Introduction to Vehicle Dynamics

Pierre Duysinx
LTAS Automotive Engineering University of Liege Academic Year 2011-2012

Bibliography

T. Gillespie. Fundamentals of vehicle Dynamics , 1992, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) W. Milliken & D. Milliken. Race Car Vehicle Dynamics , 1995, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) R. Bosch. Automotive Handbook . 5th edition. 2002. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J.Y. Wong. Theory of Ground Vehicles . John Wiley & sons. 1993 (2nd edition) 2001 (3rd edition). M. Blundel & D. Harty. The multibody Systems Approach to Vehicle Dynamics 2004. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) G. Genta. Motor vehicle dynamics: Modelling and Simulation . Series on Advances in Mathematics for Applied Sciences - Vol. 43. World Scientific. 1997.

INTRODUCTION TO HANDLING

Introduction to vehicle dynamics

Introduction to vehicle handling Vehicle axes system Tire mechanics & cornering properties of tires

Terminology and axis system Lateral forces and sideslip angles Aligning moment

Bicycle model Low speed cornering

Ackerman theory Ackerman-Jeantaud theory

Introduction to vehicle dynamics

High speed steady state cornering

Equilibrium equations of the vehicle Gratzmller equality Compatibility equations Steering angle as a function of the speed Neural, understeer and oversteer behaviour Critical and characteristic speeds Lateral acceleration gain and yaw speed gain Drift angle of the vehicle Static margin

Exercise

Introduction

In the past, but still nowadays, the understeer and oversteer character dominated the stability and controllability considerations This is an important factor, but it is not the single one In practice, one has to consider the whole system vehicle + driver

Driver = intelligence Vehicle = plant system able to create the manoeuvre forces

The behaviour of the closed-loop system is referred as the handling , which can be roughly understood as the road holding

Introduction
Environnement Vision
Angle volant. Forces et moments

Conducteur

Systme de Pdale direction accl. Transmission Pdale Systme freinage frein

Angle syst. direct.

Suspension Liaison Pneus

Automobile Caisse

Couple aux roues

Bruits, vibrations Bruit, vibrations Forces dinertie

Model of the system vehicle + driver

Introduction

However because of the difficulty to characterize the driver, it is usual to characterize the vehicle alone as an open loop system. Open loop refers to the vehicle responses to specific steering inputs. It is more precisely defined as directional responses behaviour. The most commonly used measure of open-loop response is the understeer gradient The understeer gradient is a performance measure under steady-state conditions although it is also used to infer performance properties under non steady state conditions

AXES SYSTEM

Reference frames

O Y Z X
Local reference frame oxyz attached to the vehicle body SAE (Gillespie, fig. 1.4)

Inertial coordinate system OXYZ

Reference frames

Inertial reference frame

X direction of initial displacement or reference direction Y right side travel Z towards downward vertical direction

Vehicle reference frame (SAE):

x along motion direction and vehicle symmetry plane y in the lateral direction on the right hand side of the driver towards the downward vertical direction o, origin at the center of mass

Reference frames

y z

Systme SAE

Comparison of conventions of SAE and ISO/DIN reference frames

y x Systme ISO

Local velocity vectors

Vehicle motion is often studied in car-body local systems

u forward speed (+ if in front) v side speed (+ to the right) w vertical speed (+ downward) p rotation speed about a axis (roll speed) q rotation speed about y (pitch) r rotation speed about z (yaw)

Forces

Forces and moments are accounted positively when acting onto the vehicle and the positive direction with respect to the considered frame
Corollary A positive Fx force is propelling the vehicle forward The reaction force of the ground onto the wheels is accounted negatively. Because of the inconveniency of this definition, the SAEJ670e Vehicle Dynamics Terminology is naming as normal force a force acting downward while vertical forces are referring to upward forces

TIRE MECHANICS: CORNERING PROPERTIES

Terminology and axis system (SAE)

Wheel plane : central plane of the tire normal to the axis of rotation Wheel centre: intersection of the spin axis with the wheel plane Centre of Tire Contact: intersection of the wheel plane and the projection of the spin axis onto the road plane Loaded radius: distance from the centre of tire contact to the wheel centre in the wheel plane

Terminology and axis system (SAE)

