C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

Glossary
Abrasion See corrasion. Accessibility How easy it is for people to travel to and from a particular point, usually in terms of time travelled. Aerospace industry Making vehicles that travel in the Earths atmosphere and beyond. Afforestation Planting trees, usually over a large area. Age-sex pyramid A diagram used to show the structure of a population. It is also called a population pyramid. Agriculture Another word for farming. Itis the artificial cultivation of plants (crops) and rearing of animals for food and other products. Alluvium/alluvial soil The deposits laid down by a river in its flood plain or delta. They give mineral-rich, fertilesoils. Altocumulus Medium-level cloud with a flat base and globular upper surface. Altostratus Layer cloud formed at a medium level. Anemometer An instrument used to measure wind speed. Aneroid barometer An instrument containing a collapsible metal box used to measure the air pressure. Anoxic When conditions are waterlogged and there is little oxygen. Apartment Sometimes used to mean the same as a flat a self-contained housing unit within a larger building, sometimes a multi-storey block. However, its sometimes used when the individual units have separate private owners. Aquifer A rock that contains water in its pore spaces that can be extracted. Arable Growing crops. Arch A hole with a roof that extends from one side of a headland to theother. Area sampling Certain grid squares on a map are studied or quadrats used in the field. Ash The fine dust produced by a volcanic eruption. Aspect When used in geography, this means the compass direction in which a slope faces. Assembly line The method of production, for example in a car factory, where each car passes through a series of stages and each stage concentrates on one part of the production process. Atmosphere The mixture of gases that encircle the Earth. It is about 99% nitrogen and oxygen, with small amounts of other gases such as water vapour, methane and ozone. Atoll A circular or oval coral reef around a shallow lagoon. Attrition The process of erosion when fragments of the rivers or wave's load become smaller and more rounded by collision with the bed and banks and each other. Automated A process that is made automatic. Backwash The water in a wave that flows back towards the sea after the swash has reached its highest point. Bar A ridge of sand or shingle that extends right across a bay. Bar graph Bar graphs can usually be used in similar circumstances to linegraphs. A bar graph is preferred when there are a number of separate items that cant really be joined, because they do not appear in a definite order. Barograph An instrument used to measure the pressure of the air and make a continuous recording of it on graph paper. Barrier reef A coral reef separated from the mainland by a wide and deep lagoon. Bay An approximately semi-circular indentation in a coastline between two headlands. Beach A deposit of sand or shingle between the highest level reached bystorm waves and the lowest watermark. Beaufort Scale A measure of different wind strengths. Bias A distortion which causes the population to be misrepresented. Itoften results from subjective judgment by the researcher. Biodiversity The variety of species of plants and animals in an area. Biofuel Any fuel which comes from biomass. It includes liquid fuels (bioethanol and biodiesel), various biogases and solid biofuels. Biological weathering When rocks at the Earths surface are broken down and plant or animal matter plays an important part. 1
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Biomass The mass of animal and vegetable matter. Biome A major division of the worlds vegetation that is adapted to a particular climate. Biotechnology Using biological processes or living micro-organisms in industry. Bipolar survey A scale for example from 13 to 23 is used to evaluate aspects of the environment. Each is assessed subjectively and given a score. Birth rate The number of babies born each year per 1000 people. Bituminous coal A black coal which is typically about 85% carbon. Blow-out a large depression, sometimes going right across a dune, where sand has been removed by the wind, leaving a hollow. Borehole A tube-shaped hole drilled into the rock, generally 1030 cm indiameter. Braided channel A river channel which splits and rejoins (often found in deltas). Brownfield site A site that has been previously built on and could be re-developed. Bustee A term used for a shanty in some south Asian countries. Capital Technically, this is something required to help in producing other goods, e.g. machinery or storage buildings. However, in the sense that its used here, you can take it to mean money. Carbon sink A natural store for carbon and carbon dioxide (e.g. the tropical rainforests). Carbonation The process of chemical weathering where calcium carbonate in limestone is attacked by carbonic acid produced in rainwater. Carbonic acid A naturally occurring weak acid, formed when carbon dioxide in the air is dissolved in rainwater. Cash crop A crop produced to be sold for money. Cave An indentation with a roof at the base of cliffs, where rock has been removed by erosion. Central business district (CBD) The central area in a town or city with thehighest land prices, greatest accessibility, and a concentration of big shops and offices.

Glossary Cereal A grain crop like wheat, maize ormillet. Cerrado The tropical grasslands with trees of north-east Brazil. Check dam A small wall built across agully to stop the force of water running down it and causing further erosion. Chemical weathering When minerals in the rocks at the Earths surface are broken down by chemical reactions, causing the rock to disintegrate. Chitimene A system of shifting cultivation practised in Zambia. Cirrocumulus A small, high-level, globular cloud. Cirrostratus High-level layer cloud. Cirrus A wispy, fibrous cloud formed at a high level. Clear cutting The removal of large areas of forest without leaving any trees standing. Cliff A vertical or nearly vertical rocky slope (on the coast or inland). Climate The average of the weather over a period of at least 30years. Clinometer An instrument used to measure thedifference in angle from the horizontal. Some types display the angle when a trigger is pressed. Coal seam A layer (or bed) of coal. Coast A zone where the land meets thesea. Coastal marsh A flat, sheltered area of lowland coast where fine sediment has been colonised by salt-tolerant plants. It might be covered by the highest tides. Coastal sand dunes Hills of sand above the high-tide level. They are formed by sand blown from the beach by onshore winds. Coastline The high water mark on a lowland coast and the foot of cliffs on a steeply sloping coast. The line on a map that separates land and sea. Combine harvester A machine which cuts cereal crops, separates the grains from the husks and stalks and produces three separate outputs grain, straw (the plant stems) and thehusks. Commercial farming Farming to make a surplus to sell for profit. Commuter A person who travels from home to work elsewhere. Commuting Travelling to and from work (usually from home) on a daily basis. The term commuting usually implies that the journey takes some time,

