Ieee Guide For Synchronization, Calibration, Testing, and Installation of Phasor Measurement Units (Pmus) For Power System Protection and Control

IEEE Guide for Synchronization, Calibration, Testing, and Installation of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) for Power System
Protection and Control
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Sponsored by the Power System Relaying Committee
IEEE 3 Park Avenue New York, NY 10016-5997 USA 6 March 2013
IEEE Std C37.242-2013
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IEEE Std C37.242-2013
IEEE Guide for Synchronization, Calibration, Testing, and Installation of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) for Power System Protection and Control
Sponsor
Power System Relaying Committee

of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society

Approved 6 February 2013
IEEE-SA Standards Board
Abstract: Guidance for synchronization, calibration, testing, and installation of phasor measurement units (PMUs) applied in power systems is provided. The following are addressed in this guide: (a) Considerations for the installation of PMU devices based on application requirements and typical substation electrical bus configurations; (b) Techniques focusing on the overall accuracy and availability of the time synchronization system; (c) Test and calibration procedures for PMUs for laboratory and field applications; (d) Communications testing for connecting PMUs to other devices including Phasor Data Concentrators (PDCs). Keywords: calibration, GPS, IEEE C37.242, PMU, synchrophasor, testing
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5997, USA Copyright 2013 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved. Published 6 March 2013. Printed in the United States of America. IEEE is a registered trademark in the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office, owned by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Incorporated. PDF: Print: ISBN 978-0-7381-8295-7 ISBN 978-0-7381-8296-4 STD98172 STDPD98172
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Participants
At the time this IEEE guide was completed, the C5 Working Group had the following membership: Farnoosh Rahmatian, Chair Paul Myrda, Vice Chair
Mark Adamiak Galina Antonova Alexander Apostolov James Ariza Bill Dickerson Vasudev Gharpure Allen Goldstein James Hackett Yi Hu Mladen Kezunovic Harold Kirkham Vahid Madani Kenneth Martin A.P. (Sakis) Meliopoulos Jay Murphy Krish Narendra Damir Novosel Manu Parashar Mahendra Patel S. Richards Veselin Skendzik Gerard Stenbakken A. Vaccaro Benton Vandiver
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
Mohamed Abdel Khalek William Ackerman Mark Adamiak Satish Aggarwal Ali Al Awazi Mihaela Albu Saleman Alibhay Galina Antonova James Ariza David Bassett Martin Baur Philip Beaumont Kenneth Behrendt Robert Beresh Richard Bingham Gustavo Brunello Paul Cardinal Arvind K. Chaudhary Stephen Conrad Luis Coronado Andrew Dettloff Michael Dood Gary Engmann Dan Evans Ronald Farquharson Fredric Friend Doaa Galal John Galanos Vasudev Gharpure David Gilmer Jalal Gohari Allen Goldstein Stephen Grier Randall C. Groves Erich Gunther James Hackett Donald Hall Dennis Hansen Roger Hedding Werner Hoelzl Yi Hu Gerald Johnson Innocent Kamwa Yuri Khersonsky Morteza Khodaie Harold Kirkham Joseph L. Koepfinger Jim Kulchisky Chung-Yiu Lam Raluca Lascu Greg Luri Vahid Madani Wayne Manges Kenneth Martin William McBride John McDonald William Moncrief Jay Murphy Jerry Murphy Bruce Muschlitz Michael S. Newman Damir Novosel James OBrien Lorraine Padden Donald Parker Bansi Patel Craig Preuss Iulian Profir Farnoosh Rahmatian Reynaldo Ramos Michael Roberts Charles Rogers Thomas Rozek Sergio Santos Bartien Sayogo Thomas Schossig Devki Sharma Gil Shultz Veselin Skendzic James Smith Jerry Smith Aaron Snyder John Spare Gerard Stenbakken Gary Stoedter Charles Sufana Richard Taylor William Taylor John Tengdin Maria Tomica Eric Udren John Vergis Jane Verner Quintin Verzosa John Wang Solveig Ward Karl Weber Philip Winston Jian Yu
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When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 6 February 2013, it had the following membership: John Kulick, Chair Richard H. Hulett, Past Chair Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary
Masayuki Ariyoshi Peter Balma Farooq Bari Ted Burse Wael William Diab Stephen Dukes Jean-Philippe Faure Alexander Gelman *Member Emeritus Mark Halpin Gary Hoffman Paul Houz Jim Hughes Michael Janezic Joseph L. Koepfinger* David J. Law Oleg Logvinov Ron Petersen Gary Robinson Jon Walter Rosdahl Adrian Stephens Peter Sutherland Yatin Trivedi Phil Winston Yu Yuan
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative Michael Janezic, NIST Representative Michelle Turner IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development Matthew J. Ceglia IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development Soo H. Kim Client Service Manager, Professional Services
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Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C37.242-2013, IEEE Guide for Synchronization, Calibration, Testing, and Installation of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) for Power System Protection and Control.