Longitudinal force Fx : component of the force acting on the tire by the road in the plane of the road and parallel to the intersection of the wheel plane with the road Lateral force Fy : component of the force acting on the tire by the road in the plane of the road and normal to the intersection of the wheel plane with the road plane Normal force Fz : component of the force acting on the tire by the road which is normal to the plane of the road

Terminology and axis system (SAE)

Overturning moment Mx : moment acting on the tire by the road in the plane of the road and parallel to the intersection of the wheel plane with the road plane Rolling Resistance Moment My : moment acting on the tire by the road in the plane of the road and normal to the intersection of the wheel plane with the road Aligning Moment Mz : moment acting on the tire by the road which is normal to the road plane

Terminology and axis system (SAE)

Slip Angle (): angle between the direction of the wheel heading and the direction of travel. A positive sideslip corresponds to a tire moving to the right while rolling in the forward direction Camber Angle (): angle between the wheel plane and the vertical. A positive camber corresponds to the top of the tire leaned outward from the vehicle

LATERAL FORCES

When a lateral force is applied to the tire, one observes that the contact patch is deformed and the tire develops a lateral force that is opposed to the applied force. When rolling, applying a lateral force to the tire, the tire develops a lateral force opposed to the applied force and the tire moves forward with an angle with respect to the heading direction, called slip angle. The relation between the lateral force that is developed and the sideslip angle is a fundamental matter for the study the vehicle dynamics and its stability

ORIGIN OF LATERAL FORCES

The origin of the tire deformation is the applied lateral force

Gillespie, Fig 10.10

Wong Fig 1.22

LATERAL FORCES

Milliken, Fig. 2.1

Chevrolet R&D experiment

Milliken, Fig. 2.2

LATERAL FORCES

The name of sideslip is misleading since there is no global slip of the tire with respect to the ground (except in a very limited part at the back of the contact patch). The sideslip of the tire is due to the flexible character of the rubber tire that allows keeping a heading while having a lateral motion The lateral force may be a cause or a consequence of the sideslip.

Lateral forces (gust) sideslip reaction forces under the tire Steering the wheel sideslip lateral forces to turn

Analogy with walking a snow slope

LATERAL FORCES
Gough machine (1950) (Dunlop Research Center)

Records: lateral displacement (a,b) the force of a slice (c) the reaction force on the tire groove

Milliken, Fig. 2.4

LATERAL FORCES
Side displacements Distribution of contact pressure z: centre of pressure is in the front part of the contact patch rolling resistance Lateral speed A>B : V sin B>C: local slip Genta Fig 2.24

Distribution of zy = lateral shear of the tire: Triangular distribution. Its resultant force is located in the back of the contact patch aligning moment

LATERAL FORCES

From experimental observations, one notices that:

The resultant of the lateral force is located in the rear part of the pneumatic contact patch. The distance between the resultant position and the centre of the contact pact is the pneumatic trail t The lateral forces produces also an aligning moment

M z = Fy t

The local slippage of tire on the road is limited to a small zone at the back of the contact patch. Its span depends on the sideslip angle. The characteristics of the lateral forces are related, in the small sideslip angles, to the lateral displacements due to the rolling process but they are mostly independent of the speed.

LATERAL FORCES

Genta Fig 2.23 : Contact zone in presence of sideslip a/ Contact zone and trajectory of a point in the tread b/ Contact zones et slippage zone for different sideslip angles

LATERAL FORCES

3 parts in the curves of Fy as a function of the sideslip angle Linear part for small sideslip angles (< 3) In the frictional part (>7) most of the contact patch experiences dry friction. Over the peak of the curves, the lateral force can fall rapidly or remain smooth Transition part: end of linear regime (~3) to the peak value of the curve (~7) On wet roads, the peak value is reduced and drops rapidly

P215/60 R15 GoodYear Eagle GT-S (shaved for racing) 31 psi Vertical load 1800 lb

Milliken. Fig. 2.7

LATERAL FORCES
P215/60 R15 Goodyear Eagle GT-S ( saved for racing) 31 psi

=Fy/Fz

Milliken. Fig. 2.8 et Fig. 2.9

LATERAL FORCES

One introduces the friction coefficient as the ratio of the lateral force and of the applied vertical load = Fy/ Fz The peak of the lateral force is reduced with the vertical load: this is the load sensitivity phenomenon. The modification of the lateral force with the vertical load can be important with old bias tires. This affects the total lateral force capability of the wheel sets when experiencing lateral load transfer.