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

rather than just walking down theroad. Comparison goods Goods not bought every day. The shopper visits more than one store to look at different prices and quality, e.g. furniture, shoes, clothes. Composite cone See stratovolcano. Compression A type of stress that involves forces meeting from opposite directions. Computerised Run by computers. Condensation The process by which a gaseous substance (such as water vapour) changes into a liquid (such as water) because of cooling. Condominium See apartment. Confluence The point where a river and a tributary meet. Conservative plate margin A plate margin where two plates slide past each other and no plate is either created or destroyed. Constructive plate margin A plate margin where two plates diverge and new oceanic plate is created in the gap. Constructive wave A wave with a stronger swash than backwash that deposits material and builds up thebeach. Continental An inland location that results in higher summer and lower winter temperatures than coastal locations in the same latitude. Theannual temperature ranges arelarger. Continuous data Where the change between measured data involves a passage through all the intervening values. Contour ploughing Ploughing around a hill, rather than up and down it (to prevent soil erosion). Contours Lines on a map joining points of equal height above sea level. Conurbations As cities have grown outwards, they have merged with other towns and cities to produce very large settlements. Convection currents Currents in liquids and gases caused by heating. Heated material becomes less dense and rises. It then diverges, cools and descends forming a series of circulation cells. Convectional rainfall Rainfall caused by moist air rising because of contact with a hot land surface.

Convenience goods Goods bought almost every day from local shops, e.g. bread and milk. Coral reef A low, stony mass made up of the calcareous skeletons of millions of tiny polyps. Core and frame The concept that the centre and outsides of the CBD will have different and distinctive land use types. Corrasion The process of erosion when the bed and banks of the river are eroded by the abrasive effect of the rivers load. The load carried by waves also causes corrasion at the coast. Corrosion (solution) The process of erosion when certain minerals in the rocks are dissolved by the river water or the sea water. Counter-urbanisation The movement of people from towns back to rural areas. Cover cropping A method of preventing soil erosion. A fast-growing crop is planted after the main crop has been harvested. Sometimes this is a green manure crop, which is ploughed back into the soil to add nutrients. In this way, the soil is left bare for the minimum amount of time. Crater The depression at the top of a volcano. Crop rotation Changing the crop on a plot every year for three or four years before the first crop is grown again. Crude oil (petroleum) A mixture of hydrocarbons found in the pore spaces of some rocks. Crust The outer layer of the Earth (between 6 and 90 km thick), which has a different composition to the layer below. Crystalline rocks Rocks that consist of interlocking crystals, e.g. granite. Cumulonimbus A very tall cloud that can reach from very low levels up to the tropopause. It might have an anvil head or a globular top. Cumulus A low-level cloud with a flat base and globular upper surface. Cyclone An intense tropical storm in the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and Australia (with wind speeds of at least 119 kilometres per hour). Data table A table with headed columns and labelled rows in whichcollected measurements arepresented. Death rate The number of people who die each year per 1000 people.

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Glossary Debt-for-nature swap When a country owed money by another country cancels the debt in exchange for the debtor country using the money saved for conservation work instead. Deep mining Mining deep beneath the surface using a system of tunnels and shafts. Deforestation Deliberate forest clearance by humans. Delta An area of flat land (formed by river deposits) where a river meets asea or lake. Demographic Related to population. Demographic transition model A simplified version of how population has changed because of changing birth and death rates over time in many countries. Dendritic drainage Streams which make a tree-like pattern. Dependency ratio The measure of the number of working people, compared with the number of people dependent upon them. Dependent population The population below 15 and above 64 that does not work. Deposition When the river loses energy and it begins to drop its load the heaviest and largest boulders first and finally the mud and silt. Desertification The deterioration of soils and vegetation in an area that result in it having a desert-like appearance. Destructive plate margin A plate margin where two plates converge and one is destroyed (by being subducted beneath the other plate and melting). Destructive wave A wave with a stronger backwash than swash that erodes material from the beach. Dew Droplets of water which form on surfaces as a result of condensation, usually when temperatures fall overnight. Dew point The temperature at which air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour for its temperature. Discharge The volume of water passing down the river in a period of time (usually measured in cubic metres per second). Discordant coast A coast where the different rocks are at right angles to the sea. Discrete data A change in measured data where the two values are

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

distinct and have no intervening values linking them. Dispersed settlement Where settlement is scattered and not concentrated. Dispersion diagram Plots at the correct levels against a vertical scale. Distributary The channels formed when a river divides, as in the braided channels in a delta. Diurnal temperature range The difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures in a day. These are usually day and night temperatures. Divided bar graph A graph used to show how a set of data can be broken down into fractions or percentages using sub-divisions of a horizontal or vertical column. Domestic tourist A person who stays away from home in his or her own country. Dormant A volcano which has not erupted for some time, but which might erupt again in the future. Dormitory village A small settlement where many of the people commute to work in another settlement. Downfold Where rocks have been crumpled in a downwards direction, like a letter U. Drainage The water features on and below the Earths surface, including rivers, streams, springs and lakes. Drainage density Drainage density is the total length of the rivers and streams in an area (in kilometres), divided by the area (in square kilometres). Draught animals Animals used to pull tools or machines, such as ploughs. Drizzle Very fine drops of liquid that fall from the air. Drought A longer-than-normal period with little or no rain, which adversely affects vegetation, farming and other activities. Dry farming A series of methods used to stop soil erosion in areas with low rainfall. It includes not ploughing the land and also growing droughtresistant varieties. Dry point Higher points in otherwise poorly drained areas. Dune A ridge of sand deposited by thewind. Earth The third nearest planet in the solar system to the Sun. 3