Use of synchrophasor technology in the electric power industry is rapidly growing, moving from research and pilot projects into system-wide production level deployment. Accordingly, a practical guide for installing and testing phasor measurement units (PMUs) is expected to be very beneficial to field practitioners, sharing and leveraging the early experience that the pioneers in this area have accumulated. This document was developed by IEEE PES Power System Relaying Committee to guide and educate various professionals interested in deploying PMUs and using the associated synchrophasor data.
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Contents
1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 2 2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 2 3. Definitions, special terms, acronyms, and abbreviations............................................................................ 2 3.1 Definitions ........................................................................................................................................... 3 3.2 Special terms........................................................................................................................................ 3 3.3 Acronyms and abbreviations ............................................................................................................... 3 4. Synchronization techniques, accuracy, and availability ............................................................................. 4 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 4 4.2 Role of time synchronization in PMUs................................................................................................ 4 4.3 Satellite-based synchronizing sources ................................................................................................. 5 4.4 Terrestrial systems ............................................................................................................................... 9 4.5 Synchronization distribution methods ............................................................................................... 10 5. Synchrophasor measurement accuracy characterization .......................................................................... 10 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 10 5.2 Data accuracy characterization .......................................................................................................... 11 5.3 Data accuracy .................................................................................................................................... 12 5.4 Characterization of instrumentation channels.................................................................................... 13 5.5 Characterization of GPS-synchronized measurement devices (PMUs)............................................. 14 5.6 GPS-synchronized equipment reliability ........................................................................................... 14 6. PMU installation, commissioning, and maintenance................................................................................ 15 6.1 Preface ............................................................................................................................................... 15 6.2 Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 15 6.3 Pre-installation procedures ................................................................................................................ 16 6.4 Analog and digital input .................................................................................................................... 20 6.5 Power input........................................................................................................................................ 21 6.6 Communications................................................................................................................................ 21 6.7 Summary of design considerations .................................................................................................... 24 6.8 Pre-installation tests........................................................................................................................... 25 6.9 Verification of end-to-end calibration ............................................................................................... 25 6.10 Communications operation.............................................................................................................. 28 6.11 Record keeping ................................................................................................................................ 29 7. Testing and calibration ............................................................................................................................. 29 7.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 29 7.2 Objective of testing............................................................................................................................ 29 7.3 Types of tests ..................................................................................................................................... 30 7.4 Test equipment .................................................................................................................................. 34 7.5 Methods for performing the tests....................................................................................................... 40 7.6 Synchrophasor message format ......................................................................................................... 54 7.7 Final comments.................................................................................................................................. 55 Annex A (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 56 Annex B (informative) Responses of the reference signal processing model to test signals........................ 60
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Annex C (informative) Effects of signal channels........................................................................................ 80 Annex D (informative) Examples of instrumentation channel impact on accuracy using approximate models ............................................................................................................................ 85 Annex E (informative) Example of commissioning tests and measurements............................................... 95
IEEE Guide for Synchronization, Calibration, Testing, and Installation of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) for Power System Protection and Control
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1. Overview
1.1 Scope
The document provides guidance for synchronization, calibration, testing, and installation of phasor measurement units (PMUs) applied in power system protection and control. The following are addressed in this guide: a) Considerations for the installation of PMU devices based on application requirements and typical bus configurations. Test and calibration procedures for PMUs for laboratory and field applications.
b) Techniques focusing on the overall accuracy and availability of the time synchronization system. c) d) Communications testing for connecting PMUs to other devices including Phasor Data Concentrators (PDCs).
IEEE Std C37.242-2013 IEEE Guide for Synchronization, Calibration, Testing, and Installation of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) for Power System Protection and Control
1.2 Purpose
This guide is intended to be used by power system protection professionals for PMU installation and covers the requirements for synchronization of field devices and connection to other devices including PDCs.