Milliken. Fig. 2.10

Load sensitivity

Heisler: Fig 8.42 et 8.43 : Sensitivity of the lateral force with respect to the load transfer

Cornering stiffness

In its linear part (small sideslip angles) the lateral force curve can be approximated by its Taylor first order expansion : Fy = -C

C is called as the cornering stiffness. The cornering stiffness is negative

Gillespie Fig. 6.2

Cornering stiffness

The cornering stiffness depends on several parameters:

The type of the tire, its sizes and width, The inflating pressure The vertical load

The order of magnitude of the cornering stiffness is about 50000 N/rad As the lateral force is quite sensitive to the vertical load, one generally prefers to use the cornering coefficient that is defined as the ratio of the cornering stiffness by the vertical load: CC = C / Fz The order of magnitude of CC is in the range 0.1 to 0.2 N/N degre-1

Cornering stiffness

Gillespie: Fig 10.14 : cornering coefficient for different populations of tires

Cornering stiffness

Gillespie: Fig 10.15 : Load sensitivity of the cornering stiffness and cornering coefficient

ALIGNING MOMENT AND PNEUMATIC TRAIL

The aligning moment reflects the tendency of the tire to rotate about its vertical axis to self align with the motion direction For small and medium sideslip angles, the tire tends to align itself with the velocity vector direction Origin of the aligning moment:

Triangular distribution of the local shear forces in the contact patch with a resultant located behind the contact centre

The pneumatic trail is the distance between the lateral force resultant and the contact centre

Trail = Aligning moment / Lateral force

Aligning moment and pneumatic trail

Linear part - small sideslip angles (<3):

Non-linear part medium and large sideslip angles

The largest shear stresses work to reduce the sideslip Maximum of the curves about 3 to 4 When the rear of the contact patch is invaded with local friction, the aligning moment is reduced At the maximum of the lateral force, the aligning moment goes to zero and may even become negative for larger sideslip angles > 7 10

Milliken. Fig. 2.11

Aligning moment and pneumatic trail

The aligning moment can also be reinforced with a mechanical trail coming from the wheel and the steering geometry Optimum combination of both trails :

Too small mechanical trail, the vehicle can be inclined to reduce its turn radius with the saturation of lateral force Too large mechanical trail, no feeling of the maximum of the lateral force curve

Milliken. Fig. 2.12

Aligning moment and pneumatic trail

Lateral force and aligning moment for a tire 175/70 R 13 82S From Reimpell et al.

Aligning moment and pneumatic trail

Trail = Aligning Moment / Lateral Force Important lateral forces result in low aligning moment and a small pneumatic trail.

For small sideslip angles, only the profile is deformed, which gives rise to a resultant far to the back. For important side slip angles, the sidewall works much more and the resultant gets closer to the centre of the contact patch

Pneumatic trail for a tire 175/70 R 13 82S from Reimpell et al.

VEHICLE MODELING

The bicycle model

t Velocity f

Tf b L c z,w,r y,v,q r Fxf x,u,p

Fyf

When the behaviours of the left and right hand wheels are not too different, one can model the vehicle as a single track vehicle known as the bicycle model. The bicycle model proved to be able to account for numerous properties of the dynamic and stability behaviour of vehicle under various conditions.

Tr Fxr

Fyr

The bicycle model

t Velocity f

Assumptions of the bicycle model

Tf b L c z,w,r y,v,q r Fxf x,u,p

Fyf

Tr Fxr

Fyr

Negligible lateral load transfer Negligible longitudinal load transfer Negligible significant roll and pitch motion The tires remain in linear regime Constant forward velocity V Aerodynamics effects are negligible Control in position (no matter about the control forces that are required) No compliance effect of the suspensions and of the body

The bicycle model

Remarks on the meaning of the assumptions

Linear regime is valid if lateral acceleration<0.4 g Linear behaviour of the tire Roll behaviour is negligible Lateral load transfer is negligible Small steering and slip angles, etc. Smooth floor to neglect the suspension motion Position control of the command : one can exert a given value of the input variable (e.g. steering system) independently of the control forces The sole input considered here is the steering, but one could also add the braking and the acceleration pedal.