Earthquake The violent shaking of the upper layers of the Earth when energy is released as the rocks crack and move. Eastings Lines running north to south on a survey map. They show distance across the map from west to east. Economic To do with money and generating wealth. Economic migrant A person who moves for a better job and higher wages. Economically active population The working middle group of a population (those aged 1564). Economies of scale The ways in which one large unit can operate more cheaply and efficiently than several smaller units. Ecosystem The inter-relationships between living plants and animals and their non-living environment. Ecotourism This is sustainable tourism that aims to preserve the local environment and cultures, while increasing the standard of living of the local people. El Nio A reversal of the normal west-to-east directions of the equatorial ocean currents. Emigrant A person who moves away from an area. Enhanced global warming The additional heating of the atmosphere as a result of greenhouse gases released by human activities. Entrept A port where goods are imported and then re-exported without paying taxes. Environmental refugee A person who moves away from a natural disaster. Epicentre The point on the Earths surface directly above an earthquakes focus. Equator The line of latitude at 0, halfway between the poles, which separates the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Erosion The wearing away and removal of rock and weathered debris by running water, glaciers, waves in the sea and the wind. European Union An economic and political group of 27 member countries which are located in Europe. It adopts a common policy for food imports from outside the Union. Eutrophication The addition of large quantities of nutrients to water,

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Glossary leading to the growth of plants (such as algae) that use up oxygen and thus harm other organisms. Evaporation The change in state from a liquid (such as water) to a gas (such as water vapour), because ofheating. Exfoliation A process of physical weathering that often occurs in deserts, where layers of rock peel off parallel to the rock surface. Exfoliation domes Large, rounded hills of bare rock that occur in deserts and are common in crystalline rocks, such as granite. Exotic river A river that moves into the desert from an area with a wetter climate. Extensive farming Farming without achieving the maximum output from each plot of land, but compensating for this by farming a large area. Extinct A volcano that will never eruptagain. Eye of a tropical storm The sunny, calm central part of a tropical storm. Fallow Leaving the land without a crop in order to recover its nutrients and fertility. Fault A crack in the rocks of the Earths crust where the rocks move and are displaced. Favela A term used for a shanty in some South American countries. Fertility rate The average number of children born per woman. Fertiliser Chemicals added to the soil to make it more productive. It is often used to mean artificial, industrially produced chemicals made from plants, animal matter or products of mining. Fetch The length of uninterrupted sea over which the wind blows to make awave. Field The location outside the classroom, and usually outdoors, where the data is collected and observations are made. Flash flood A flood that develops in a very short time. It is usually caused by intense and heavy rain. Flat A self-contained housing unit within a larger building, sometimes a multi-storey block. Flood plain The area of flat land on either side of a river that is occasionally flooded. It is formed by deposits from the river. Flow diagram A type of diagram used to provide an illustration of volumes of

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

movement between different points, such as traffic or pedestrian flows, population migrations or world trade. Focus The point in the Earth where an earthquake occurs. Fog Tiny water droplets in the air near the surface which reduce visibility Fold mountains Long ranges of mountains formed by the compression and crumpling of rock layers, e.g. the Himalayas. Food chain Energy passed in food through an ecosystem from feeder tofeeder. Food web A series of food chains which link with each other. Foot and mouth disease An infectious and sometimes fatal disease that affects sheep and cattle and some wild species. It causes a high fever and blisters inside the mouth and on the feet (causing lameness). It is a severe problem for animal farming, since it is highly infectious and can be spread by infected animals, through contact with contaminated farming equipment, vehicles, clothing or feed, and by domestic and wild animals. Trade restrictions and quarantines and occasionally the elimination of millions of animals are used to prevent outbreaks. Footloose An industry that is not tied to any particular type of location. Fossil fuel A fuel produced from organic material which was growing millions of years ago. When we use these fuels we are using the suns energy from millions of years ago, which has been stored in the fossilfuels. Freeze-thaw action A process of physical weathering that occurs in cold climates. It involves water freezing in cracks and expanding causing the rocks to shatter. Fringing reef A coral platform attached to and close to the land. It may have a narrow and shallow lagoon between its outside edge and the mainland. Function (a) another word for service, or (b) the purpose of a settlement, e.g. mining or industry. G20 A group of 20 countries with large economies. Geology The study of the Earth. Geothermal energy Energy extracted from hot rocks or water beneath thesurface. 4

Geothermal power Using the heat contained deep in the Earth (which is more concentrated in volcanic areas). Ghetto Part of an urban area with a concentration of a single racial group living in relative poverty. Globalisation The process by which local economies, societies and cultures have become integrated through communication, transportation and trade. Economic globalisation is the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign investment and the flow ofcapital across international boundaries. Gorge A deep, steep-sided valley. Gradient A precise measure of the steepness of the slope. Grain elevator Large storage towers (silos) used to store grain. Granite A type of rock made out of large interlocking crystals, and formed from the crystallisation of molten rock deep beneath the Earths surface. Greenfield site A site not previously built on. Greenhouse effect The air near the Earths surface kept warmer because the Earths long-wave radiation is trapped by water droplets, water vapour, carbon dioxide and othergases. Greenhouse gas A gas, such as methane, carbon dioxide and water vapour, which absorbs radiation (especially that from the land) andadds to the enhanced greenhouse effect. Greenpeace An environmental organisation with offices in over 40countries and with an international co-ordinating body in Amsterdam in the Netherlands. Its goal is to ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity. It focuses its work on worldwide issues, such as global warming, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling and anti-nuclear issues. Grid references A system that allows locations on a map to be described precisely by numbers. A four-figure grid reference fixes a point to the nearest square kilometre. A six-figure grid reference fixes a point to the nearest 100-metre square.

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Glossary Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita GDP is the value, in dollars, of the goods and services that a country produces in a year. Thetotal GDP figure is divided by thecountrys total population to calculate GDP per person (per capita). Groundwater Water held within the spaces in porous, permeable rocks. Groynes A series of barriers, usually made of wood, which are built at right angles to a beach. Their purpose is to reduce sediment transport along the coast by longshore drift. Gully erosion A form of soil erosion where channels or small valleys are cut in the ground by running water. Habitat An area where animals live. Hail Precipitation in the form of small balls of frozen rain. Headland An area of coastline which extends outwards, also called a promontory, point or cape. Heavy industry Industries dealing with bulky raw materials and products. Hectare A unit of area which is 100metres by 100 metres. Herbicide A weed killer. Hierarchy of services Placing the services of a settlement or area in rank order of importance based on the population needed to support the service and the frequency of use. Hierarchy of settlements A list of settlements in order of population size, number and range of functions and importance. High-density housing Housing with a large number of dwelling units per square kilometre. High-order services Services with a large threshold population (such as a department store or a university). They are usually offered in small numbers and only found in the larger settlements. High-order settlements Settlements higher up the hierarchy, e.g. large cities, which are fewer in number, spaced further apart, and having a wider range of services. High-technology industry An industry that uses the most advanced technology to make products which may, or may not, be high technology themselves. High-water mark The mean of the highest levels reached by the sea at high tides.