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies. IEC 61850-3, Communication Networks and Systems in SubstationsPart 3: General Requirements. 1 IEC/TR 61850-90-5, Ed. 1.0, Communication networks and systems for power utility automation Part 90-5: Use of IEC 61850 to transmit synchrophasor information according to IEEE C37.118. IEEE Std 1588-2008, IEEE Standard for a Precision Clock Synchronization Protocol for Networked Measurement and Control Systems. 2, 3 IEEE Std C37.118-2005, IEEE Standard for Synchrophasors for Power Systems. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, IEEE Standard for Synchrophasor Measurements for Power Systems. IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011, IEEE Standard for Synchrophasor Data Transfer for Power Systems. IEEE Std C37.233-2009, IEEE Guide for Power System Protection Testing. IEEE Std C37.238-2011, IEEE Standard Profile for Use of IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol in Power System Applications. IEEE Std C57.13, IEEE Standard Requirements for Instrument Transformers. IRIG Standard 200-04 (2004), IRIG Serial Time Code Formats, Telecommunications and Timing Group, Range Commanders Council, U.S. Army White Sands Missile Range, NM, USA. 4
3. Definitions, special terms, acronyms, and abbreviations

These definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations are especially pertinent to GPS-synchronized devices, communications protocols, and communications media.
IEC publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States from the American National Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/). 2 IEEE publications are available from The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://standards.ieee.org/). 3 The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 4 This document available for download at http://www.irigb.com/pdf/wp-irig-200-04.pdf.
3.1 Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards Dictionary Online should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause. 5 Global Positioning System (GPS): A satellite-based system for providing position and time. The accuracy of GPS-based clocks can be better than 1 s. Intelligent Electronic Device (IED): A general term indicating a multipurpose electronic device typically associated with substation control and protection. Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC): A function that collects phasor data and discrete event data from PMUs and possibly from other PDCs, and transmits data to other applications. PDCs may buffer data for a short time period but do not store the data. phasor measurement unit (PMU): A device or a function in a multifuncation device that produces synchronized phasor, frequency, and rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) estimates from voltage and/or current signals and a time synchronizing signal. virtual private network (VPN): VPN is an end-to-end communications method that employs encryption and key exchange as the security mechanism. VPNs can be established over either public or private networks. Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS): One or more networks of measuring devices that may include phasor measurement unit (PMUs), local recorders, legacy equipment, or advanced technologies that are Global Positioning System (GPS)-synchronized over a geographically diverse area.
3.2 Special terms

error: In this guide, error is the difference between the result of a measurement and the value of what is generally called the true value (of the measurand). uncertainty: A parameter, associated with the result of a measurement, that characterizes the dispersion of the values that could reasonably be attributed to the measurand. Uncertainty of measurement is conventionally divided into two components. Type A uncertainty may be evaluated from the statistical distribution of the results of a series of measurements. Statistical processing can be used to reduce the value of this kind of uncertainty. Type B uncertainty can be evaluated from assumed probability distributions based on knowledge from other than that from the measurements, such as the manufacturers specifications, reference data from handbooks or calibration certificates.
3.3 Acronyms and abbreviations

CT CVT DFR DUT current transformer capacitive voltage transformer digital fault recorder device under test
5 IEEE Standards Dictionary Online subscription is available at: http://www.ieee.org/portal/innovate/products/standard/standards_dictionary.html.
FPS GNSS PMU PT ROCOF TVE VT
frames per second Global navigation satellite system phasor measurement unit potential transformer rate of change of frequency total vector error voltage transformer
Refer to IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 and IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 for additional acronyms and abbreviations. 6
4. Synchronization techniques, accuracy, and availability
4.1 Introduction
This clause reviews the main technologies available to synchronize geographically distributed PMUs, and the basic principles of clock synchronization and its impact on the phasor measurement accuracy. This clause also examines common synchronization sources for time referencing, including both satellite (e.g., GPS) and terrestrial [e.g., Precision Time Protocol (PTP)] based technologies. The main advantages (e.g., timing accuracy) and potential vulnerabilities (e.g., susceptibility to intentional and unintentional interference) of these techniques are also reported. This clause also presents testing procedures (e.g., periodic timing signals measurement, measurement of two consecutive timing signals) aimed at assessing the main performance characteristics of synchronization sources (e.g., short-term stability, bad data management, hand-off algorithm). Lastly, the synchronization distribution infrastructure is also discussed within this clause.