The bicycle model

Assumptions :

Fixed: u = V = constant No vertical motion: w=0 No roll p=0 No pitch q = 0 r, yaw speed v, lateral velocity or , side slip of the vehicle m, mass, Jzz inertia bout z axis L, b, c wheel base and position of the CG

Bicycle model = 2 dof model :

Vehicle parameters:

The bicycle model

Velocity h f Velocity f

Tf Fxf x,u,p

Fyf b L z,w,r y,v,q r Fyr Fxr c r

Fxf

Fyf u V

v r m, J

Tr

Fyr Fxr

LOW SPEED TURNING

Low speed turning

At low speed (parking manoeuvre for instance), the centrifugal accelerations are negligible and the tire have not to develop lateral forces The turning is ruled by the rolling without friction and without slip conditions If the wheel have no slippage, the instantaneous centres of rotation of the four wheels are coincident. The CIR is located on the perpendicular lines to the tire plan from the contact point In order that no tire experiences some scrub, the four perpendicular lines pass through the same point, that is the centre of the turn.

Ackerman-Jeantaud theory

Ackerman-Jeantaud condition

One can see that

tan i = L=(R t=2) tan e = L=(R + t=2)

This gives the Ackerman Jeantaud condition

t cot e cot i = L

Corollary e i

Ackerman-Jeantaud condition

The Jeantaud condition is not always verified by the steering mechanisms in practice, as the four bar linkage mechanism

sin( 2 ) + sin( + 1 ) = s 2 l1 2 sin (cos( 2 ) cos( + 1 ))2 l2

Jeantaud condition

The Jeantaud condition can be determined graphically, but the former drawing is very badly conditioned for a good precision In practice one resorts to an alternative approach based on the following property Point Q belongs to the line MF when the Jeantaud condition is fulfilled The distance from Q to the line MF is a measure of the error from Jeanteaud condition

Ackerman theory
vf u V r v vr RCG centre du virage

Ackerman theory

The steering angle of the front wheels

L R The relation between the Ackerman steering angle and the Jeantaud steering angles 1 and 2 tan =
vf

u V r v vr RCG

R cot e + cot i cot( ) = = 2 L

R=10 m, L= 2500 mm, t=1300 mm 1 = 15.090 2= 13.305 = 14.142 (1+2)/2=14.197

centre du virage

Ackerman theory

Curvature radius at the centre of mass

Relation between the curvature and the steering angle

Side slip at the centre of mass

1=R 1 = L

c = L

Ackerman theory

The off-tracking of the rear wheel set

vf u V r v vr RCG centre du virage

HIGH SPEED STEADY STATE CORNERING

High speed steady state cornering

At high speed, its required that tires develop lateral forces to sustain the lateral accelerations. The tire can develop forces if and only if they are subject to a side slip angle. Because of the motion kinematics, the CIR is located at the intersection to the normal to the local velocity vectors under the tires. The CIR, which was located at the rear axel for low speed turn, is now moving to a point in front.

High speed steady state cornering

f vr f r

vf

Dynamics equations of the vehicle motion

Newton-Euler equilibrium equation in the non inertial reference frame of the vehicle body X! Jxy = 0 ! ! ! d _ !
F = X ! M = (M V ) = M V + M ! V dt ! d d(J !) ! ! (J ! ) = +! ! (J !) dt dt
! ! = [0 0 r]T

Velocity

Jyz = 0

Model with 2 dof & r

! V = [u v 0]T

a L b r

Fxf

Fyf u V

Equilibrium equations in Fy and Mz :

_ + ru) F y = M (v _ N = Jzz r

v r M, J

Operating forces

Tyre forces Aerodynamic forces (can be neglected here)

Fyr Fxr

Equilibrium equations of the vehicle

Equilibrium equations in lateral direction and rotation about yaw axis V2 Fy f + Fy r = m R Fy f b Fy r c = 0 Solutions

Fy f Fy r

c V2 = m L R b V2 = m L R

The lateral forces are in the same ratio as the vertical forces under the wheel sets