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

Hinterland An area linked to the port from which goods are exported and to which goods are imported. Histogram A type of graph used to show distributions or frequencies. Itlooks similar to a bar graph. HIV/AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to infections and tumours. HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane or the bloodstream with abodily fluid containing HIV. Honeypot A location that attracts manytourists. Human features Settlement, agriculture, industry and transport. Human input Something provided with assistance from people (such as labour or machinery). Humic acid A chemical released when plant (or animal) matter decays. Humidity The amount of water vapour in a given volume of air at a particular time. Humus A brown or black organic substance (consisting of partially or wholly decayed vegetable or animal matter) that provides nutrients for plants and increases the ability of soil to retain water. Hunter-gatherer An ancient way of life, whereby people survive by gathering berries and fruit and hunting animals. Hurricane An intense tropical storm in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and west coast of Mexico (with wind speeds of at least 119 kilometres per hour). Hybrid An improved variety produced by crossbreeding existing varieties. Hydraulic action The process of erosion by which the force of running water alone removes material from the bed and banks. It is also erosion by waves pounding the rocks at thecoast. Hydrocarbon A compound of hydrogen and carbon. Methane (CH4) is the simplest. Hydrograph A graph showing how the discharge of a river (on the vertical axis) changes over time (on the horizontal axis).

Hygrometer An instrument (consisting of wet and dry bulb thermometers) used to measure the air humidity. Hypothesis A statement about the subject of an investigation which can be tested and proved or disproved. Igneous rocks Rocks that have crystallised from molten rock, e.g. granite. Immigrant A person who moves into an area from another area. Industrial Revolution The process that took place in certain MEDCs between 1750 and 1900. It changed the economies of those countries from agricultural to industrial, developed factories, and led to urbanisation. Industrial sector The subdivision of industries into primary, secondary and tertiary. Infant mortality The number of babies who die in the first year of life per 1000 live births. Infrastructure The organisational features needed for something towork. For example, irrigation infrastructure could be the pipes,pumps, sprinklers, etc. Theinfrastructure for a whole community includes transport, education, health service, banks,etc. Insolation This is short for incoming solar radiation, which is shortwave radiation emitted by the sun. Intensive farming Farming to achieve the maximum output from each plot of land. Internal migration A movement of population within a country. International migration A movement of people from one country to another. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) A low-pressure belt in the tropics where the trade winds meet. Involuntary migrant A person who feels forced to leave his or her country because of persecution, or the likelihood of harm if he or she stays. Irrigation Providing crops with water by artificial means, i.e. not directly from rainfall. Island arc A chain of islands forming a crescent shape. It is formed from volcanoes at a destructive plate margin which involves two oceanicplates. Isobar A line on a map joining places having the same pressure.

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Glossary Isohyet A line on a map joining places having the same rainfall. Isotherm A line on a map joining places having the same temperature. Isthmus A narrow strip of land connecting two larger pieces of land. Key A list of the symbols shown on a map which shows what they mean. Kopje An isolated hill, common in Africa, with prominent rounded boulders. Kwashiorkor A form of severe protein malnutrition, found especially in children after weaning. It is marked by lethargy, growth retardation, anaemia, potbelly, skin depigmentation, and hair loss or change in hair colour. Lagoon An area of shallow water separated from the sea by a bar or coral reef. Lahar A mudflow which contains material from volcanic eruptions. Land use How land has been used by humans, including agriculture, settlement and industry. Vegetation which might have been affected by humans could be included. Landslide A fall of loose earth and rock down a slope under the force of gravity, usually when it is saturated by heavy rain. Large-scale map A map which shows a relatively small area of land in great detail (e.g. a topographic survey map). Lateral blast When a volcano erupts sideways with great force producing gas and pyroclastic material. Latitude An imaginary line circling the Earth, the degree of which shows how far north or south it is. Lava Molten rock on the Earths surface. Leaching The removal of minerals from the soil in solution. LEDC A less economically developed country. Leves Raised banks on either side of a river flowing across a flood plain. They might cause the river to flow above the level of the flood plain. Life expectancy The number of years that a person can expect to live (averaged for their country or region). Light industry Industries dealing with raw materials and products which have little weight or bulk. Lignite A dull brown coal which is typically about 60% carbon.

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

Limestone A common rock type that contains a large amount of calcium carbonate. Line graph The simplest form of graph. A line shows a continuous change between two features. Line sampling Data is collected along a straight or curved line. Linear settlement Settlement in a line, often along roads. Load The boulders, pebbles, sand, silt, mud, and minerals in solution, carried by a river or by waves. Long-haul destination A place reached by a flight taking longer than three hours. Longshore drift The movement of material along a beach when waves approach the beach at an angle. Low-density housing Housing with fewer dwelling units per square kilometre. Low-order services Services with a small threshold population (such as a local shop or a primary school). They are usually in large numbers and are found in most settlements. Low-order settlements Settlements lower down the hierarchy, e.g. small villages, which are larger in number, more closely spaced and with a small range of services. Low-water mark The mean of the lowest levels of the sea at low tides. Magma Molten rock below the Earths surface. Magma chamber A huge chamber (several kilometres across), which stores molten rock beneath a volcano. Malaria A potentially fatal tropical disease caused by a parasite known as plasmodium. It is spread through the bite of an infected female mosquito. The infected person may have feverish attacks, influenza-like symptoms, tiredness, diarrhoea, or a whole range of other symptoms. Malthus A British scholar who lived from 1766 to 1834. He developed a famous population theory relating population growth to food supply. Mantle The middle layer of the Earth between the crust and the core. Manufacturing industry Industries that convert raw materials into finished goods. Also known as secondary industries. Manure Any organic matter added to the soil to improve its structure and 6