4.2 Role of time synchronization in PMUs

The clocks used for time synchronization in PMUs are required to be very accurate. However, their accuracy may vary over time due to manufacturing defects, changes in temperature, electric and magnetic interference, oscillator age, and altitude. Additionally, even small errors in timekeeping can add up significantly over a long period. Careful work and analysis is required to describe and quantify performance of timing in PMU systems, to meet the accuracy requirements of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. Some clock variations are random, caused by environmental or electronic variations; others are systematic, caused by a miscalibrated or misconfigured clock. Correct operation of a PMU requires a common and accurate timing reference. The timing reference is described in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, which establishes the relationship between the Coordinated
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Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
Universal Time (UTC) time scale and the phase of the reference cosine wave. The required performance could be realized by either synchronizing the samples directly to the timing reference or by software-based post processing of the acquired samples. To achieve a common timing reference for the PMU acquisition process, it is essential to have a source of accurate timing signals (i.e., synchronizing source) that may be internal or external to the PMU. In the first case the synchronization source is integrated (built-in) into the PMU (external GPS antenna still required). In the latter case, the timing signal is provided to the PMU by means of an external source, which may be local or global, and a distribution infrastructure (based on broadcast or direct connections). The timing signal generated by the synchronizing source must be referenced to UTC and provide enough information to determine that the time is in agreement with UTC. The synchronization signal must also be available without interruption at all measurement locations throughout the interconnected grid. The timing signal should be characterized by the availability, reliability, and accuracy suitable for power system requirements. The timing signal should be accurate enough to allow the PMUs to maintain synchronism with an accuracy sufficient to keep the total vector error (TVE) within the limits defined in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 (see 4.3 of that standard for discussion). The PMU is required to detect a loss of time synchronization that would cause the TVE to exceed the allowable limit, or within 1 min of an actual loss of synchronization, whichever is less (IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011, 4.5). In this case a flag in the PMU data output (STAT word Bit 13) should be asserted until the data acquisition is resynchronized to the required accuracy level. In addition to the STAT word Bit 13, IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 specifies further signals intended to describe the time quality of the synchronization source. Each of the PMU output messages defined (Configurations 1, 2, and 3, Header, and Data) have a time quality field of 4 bits. This field allows the PMU to state the quality of the time source from clock locked, 1 ns to 10 s uncertainty (estimated worst-case error), or clock failure. Also, the Data message STAT has two bits to indicate the length of time the clock has been unlocked. This varies from locked to unlocked for more than 10 s, 100 s, or more than 1000 s. Even though a clock may be unlocked for over 1000 s, a quality oscillator is able to maintain better that 1 s accuracy over this period. Consult the clock manufacturer's documentation for its drift specification. IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 adds a 3-bit PMU Time quality field to the status word in place of a previously unused security bit field. When used, this field indicates the uncertainty in the measurement time at the time of measurement and indicates time quality at all times, both when locked and unlocked, and unknown when the clock is starting up.
4.3 Satellite-based synchronizing sources

This subclause summarizes the main technologies that could be adopted for PMU synchronization. The following figures of merit have been considered in assessing the performances of the synchronization source technologies (Lilley, Church, Harrison) [B37]) 7: Accuracy: The degree of conformance between the measured synchronization signal and its true value. Availability: The capability of the synchronization system to provide usable timing services within the specified coverage area. Continuity: The probability that the synchronization system will be available for the duration of a phase of operation, presuming that the system was available at the beginning of that phase of operation. The factors that affect availability also affect continuity.
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex A.
Reliability: The probability that a synchronization system will perform its function within defined performance limits for a specified period of time under given operating conditions. It is a function of the frequency with which failures occur within the synchronization system. Integrity: The ability of the synchronization system to detect the timing signals degradation and provide timely warnings to users. Coverage: The geographical area in which the application-specific synchronization system requirements for accuracy, availability, continuity, reliability, integrity, and coverage parameters are satisfied at the same time. System geometry, signal power levels, receiver sensitivity, atmospheric noise conditions, and other factors that affect signal availability influence coverage. Ride-through capability: The clock accuracy that is maintained and for how long upon loss of satellite synchronization
4.3.1 Satellite navigation systems The carrier signals transmitted by Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) disseminate precise time, time intervals, and frequency over wide geographic areas. GNSS is a generic term. It may be noted that not all systems are equivalent in satellite orbits or time accuracy. Satellite-based timing signals are particularly suitable for PMU applications, since they make possible accurate synchronization without requiring the PMU user to deploy the users own primary time and time dissemination systems. At the same time, GNSS systems provide intrinsic advantages such as wide area coverage, easy access to remote sites, and adaptability to changing network patterns... Global Positioning System (GPS) is a U.S. Department of Defense satellite-based radio navigation system. It consists of 24 satellites arrayed to provide a minimum worldwide visibility of four satellites at all times. GPS derives its timing from a ground-based clock ensemble that itself is referenced to UTC. Each satellite provides a correction to UTC time that the receiver automatically applies to the outputs. The GPS satellites broadcast on two carrier frequencies: the L1 at 1575.42 MHz, and the L2 at 1227.60 MHz. Each satellite broadcasts a spread-spectrum waveform called a pseudorandom noise (PRN) code on L1 and L2, and each satellite is identified by the PRN code it transmits (Lombardi et al. [B38]). At this time, GPS is the most common source of time synchronization for synchrophasor systems. Timing accuracy is limited by short-term signal reception whose basic accuracy is 0.2 s. This accuracy can be improved by advanced decoding and processing techniques, giving actual performance orders of magnitude better than required for PMU application. The inherent availability, redundancy, reliability, and accuracy make it a system well suited for synchronized phasor measurement systems (Holbert, Heydt, Ni [B25] and IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011). The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) provides similar capabilities to GPS. Sporadic funding, and the resulting inconsistent satellite coverage, have hampered widespread acceptance of the GLONASS system, although it is in some ways superior to GPS with respect to accuracy (Dickerson [B13]). These systems, and others to come on line in the future, provide timing accuracy that easily exceeds the needs of the power industry. Future development in receiver technology is expected to provide the ability to receive signals from two or more GNSS systems, though existing receivers generally are limited to a single system. Specifically, international cooperation efforts have led to new GPS and GLONASS signals for new satellite deployments.