Behaviour equations of the tires

Cornering force for small slip angles

Fy = C

@Fy = < 0 @ =0

Gillespie, Fig. 6.2

Gratzmller equality

Using the equilibrium and the behaviour condition, one gets

Fy f Fy r

c V2 = C f f = m L R b V2 = Cr r = m L R

One yields the Gratzmller equality

f c Cr = r b Cf

Compatibility equations

The velocity under the rear wheels are given by

ur = u ' V vr = v c r

f vr f r

vf

The compatibility of the velocities yields the slip angle under the rear wheels

tan r =

vr v + c r = ur V

V =rR

r = +

c R

Compatibility equations

The velocity under the front wheels are given by

uf = u ' V vf = v + b r

f vf vr f r

The compatibility of the velocities yields the slip angle under the front wheels vf v+br tan( f ) = = uf V

V =rR

f = +

b R

Steering angle

Steering angle as a function of the slip angles under front and rear wheels
= L + f r R

The steering angle can also be expressed as a function of the velocity and the cornering stiffness of the wheels sets
L mc m b V2 + ( ) = R Cf L C r L R

L Wf Wr V 2 + ( ) = R C f C r gR

Understeer gradient

The steering angle is expressed in term of the centrifugal acceleration L mc m b V2 + ( ) = R Cf L C r L R So

L V2 + K = R R

With the understeer gradient K of the vehicle

K =

mc mb Cf L Cr L

Steering angle as a function of V

Gillespie. Fig. 6.5 Modification of the steering angle as a function of the speed

Neutralsteer, understeer and oversteer vehicles

If K=0, the vehicle is said to be neutralsteer: K = 0 , c C r = b C f The front and rear wheels sets have the same directional ability If K>0, the vehicle is understeer : K > 0 , c C r > b C f Larger directional factor of the rear wheels If K<0, the vehicle is oversteer:
K < 0 , c C r < b C f Larger directional factor of the front wheels

Characteristic and critical speeds

For an understeer vehicle, the understeer level may be quantified by a parameter known as the characteristic speed. It is the speed that requires a steering angle that is twice the Ackerman angle (turn at V=0) r L Vcaract = 2L=R eristique = K For an oversteer vehicle, there is a critical speed above which the vehicle will be unstable s L =0 Vcritique = jK j

Lateral acceleration and yaw speed gains

Lateral acceleration gain

L = + K ay R

V ay L = V2 1 + KL

Yaw speed gain

r=

V R

V r L = V2 1 + KL

Lateral acceleration gain

Purpose of the steering system is to produce lateral acceleration

L = + K ay R

ay =

V2 L V2 1 + KL

For neutral steer, lateral acceleration gain is constant For understeer vehicle, K>0, the denominator >1 and the lateral acceleration is always reduced For oversteer vehicle, K<0, the denominator is < 1 and becomes zero for the critical speed, which means that any pertubation produces an infinite lateral acceleration

Yaw velocity gain

The second raison for steering is to change the heading angle by developing a yaw velocity

r=

V R

V r L = V2 1 + KL

For neutral vehicles, the yaw velocity is proportional to the steering angle For understeer vehicles, the yaw gain angle is lower than proportional. It is maximum for the characteristic speed. For oversteer vehicles, the yaw rates becomes infinite for the critical speed and the vehicles becomes uncontrollable at critical speed.

Yaw velocity gain

V r L = V2 1 + KL

Gillespie. Fig. 6.6 Yaw rate as a function of the steering angle

Sideslip angle

Definition (reminder) Value

vc g = uc g

=

cr br r = f V V

Value as a function of the speed V

c Wr V 2 = R C r gR Becomes zero for the speed r C r V =0 = cg Wr independent of R !

Sideslip angle
>0 <0

Gillespie. Fig. 6.7 Sideslip angle for a low speed turn

Gillespie. Fig. 6.8 Sideslip angle for a high speed turn

This is true whatever the vehicle is understeer or oversteer

Static margin

The static margin provides another (equivalent) measure of the steady-state behaviour

Gillespie. Fig 6.9 Neutral steer line e>0 if it is located in front of the vehicle centre of gravity

Static margin

Suppose the vehicle is in straight line motion (=0) Let a perturbation force F applied at a distance e from the CG (e>0 if in front of the CG) Lets write the equilibrium

Fy f + Fy r = F Fy f b Fy r c = F e

Fy f (b e) Fy r (c + e) = 0

The static margin is the point such that the lateral forces do not produce any steady-state yaw velocity That is: L + f r , f = r = r=0 R=1