mineral content, e.g. animal dung or vegetable waste. Marasmus A form of severe protein malnutrition characterized by a lack of energy. It particularly affects children up to the age of one. A child with marasmus looks emaciated. Body weight may be reduced to less than 80% of the average weight for the height. Maritime A coastal location with cooler summer and warmer winter temperatures than those expected for that latitude (resulting in a small annual temperature range). Market Although this term could mean a local place where people of the community come to buy goods, its meaning is also more general and means anywhere where there is a demand for the product, e.g. a foreign country. Marsh An area of water-loving plants which is swampy. Mass production The production of large quantities of a particular item in large factories. Maximum-minimum thermometer An instrument for recording the highest and lowest temperatures of a period (usually a day). Mean The middle of a data set is calculated by adding all the numbers in the set together and dividing the total by the number of individuals. It is also known as the average. Meander A bend in a river. Meandering stream A river with a curved channel. Mechanical weathering See physical weathering. MEDC A more economically developed country. Median The middle number of a data set which has been written in numerical order, e.g. what the fourth number in seven represents. Mega-city A city with a population of over 10 million people. Meniscus The curved outer surface of a liquid (convex in mercury and concave in alcohol and water). The meniscus of mercury is read at the highest part, and the meniscus for alcohol and water is read at the lowest part. Mercalli Scale A 12-point scale that describes the effects of an earthquake. Mercury barometer An instrument for measuring pressure.

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Glossary Metamorphic rocks Crystalline (or partly crystalline) rocks formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are altered by heat and/or pressure. Migration The movement of people from one place to another. Millibar The unit used for pressure measurement. Millionaire city A city with a population of over 1 million people. Minerals (in soil) Chemical elements, some of which are critical to plant growth, e.g. nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus. Mixed farming Farming with both crops and animals. Mode The number which occurs most frequently in a data set. Monoculture Growing the same crop on the same plot repeatedly. Mosquito A common insect in the family Culicidae. Mosquitoes go through four stages in their lifecycle: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Adult females lay their eggs in standing water, which can be a salt marsh, a lake, a puddle, a natural reservoir or even an artificial water container such as a plastic bucket. The first three stages are aquatic and last 514 days, depending on thespecies and the ambient temperature. The eggs hatch to become larvae and then pupae. Theadult mosquito emerges from thepupa as it floats on the surface of the water. Adults live for 48 weeks. They have mouths that are adapted for piercing the skin of plants and animals. There are about 3500 species. Mudflow A powerful current of water mixed with mud, rocks and boulders running down a river channel, valley or slope. Multinational corporation A company which has its operations in several countries. A transnational company. Nagana An infectious disease affecting horses and cattle in tropical Africa, caused by a trypanosome (Trypanosoma brucei). It is transmitted by the bite of infected tsetse flies. Signs of infection include fever, muscular wasting and the swelling of tissues. National park A large protected area to preserve the ecosystem for conservation purposes and to allow humans to visit.

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

Natural decrease The amount by which the death rate exceeds the birth rate. It is expressed as a negative figure. Natural gas Methane (CH4) is the most commonly extracted gas. Gases such as propane and butane are manufactured in oil refineries. Natural increase The amount by which the birth rate exceeds the death rate. Newly industrialised country (NIC) Countries previously categorised as LEDCs but which have started to develop secondary and tertiary industries in recent years. Nimbostratus Stratus cloud with sufficient vertical height to producerain. Nomadism Moving from place to place, usually with animals, in search of pasture. Nomads People who do not have a permanent home, but move from place to place. Non-renewable fuel One that is not being formed as fast as we are using it, e.g. coal, oil and gas. Current reserves of these fuels will eventually run out. Northings Lines running east to west on a survey map. They show distance across the map from south to north. Nucleated settlement Where settlement is fairly compact and clustered around particular points. There are fewer isolated dwellings. Nucleated village A small settlement where buildings are clustered together. Nutrients Minerals that are plant foods. They are released from rocks by weathering. Oasis An area in a desert where a natural supply of water is available for farming and settlement. It is usually from a spring or well. Objective data Numerical data obtained by measuring or counting. Ocean ridge A broad, high belt of ocean floor that is much higher than the surrounding area. It is formed by volcanic activity at constructive plate margins, e.g. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Ocean trench A long, narrow area of ocean floor (about 10 kilometres deep), usually found at a destructive plate margin at the edge of an ocean.

Oil refinery The factory which takes crude oil and breaks it down into useful products, such as vehicle fuel, aviation fuel and heating oil. Oil rig The equipment on the surface above an oil well, either on land or atsea. Okta A measure of the amount of sky that is covered in cloud. One okta equals an eighth. Opencast mining Mining at the surface by excavating an open pit. Organic matter (in soil) Material from animals (e.g. dung) and plants (such as decaying roots and leaves). Output The products of a system. Overburden Soil or other rock covering a mineral deposit. Overcropping Growing crops too close together or too frequently on a plot so that the soil loses fertility. Overgrazing Grazing too many animals on a plot of land, with the result thatthe quality of the pasture deteriorates. Over-population Where there are too many people to be supported to a good standard of living by an areas resources. Overstocking Keeping too many animals on a plot of land. Oxbow lake An old meander which has become cut off from the river. It is often filled with vegetation. Oxic conditions When oxygen is freely available for chemical reactions. Oxidation The addition of oxygen to a mineral (or the removal of an electron from an atom or ion). Park and ride A system used to reduce traffic congestion. Car parks are provided on the edge of the built-up area, with buses to the centre. Partial melting A process taking place deep in the Earth where extreme heat causes very small areas of the rocks to melt. These are able to come together to form large masses of magma. Pastoral Keeping animals. Pattern When, on a map or in data sets, a group shares the same characteristics, e.g. in location or range of values. Penstock The pipe feeding water to a hydroelectricity turbine. Permeability The ability of a material to allow fluids to pass through it. Pesticide A chemical to kill insects andother pests that affect crops oranimals.