4.3.2 Timing errors Timing errors in systems that use satellite-based synchronization may be caused by various sources, including uncompensated antenna cable delays and distribution delays (delay of clock output signals going to PMUs). Uncorrected delays cause errors in the received timing signals at the PMU. The magnitude of the errors can be estimated by dividing the electrical length of the cable with the propagation velocity of the signal along the cable (approximately 3 ns/mit may take slightly longer time for high-dielectric cables, and typically 5 ns/m for signals through optical fibers). The errors must be compensated in power-system applications if they introduce uncertainties not consistent for the desired level of performance. Loss of signal from one or more satellites (perhaps due to antenna problems or even birds) can also reduce the timing accuracy, but since the PMU receiver has a known location, it may be possible to lock this position so that an accurate time may be provided even with only one satellite visible. 4.3.3 Systems vulnerabilities Satellite-based synchronization systems rely on information transfer over the airwaves. The wireless nature of satellite communications links and the weak power levels of received GNSS signals make them vulnerable to radio-frequency interference (RFI). Any electromagnetic radiation source can act as an interference source, if it can potentially emit radio signals in the GNSS frequency bands. The disruption mechanisms that could limit the GNSS performance can be classified as the following: a) Ionospheric effects: Sunspot activity causes an increase in the solar fluxcharged particles and electromagnetic rays emitted from the Sun. This solar flux affects the ionosphere and influences the transit time of satellite signals through the ionosphere. Consequently the receiver equipment may experience degraded performance in tracking of the satellites due to scintillations, rapidly varying amplitude and phase of the satellite signal. The equatorial and high latitude regions are most severely affected by this increased ionospheric activity (Orpen, Zwaan [B57], Volpe [B60]).
b) Unintentional interference: If the line of sight to satellites is restricted (e.g., in urban areas, near or under foliage), the synchronization signal quality could deteriorate for short or long periods of time. It is important to have realistic expectations of GNSS availability under conditions where there is not a clear view of the sky. c) Radio-frequency interference: RFI is caused by electronic equipment radiating in the GNSS frequency band (e.g., television/radio broadcast transmitters, mobile phones). Although transmission is designed to not interfere with GNSS signals, it can radiate at the same frequency as the GNSS signals if it is faulty or badly operated. This interference, if powerful enough, can lead to degradation of the GNSS signal received.
