual technologies; cooperation with IEA non-member countries in order to assist in increasing fossil fuel efficiency whilst minimising environmental impact; exploring how to enhance the safety and security of fossil fuel-based systems; and identification and establishment of associated RD&D requirements and solutions. It is intended that the activities of the ZETs programme will draw upon and complement those of a number of IEA programmes, particularly the IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme and the IEA Clean Coal Centre. These are IEA Implementing Agreements and they concentrate on greenhouse gas mitigation technical activities and information dissemination. There are several other contributing Implementing Agreements, notably those dealing with Hydrogen, Advanced Fuel Cells and Enhanced Oil Recovery.

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was prepared on behalf of the International Energy Agencys Working Party on Fossil Fuels by staff of the IEA Clean Coal Centre. It was funded by the UK Government, Department of Trade and Industry, and by the IEA, which edited and published the report.