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OXFoRD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2012

Glossary Petrochemical industry The industry that uses the products of oil refineries to manufacture products like plastics. Petroleum (crude oil) A mixture of hydrocarbons found in the pore spaces of some rocks. pH value A measure of acidity (1 5 extremely acidic, 7 5 neutral, 14 5 extremely alkaline). Pharmaceutical To do with medicines and drugs. Photochemical smog Smog produced by a complex set of reactions of strong sunlight on nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons from vehicle exhausts. It includes ozone. Photovoltaic cell (solar panel) A system for producing electricity from sunlight (photo 5 light, voltage 5 electricity). The cells absorb the suns rays using semi-conducting materials, such as silicone. Electrons are knocked loose from their atoms, which allow them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Physical Natural. It includes weather, climate, soil, rock, natural vegetation, wildlife, relief and drainage. Physical (mechanical) weathering The breakdown of rocks at the Earths surface, involving changes in temperature. Physical features Relief, landforms, drainage and vegetation. Physical input Something provided by nature, such as land, rainfall and soil. Pie graph A graph used to show how a set of data can be broken down into fractions or percentages, using sub-divisions of a circle. Pilot study or pilot survey A short testof the methods to be used in thefullstudy. Plankton A small organism which drifts in the upper layers of the oceans. Plantation A large commercial tropical farm that grows a single crop. Plastic solid A solid which can flow and be deformed without fracturing. Plate The upper, colder, rigid parts of the Earths surface, made up of the crust and upper mantle. Plate boundary See plate margin. Plate margin Where two plates meet. Plate tectonics The concept that the Earths surface is made up of a number of rigid sections that can slowly move over time. Plateau An area of relatively high, fairly flat land.

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

Plunge pool The deep hollow in a river bed at the foot of a waterfall. Point sampling Data is collected at places, not areas. Population In statistics, population means all, and is not confined to people. For example, it could be all the trees in a forest or all the goats in an area. Population density The number of people (or other items) per square kilometre. Population distribution How the population is spread over an area. Population pyramid A diagram which shows the population structure of a country or area, including the number of people (or sometimes the percentages) of different ages and genders. It is also called an agesex pyramid. Population structure The proportions (or numbers) of males and females in the young, middle and elderly age groups of a population. Porosity The percentage of void space (the pores) in a rock. Potholes Rounded hollows in a rocky river bed. Precipitation Liquid and solid water particles that fall from the atmosphere to the Earths surface. Rain and drizzle fall in liquid form, while snow and hail are solid ice. Sleet is partially melted ice or snow. Pressure of the air The weight of the atmosphere at any place (measured in millibars). Prevailing wind The most frequently occurring wind in an area. Primary data Data collected by the researcher measuring, counting or observing. Primary industry Industries which produce raw materials. Public opinion poll A system of measuring public opinion on a particular issue by questioning a sample of people. Pumped storage A system where the reservoir in a hydroelectric power station acts much like a battery storing power in the form of water when demands are low, and producing maximum power during peak periods. Pyroclastic The solid material produced during a violent volcanic eruption. A pyroclastic flow is the rapid flow of this material down the 8

side of a volcano. Pyroclastic flows are responsible for many of the deaths from volcanic eruptions, because they move so quickly. Quadrat A square frame, usually a metre or 0.5 metre square, often divided by wire or string into 100smaller squares. Qualitative data Data obtained by the opinion or judgment of a person. Quantitative data See objective data. Quaternary industry Industries which are knowledge-based. Sometimes considered as a subdivision of tertiary industries. Questionnaire A pre-prepared sheet of questions to use for researching peoples opinions or behaviour. Radial drainage Streams which move outwards from a central point. Radial graph A type of graph used toshow compass direction, e.g. windroses. Radioactivity The process of the breakdown of the nuclei of unstable atoms, releasing heat and radioactive energy. Rain gauge An instrument used to measure amounts of precipitation. Random sample Data is collected in no particular order and bias is eliminated by the use, for example, ofrandom number tables. Range The maximum distance that people are prepared to travel to obtain a particular service. Range of data The calculated spread of the data from lowest to highest. Ranging pole A pole used for surveying which is marked with coloured bands at different known heights. Rank order Placing the features investigated in order of importance, normally from highest (ranked 1) tolowest. Rapids An irregular, often steeper, section of the long profile of a river where the water is white. Raw materials The things that will be converted into the finished product. Recession When wealth production (defined by gross domestic product) decreases for a period of two or more consecutive quarters of theyear. Reduction The removal of oxygen from a mineral (or the addition of an electron from an atom or ion). Reforestation The replanting of forest in an area which has been deforested.

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Glossary Refugee A person who moves to escape hardship or persecution. Relative humidity The amount of water vapour that the air is holding expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount it could hold at that temperature. Relief The height, steepness and shape of the ground surface. Relief (orographic) rainfall Rainfall resulting from moist air rising to cross higher ground. Remote sensing Using scientific instruments on satellites above the Earth to provide information about the Earth. Renewable fuel One that is being formed as fast as (or even faster than) we are using it, e.g. wind power and tidal power. It will not run out. Representative fraction A way of describing the scale of a map. It shows how many units of distance on the ground are shown by one unit of distance on the map. Research and development The development of new products and new methods of production. Advanced industrial systems rely heavily on capital investment in these processes. Residential area A housing area. Residential zone A housing zone of a town or city. Resource conservation Carrying out an activity in a way that does not destroy things which are important to the future needs of society. Retail Shopping. Retail chain A large company, sometimes a multinational, with shops in many areas of a country. Retailing Shopping. Richter Scale A 10-point scale measuring the total amount of energy released by an earthquake. Ridge A long, narrow area of high land with slopes on either side. Rotational grazing Having a series of fenced areas and moving animals from one area to another to prevent overgrazing. Run-off Water that has fallen on the land as rain, and which then flows over the surface or through the soil and rock to reach rivers. Rural Associated with the countryside and villages. Rural-to-rural migration A movement from one part of the countryside to another.