d) Intentional interference: Received GNSS signals are extremely weak and can therefore be deliberately jammed by radio interference. The levels of interference needed to jam a typical consumer GNSS receiver are quite low, and jamming equipment can be small. Further intentional interference could be induced by: 1) 2) 3) SpoofingCounterfeit signals MeaconingDelay, interception, and/or rebroadcast of navigational signals System damage
4.3.4 Countermeasures The main strategies that could be adopted to protect GNSS receivers from RFI attacks are based on the principle of raising the power levels required by the jammers to disrupt the receivers. This makes attacks
too expensive, unsustainable in terms of the power required to run, or easily detectable and therefore readily intercepted. Mitigation strategies, such as physically shielding the GNSS receivers antenna from interference sources, rely on prior knowledge of the location of the interference but may be useful under some circumstances. Intentional spoofing is much harder to mitigate. There are methods to test and mitigate spoofing, which are telecommunications technology related and are not addressed in this guide (Wesson, Shepard, Humphreys [B61]). The use of modular and flexible synchronization systems, including multiple external timing signals and local oscillators, can provide a high degree of redundancy to increase reliability and accuracy of the overall synchronization system. 4.3.5 Performance testing The performance of commercially available GNSS receivers may vary depending on the receiver hardware and software architecture. For example: Satellite selection: Receivers could adopt different algorithms to automatically select the satellites used in the timing solution (e.g., the satellites providing the best geometric dilution; see Mills [B51]). Moreover, each algorithm could be characterized by a different set of thresholds defining the condition for keeping, dropping or acquiring a satellite. Therefore, different receivers can obtain different results even when connected to the same antenna in the same location. Short-term stability: This is influenced by the hardware architecture of the receiver. In particular, receivers integrating a satellite disciplined oscillator (e.g., an oven-controlled quartz oscillator or a rubidium oscillator) exhibit improved short-term stability. To avoid perfect lineup between sampling frequency and satellite spreading code, an alternative technique currently adopted in commercial receivers is based on the employment of a temperature controlled crystal oscillator for down-sampling of the satellite signals. This type of receiver accumulates time errors until the total error reaches a maximum value (i.e., a multiple of the half period of the oscillator), and then generates a phase step that reduces the time error to a minimum. Some receivers step phase in increments of 100 ns (or less) or 1 s (or larger) (Lombardi et al. [B38], Mills [B51]). Consequently, the short-term stability of these receivers could vary significantly (although their long term performance may be equivalent to models integrating a disciplined oscillator). Hand-off algorithm: Since the satellite position within the range of the GNSS receiver changes with time as the satellite movements changes the position, various hand-off strategies may be implemented in the receivers. The application will determine the level of knowledge and testing needed by the user. Bad data management: Receivers manage satellite broadcast errors in different ways. Although some receivers are equipped by specific software routines able to remove bad data, they might fail under certain critical conditions (Lombardi et al. [B38], Mills [B51]).
Therefore in order to assess the performances of GNSS receivers applied in PMU time synchronization, detailed experimental testing is necessary. 4.3.6 Experimental tests The minimum set of measures may include tests of the Time to First Fix (TTFF), drift tests (time drift rate after loss of satellite signals), and position accuracy/repeatability. Other tests that may be performed are more suited in a laboratory environment.
TTFF accuracy measurements are most important in the design validation stage of a GPS receiver. The most common TTFF conditions are as follows: Cold start: The receiver must download almanac ephemeris information to achieve a position fix. Warm start: The receiver has some almanac information that is less than one week old, but does not have any ephemeris information. Hot start: The receiver has up-to-date almanac and ephemeris information. In this scenario, the receiver only needs to obtain timing information from each satellite to return its position fix location.
In most cases, TTFF and position accuracy are specified at a specific power level. It is worth noting that it is valuable to verify the accuracy of both of these specifications under a variety of circumstances. To perform both TTFF and position accuracy measurements, three different sources of data could be adopted: a) c) Live data where the receiver is set up in its deployment environment with an antenna. Simulated data where an RF generator is used to simulate the exact time-of-week when live data was recorded. When testing a receiver with three different sources of data, it is necessary to verify that the measurements from each source are both repeatable and correlated with other data sources.
b) Recorded data where a receiver is tested with an RF signal that was recorded off of the air.
4.4 Terrestrial systems

Synchronizing signals may also be disseminated using terrestrial systems (e.g., radio broadcasts, microwave, and fiber-optic systems). Network Time Protocol (NTP) is a robust and mature technology for synchronizing a set of network clocks; however, its performance is inadequate for typical PMU timing by several orders of magnitude. A time distribution protocol called Precision Time Protocol (PTP) is also available now. PTP Version 2 is specified in IEEE Std 1588-2008, and its profile for power system applications is specified in IEEE Std C37.238-2011. IEEE Std C37.238-2011 requires time distribution with 1 s time accuracy over 16 network hops (Annex B). At the top of time distribution chain, there is a grandmaster clock that synchronizes the clocks in the entire system to UTC. Each device in the time distribution chain (including Ethernet switches) is required to support IEEE C37.238-2011 to achieve 1 s time accuracy. Ethernet switches supporting IEEE C37.238-2011 should perform measurements and corrections for cable delay and residence time (e.g., variable time in which a synchronization message spends inside an Ethernet switch due to queuing and other processing delays). IEEE Std C37.238-2011 and IEEE Std 1588 do not operate over wireless networks at this time. IEEE C37.238 distribution technology offers 1 s time accuracy for PMU applications, the use of the same communications infrastructure (Ethernet) for PMU/PDC data and time distribution, and reduced use of GPS connectivity whenever possible. Due to these benefits a rapid adoption of this technology is expected.