=0

Static margin

It comes

C f (b e) Cr (c + e) = 0

So the static margin writes

b Cf c C r e= Cf + C r

A vehicle is

Neutral steer if e = 0 Under steer if e<0 (behind the CG) Over steer if e>0 (in front of the CG)

Static margin

Gillespie. Fig. 6.10 Maurice Olleys definition of understeer and over steer

Exercise

Let a vehicle A with the following characteristics:

Wheel base L=2,522m Position of CG w.r.t. front axle b=0,562m Mass=1431 kg Tires: 205/55 R16 (see Figure) Radius of the turn R=110 m at speed V=80 kph

Let a vehicle B with the following characteristics :

Wheel base L=2,605m Position of CG w.r.t. front axle b=1,146m Mass=1510 kg Tires: 205/55 R16 (see Figure) Radius of the turn R=110 m at speed V=80 kph

Exercise
Rigidit de drive (drive <=2) :

1800 1600 1400 1200 Rigidit (N/) 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 1000 2000 3000 Charge norm ale (N) 4000 5000 6000 175/70 R13 185/70 R13 195/60 R14 165 R13 205/55 R16

Exercise

Compute:

The dAckerman angle (in ) The cornering stiffness (N/) of front and rear wheels and axles The sideslip angles under front and rear tires (in ) The side slip of the vehicle at CG (in ) The steering angle at front wheels (in ) The understeer gradient (in /g) Depending on the case: the characteristic or the critical speed (in kph) The lateral acceleration gain (in g/) The yaw speed velocity gain (in s-1) The vehicle static margin (%)

Exercise 1

Data

b = 0,562 m
b = 0,2228 L

c = L b = 2,522 0,562 = 1,960 m

c = 0,7772 L

m = 1431 kg

W = mg
f

c = 10909,8714 N L

Wr = mg

b = 3127,6909 N L

V = 80 kph = 22,2222 m / s
a =
y

V = 4,4893 m / s R

R = 110 m

Exercise 1

Ackerman angle

L = arctan( ) = arctan(0,0229) = 0,0229 rad = 1,3134 R

Tire cornering stiffness of front wheels (1) c C W f = mg = 10909,8714 N f L

= 1550 N / deg

F = 5454,93 N
z

C f = 3110 N / deg = 177616,98 N / rad

Tire cornering stiffness of rear wheels

Fz = 1563,84 N

b Wr = mg = 3127,6909 N L

(1) C r = 500 N / deg

C r = 1000 N / deg = 57295,8 N / rad

Exercise 1

Side slip angles under the front tires

a =
y

V = 4,4893 m / s R

ma = 6424,1883 N
y

F =
yf

c V m = 54992,879 N L R
f yf

C = F
f

C f = 3110 N / deg

=
f

F = 1,6106 = 0,0281 rad C

yf f

Exercise 1

Side slip angles under the rear tires b V Fyf = m = 1431,3092 N L R

C r r = Fyr
r =

C r = 1000 N / deg

Fyr C r

= 1, 4313 = 0,0250 rad

Side slip angle at CG

c cr = V R
r

1,960 0,0250 = 0,0072 rad = 0, 4105 110

Exercise 1

Steering angle at front wheels

L mc / L mb / L V = + R C C R
f r

L + f r R

= 1,3134 + 1,6106 1, 4313 = 1, 4927

Understeer gradient

mc / L mb / L 1112,1732 318,8268 = K = C f C r 3100 1000

K = 0,0399 / ms

K ' = K * g = 0,3918 deg/ g

Exercise 1

Understeer gradient: check!

W W K= gC gC
f r f

L V = 57,3 + K R R

= 1,3134 + K 4,4893 = 1,4925

Characteristic speed

L =2 R

carac

L = K
2

K = 0,0399 deg/ ms = 6,9639 E 4 rad / m / s

Vcarac = L 2,522 = = 60,1793 m / s = 216,64 kph K 6,9639 E 4

Exercise 1

Lateral acceleration gain

4,4893 / 9,81 G = = = 0,3066 g / deg 1,4927

y ay

Yaw speed gain

Gr =

V /R

22, 222 /110 = 7,7543 deg/ s / deg 1, 4927

Exercise 1

Neutral maneuver point

bC cC 0,562.3100 1,9600.1000 = e= C + C 3100 + 1000

f r f r

e = 0,0531 m

Static margin

e = 2,11% L