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

Rural-to-urban migration The movement of people from rural areas to live in towns or cities. Rural-urban fringe The area just beyond the main built-up area, which has distinctive land uses still linked to the urban area, e.g. sewage works, golf courses or airports. Saltation The process of transport where material moves downstream or in the sea in a series of hops. Sample A selected number which is considerably smaller than the total number that could be investigated if all were included. Sand dune A ridge of wind-deposited sand. Saturation The state of air when it is holding the maximum amount of water vapour for its temperature. Savanna The tropical grasslands, sometimes with trees, of Africa. Scale How distance on the ground has been represented on a map. Scarp A broad, steep slope. It could be the sides of a plateau or a ridge. Scatter graph A graph used for what is known as paired data. This is when there are two variables but there is not necessarily a simple straight-line relationship between the two. Scree Angular rock fragments that are often the result of physical weathering. Scrubber A device for removing impurities from gases. Seasonal migrant A person who moves for a period in the year when work is available and then returns home. Also movement of pastoralists to where water and pasture are available. Secondary data Data which has been collected and published by someone not involved in the study. Secondary industry Industries which convert raw materials into finished goods. Also known as manufacturing industries. Secondary source The origin of data that has been recorded by someone not involved with the study, such as a book or webpage. Sedimentary rocks Rocks formed from grains or fragments produced by weathering or erosion (and then deposited in layers), e.g. sandstone and limestone. Service Anything that is provided in a settlement for the population, including goods that can be bought 9

in shops and other retail outlets (e.g. food, petrol or clothing), businesses like hairdressers (which are sometimes called retail services), as well as public services (like schools, hospitals, government, police, water and electricity). Service industry Industries which provide for peoples needs, other than physical items. Also known as tertiary industries. Settlement Human habitations such as cities, towns, villages and isolated dwellings and their features. Settlement pattern The extent to which settlement is nucleated, dispersed or linear, and its relationship with other features like relief and roads. Shanty A slum dwelling, which is a temporary or poorly built construction usually on land that does not belong to the householder. Shearing A type of stress where forces cut across each other. Shelter belt A method of preventing soil erosion. Rows of trees are grown at right angles to the prevailing wind on the side of the field that the wind is blowing from. The trees reduce the speed of the wind so its not strong enough to pick up the soil. Shield volcano A large volcano with gentle sides, built up by non-viscous lava and very little ash. Shifting cultivation A system of arable agriculture where there is no permanent home and the plots are cultivated for two or three years and then abandoned for many years. Shingle Round beach material that is larger than sand but smaller than a boulder. Shore The area between the level of the lowest tides and the point reached by the highest storm waves. Short-haul destination A place reached within a three-hour flight. Silicon chip (microchip) A small wafer of silicon or other semiconductor material on which circuits are laid out. Site The land on which a settlement or factory etc. isbuilt. Situation The position of a settlement in the surrounding area. Sixs thermometer A curved glass tube used to measure maximum and minimum temperatures over a period of time. Slack A depression between sand dunes.

OXFoRD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2012

Glossary Sleet Precipitation in the form of partially melted ice or snow. Slum Housing which is considered to be below acceptable standards. Small-scale map A map which shows a relatively large area of land in less detail (e.g. a map of the world). Smog A mixture of fog and pollutants. Snow Precipitation made of ice crystals joined together. Social Connected with people or society. Soil The thin layer at the Earths surface formed from minerals produced by weathering and decaying organic matter. Soil degradation A deterioration in soil quality. Soil erosion The removal of soil by running water on slopes, or by the wind. Soil exhaustion The removal of nutrients from the soil until all fertility is lost. Soil structure The way in which the particles in the soil group together aided by humus. A good soil structure is one known as a crumb structure. The particles are not so loose as to be easily eroded but the spaces allow water and air movement, as well as worms and micro-organisms to be active, and root growth and seedling emergence. Solar panel See photovoltaic cell. Sphere of Influence The area served by a settlement or service. Spit A long, narrow ridge of sand or shingle extending at a bend on the coastline, possibly partly across a bay. Spot heights A dot on the map with a number beside it to show the number of metres that the point indicated by the dot is above sea level. Spur A ridge or shoulder of land which slopes down towards a river. When a river winds round spurs from either side of the valley, the spurs are said to interlock. This occurs in the upper course of a river. Stack An isolated coastal rock column, often accessible at low tide but not at high tide. Stevenson screen A box for housing instruments at a weather station. Stopover destination A place where people on long-haul flights break their journeys and spend a day ormore. Storm surge A rapid rise in sea level, caused by intense low pressure and strong onshore winds.

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

Stratified sample A sample which divides the population into subgroups and represents each one in the proportion that it has in the population. Stratocumulus A layer or line of mainly attached cumulus cloud. Stratosphere The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere in which temperature increases with increasing height. Stratovolcano A volcano made from alternate layers of lava and ash. It is also known as a composite cone. Stratus Low-level layer cloud. Stream (drainage) pattern The pattern made on a map by all of the streams in an area, e.g. dendritic, trellised orradial. Stress The force per unit area acting on an object. Strip cultivation A method of preventing soil erosion. Crops are grown in narrow bands, often at right angles to the prevailing wind, with other bands of different crops in between. The crops are harvested at different times so the field is never left completely bare. Structure Distinct layers of vegetation with differing heights from the ground. Structure has many other meanings eg. geological. Subduction The process where plates converge and one plate is forced beneath the other. Subjective data See qualitative data. Subsistence farming Farming just to feed oneself and ones family, rather than farming for profit. Surface water Water from rivers and lakes. Suspension The process of transport where mud and silt is held within the body of the water making it discoloured. Sustainable Meeting a need today, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Sustainable production Producing goods in a manner that is capable of continuing well into the future. Swash The forward movement of a wave up the shore. Systematic sample Data is collected according to a regular pattern. Tally chart A sheet on which each individual counted is recorded by a / mark and the marks are crossed through in the opposite direction on 10