4.5 Synchronization distribution methods

IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 requires a PMU to be synchronized to UTC time. UTC time synchronization may be delivered to the PMU by using, for example: IRIG-B: The IRIG-B time code is fully described in IRIG Standard 200-04. It repeats each second and has a total of 100 bits per second. Some of these are framing (sync) bits, some are assigned for time, and some are available for control functions. IRIG-B code may be used in either logic-level (unmodulated) format or as an amplitude-modulated signal with a 1 kHz carrier (Dickerson [B13]). IRIG signal is generally capable of accuracy exceeding The modulated 1 ms (one period of 1 kHz), but not usually better than 10 s. The unmodulated IRIG-B code can deliver accuracy limited only by the slew rate of the digital signal, usually better than 1 s. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 defines use of the control bits in the IRIG message to provide extensions for real-time applications: leap second and daylight savings or summer time status; year of century; and time quality. These extensions are generally required to meet the requirements of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. 1 PPS: a one pulse per second positive pulse with the rising edge on time with the second change provides precise time synchronization (IEEE Std C37.118-2005). However, since each pulse is identical there is no way of knowing which second a pulse is associated with. Resolving this ambiguity requires a simultaneous data channel. IEEE 1588: IEEE Std 1588-2008 specifies a PTP and IEEE Std C37.238-2011 specifies an IEEE 1588 profile for power system applications, such as PMU. PTP distributes precise time over Ethernet-based networks over multiple network hops and requires special hardware support at each Ethernet port to achieve high time accuracy. Messages containing precise actual time are transmitted once per second. By adding dedicated timing hardware to each port in a data network, the time of transmission and reception of certain messages can be determined with accuracy sufficient to transfer time with performance comparable to that of an IRIG-B or 1 PPS signal. The protocol supports corrections for variable cable and processing delays in intermediate devices (e.g., Ethernet switches). The protocol needs to be supported by all devices in time distribution chain to achieve 1 s time accuracy. IEEE Std C37.238-2011 specifies extensions for real-time applications: leap second and daylight savings, local time (if needed), and time quality. In addition a flag that indicates if provided time is traceable to UTC is supported. These extensions are generally required to meet the requirements of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011.
5. Synchrophasor measurement accuracy characterization
5.1 Introduction
The overall objective of this clause is to provide a method by which users can assess the overall accuracy of the instrumentation channel including their selected instrument transformers and GPS-synchronized phasor measurement equipment. To do this, users should define accuracy characterization tests to be performed on GPS-synchronized equipment, which will provide the necessary information to make informed decisions as to the quality of data obtained with these units. Users should also determine the level of inaccuracy injected into the measurements from instrumentation channels and provide methodologies to quantify this inaccuracy. Sources of error include instrumentation channel characteristics, GPS-equipment characteristics, and system asymmetries. 10
The characterization process is separated into two parts, as follows: Accuracy for power frequency data (fundamental frequency phasors) Accuracy during dynamic changes
5.2 Data accuracy characterization

The purpose of the instrumentation channel is to provide isolation from the high-voltage power system and to reduce the voltages and currents to standard instrumentation level. Figure 1 illustrates the devices forming voltage and current channels typically found in electric power substations. Ideally, it is expected that the instrumentation channel will produce at the output a waveform that will be an exact replica of the high voltage or current and scaled by a constant factor. In reality, the instrumentation channel introduces an error. Specifically, each device in this chain, namely, instrument transformers, control cables, burdens, filters, and analog-to-digital (A/D) converters, may contribute to some degree to signal degradation. Furthermore, the error introduced by one device may be affected by interactions with other devices of the channel. It may thus be important to characterize the overall channel error.
Figure 1 Typical voltage/potential and current instrumentation channels The first link in the instrumentation channel equipment chain consists of voltage and current transformers (CTs), collectively called instrument transformers. These devices transform power system voltages and currents to levels appropriate for driving relays, fault recorders and other monitoring equipment, isolated from the original quantities. Several instrument transformer technologies are presently in use. The most common devices are potential or voltage transformers (PTs or VTs) and CTs based on magnetic core transformer technology. Another type of commonly used voltage transducer is the coupling capacitor voltage transformers (CCVT), based on a combination of a capacitive voltage divider and a magnetic core transformer. Voltage and current instrument transformers have also been constructed based on the electrooptical and magneto-optical phenomena. These devices are known as optical voltage transformers (OVT) and optical current transformers (OCT). There are also other sensor and transducer technologies available for voltage and current measurement (e.g., Rogowski coils and Hall-effect devices). While reference is 11
made to some of these newer types of instrument transformers, this guide mainly focuses on VT, CT, and CCVT devices. These varieties of primary sensors allow us to classify instrumentation channels into five common categories, depending on the instrument transformer used, as follows: a) c) e) CT-based instrumentation channel CCVT-based instrumentation channel OCT-based instrumentation channel
b) Wound-type VT-based instrumentation channel d) OVT-based instrumentation channel
Although this guide provides information of possible sources of error for each one of the five generic categories listed above, focusing on the top three as the most commonly used instrument transformers, it is important to realize that each of these categories may have several options (e.g., a CT-based instrumentation channel may be implemented with different accuracy class CTs, see IEEE Std C57.13).