the fifth, tenth, fifteenth, etc. counts to give groups of five. Tanning The conversion of skin into leather. Technology Machines and other tools. Temperate The middle zone of latitudes, lying between the polar and tropical zones. The half of the zone nearest to the tropics is the warm temperate and the half nearest the poles is the cold temperate zone. Temperature The degree of heat or coldness of the air, sea or other body. Tension A type of stress where forces pull in opposite directions, causing stretching. Terraces Flat steps constructed to allow cultivation on steep slopes. Terracing A system used to grow crops on sloping land by creating flat steps. Tertiary industry Industries which do not produce goods, but distribute them or provide a service. Thermal conductors Materials which transmit heat quickly and effectively. Rocks do not do this. Thermal power station A power station where the fuel is burned to produce heat, which turns water into steam. The steam then turns a turbine to generate electricity. It generally refers to those power stations powered by fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) and nuclear fuel. Threshold population The minimum number of people needed to provide a large enough demand for a service. Tidal range The difference in height between the low- and high-tide levels. Tide A general (to differentiate it from wave) rise and fall in the sea surface. Topography (topographic) The features found on the surface of the ground, including both physical and human features. Trace An amount of water in a measuring cylinder that is too small to measure. Traction The process of transport where material rolls downstream, staying in contact with the river bed. Waves also move material by traction. Transect A line along which samples are taken. Transition zone The edge of the CBD which is in the process of change either by the CBD expanding or by the area going into decline. Transmigration An involuntary movement of people within a country as a result of government policy.

OXFoRD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2012

Glossary Transnational corporation A company which has its operation in several countries. A multinational company. Transpiration The process by which plants lose water through the pores in their leaves as water vapour. Transport The movement downstream of the rivers load. Also movement of material by waves. Trellised drainage Streams which meet at right angles to form a rectangular pattern. Triangular graph A type of graph used for data for three variables which add up to 100%. Tributary A smaller river which joins a larger river. Trigonometrical point A pillar about a metre tall which is used as a fixed point by mapmakers. It is shown on a survey map along with its height above sea level. Tropical rainforest The forests growing in areas of high rainfall and no dry season on either side of the equator. Tropical storm A gale or storm in the tropics with a wind speed of 63118 kilometres per hour. Tropics The latitudinal zone that extends from the Tropic of Cancer (238 N) to the Tropic of Capricorn (238 S). Tropopause The level at the top of the troposphere which separates it from the stratosphere. It is the height at which temperature stops decreasing and starts increasing with increased height. Troposphere The lowest layer of the atmosphere, changes in which are the cause of weather. Temperature decreases with increased height in this layer. Tsetse fly Large biting flies that inhabit much of mid-continental Africa between the Sahara and Kalahari deserts. They live by feeding on the blood of vertebrate animals, and are the main transmitters of trypanosomes, which cause human sleeping sickness and animal trypanosomiasis, also known as nagana. Tsetse include all the species in the genus Glossina. Tsunami An ocean wave produced when there is movement of the seabed caused by the fault movement that causes an

C O M P LETE GEO gR A P HY FO R C AM B RI D GE I GCSE

earthquake. A tsunami can also be caused by the collapse of a volcanic cone into the sea. Turbine Any system that converts a flowing fluid into energy. Twilight zone A problem area on the edge of the CBD that has been badly affected by change. It often contains derelict land and buildings, and has high rates of crime and social problems. Typhoon An intense tropical storm in the South China Sea and Western Pacific (with wind speeds of at least 119 kilometres per hour). Under-population Where there are too few people to exploit the resources of an area to their maximum potential. United Nations An international organisation composed of most of the countries of the world. It was founded in 1945 to promote peace, security and economic development. Upfold Where rocks have been crumpled in an upwards direction like an upside down letter U. Urban Associated with towns and cities. Urban morphology The distribution of land-use types in an urban area the same as urban structure. Urban sprawl The process of large urban areas growing outwards rapidly into the surrounding rural area. Urban structure The distribution of land-use types in an urban area the same as urban morphology. Urbanisation The increasing percentage of the population living in urban areas (leading to a growth of towns andcities). Urban-to-rural migration The movement of people from towns or cities to the countryside. Urban-to-urban migration The movement of people from one town or city to another. Valley A long, narrow area of low ground. Valley cross profile A diagram showing the slopes of the valley sides, drawn at right angles to the river. Valley long profile A diagram showing the slope of the bed of a river from its source to its mouth. Veld The plains of southern Africa. Velocity The speed of flow of the river water downstream (usually measured in metres per second).

Volcano A hill or mountain built up by the eruption and build-up of lava at the surface. The term is sometimes used for anywhere that lava is erupting. Voluntary migrant A person who chooses to move. Water deficit When demand for water exceeds the supply. Water surplus When water supply exceeds the demand. Water table The upper surface of water in the rocks. Water vapour The invisible gaseous form of water that is present in all air in varying quantities. Waterfall Where the river flows over a vertical drop in its long profile . Wave crest The highest part of a wave. Wave height The difference between the height of a wave crest and the adjacent wave trough. Wave length The distance between two wave crests. Wave trough The lowest part of the wave. Wave-cut notch Where a cliff has been eroded, causing an indentation near the high-tide level. Wave-cut platform A flat or gently sloping area of rock between the high- and low-tide levels. Weather The condition of the atmosphere at any particular time. Weather elements The components of weather, including temperature, wind speed and direction, humidity, precipitation and pressure. Weather station A place where instruments are used to record all aspects of the weather. Weathering The decay and disintegration of rocks in situ, involving physical, chemical and biological processes, resulting from the conditions in the atmosphere. Wet and dry bulb thermometers Instruments used to determine relative humidity by comparing a reading of the air temperature with one from a bulb covered with wet muslin. Wet point A site with reliable sources of water from rivers, springs and wells in an otherwise dry area. Wind vane An instrument for measuring wind direction.

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OXFoRD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2012