5.3 Data accuracy

GPS-synchronized equipment has the capability to provide a data acquisition system with the following accuracy: a) Time tagging with accuracy better than 1 s (or equivalently 0.02 degrees of phase at 60 Hz).
b) Magnitude accuracy of 0.1% or better. This accuracy may not be available in all GPS-synchronized equipment. Even for the equipment that conforms to IEEE Std C37.118-1-2011, this accuracy cannot be achieved for the overall system in any practical application (e.g., in the substation environment). In addition, depending on the implementation approach and equipment used, the accuracy of the collected data and the reliability of the data availability may differ. Typical GPS-synchronized equipment (PMU) are very accurate devices. However, the inputs to this equipment are scaled down voltages and current via instrument transformers, control cables, attenuators, etc., collectively referred to as the instrumentation channel. The instrumentation channel components are typically less accurate. Specifically, potential and current instrument transformers may introduce magnitude and phase errors that can be orders of magnitude higher than the typical PMU accuracy. Although high accuracy laboratory grade instrument transformers are available, their application in the substation environment is practically and economically infeasible. Note that for most of the CT, VT, CCVT, etc., in substations, the associated secondary circuit wiring (significant component of the instrumentation channel) is not normally instrumentation class wiring. In many cases, this wiring is control type cabling (non-twisted pairs) and is often unshielded. Often changes are made to these secondary circuits that affect the overall secondary circuit burden (e.g., adding or replacing relays or other devices when electromechanical or static equipment is used, which has a high burden), without a detailed engineering analysis of the impact on high accuracy applications such as the PMU installation. This problem does not exist when the modern microprocessor relays are used because they have a very low burden. The use of isolating switches, the application of grounds on these secondary circuits, and the presence of nonlinear burdens are a few of the items that can have a significant impact on the accuracy of the instrumentation channel. In some jurisdictions, utility regulators have mandated the use of dedicated instrument transformers for revenue or tie line metering (including those located in high-voltage substations) as well as the application of specific design and testing criteria for the associated secondary circuit wiring. In at least one jurisdiction, 12
this secondary wiring is secured to help ensure that other devices (burdens) are not inadvertently connected, either permanently or temporarily. In other words, the instrument transformer secondary circuit is carefully designed and tested (measuring actual burdens), and, then, access is controlled to help ensure the ongoing accuracy of the overall revenue metering installation. With many users in the long term, there is a risk that the presence of PMUs may be overlooked when changes are made to the secondary circuits of shared use instrument transformers. Care should be taken to avoid such inadvertent impact on the accuracy of individual PMU installations. The previously described issues are some of the commonly practiced considerations for the purpose of assessing the quality of data from PMUs.
5.4 Characterization of instrumentation channels

High-voltage instrumentation channels introduce errors to phasor measurements. The level of error is dependent upon the type of instrument transformers, control cable type and length, and protection circuitry at the input of the PMUs. Table 1 illustrates an example of the errors for a specific VT instrumentation channel with 500 ft of cable between the VT secondary and a PMU. Note that the VT introduces a very small error (0.01 degrees), while the 500 ft cable introduces an error of 0.54 degrees. The overall error is more than an order of magnitude higher than the error of a typical PMU. Table 1 Representative instrumentation channel errorsexample with 500 ft of cable between VT secondary and PMU
Primary voltage Van Vbn Vcn 62.53 kV 27.52 62.96 kV 92.68 62.33 kV 147.46 VT secondary voltage 62.19 V 27.51 62.61 V 92.70 61.99 V 147.45 Error 0.68% 0.01 0.55% 0.02 0.54% 0.01 PMU input voltage 61.63 V 27.11 63.09V 92.85 61.72 V 148.00 Error 1.44% 0.41 0.2% 0.17 0.98% 0.54
Depending on the instrumentation channel, characterization of these errors may be possible. Meliopoulos, Cokkinides [B45] provides some additional information. In addition to actual field calibration, in many cases these errors may be accounted for and corrected via software. The following two software approaches are considered: a) Modeling the instrumentation channel and providing model based correction algorithms
b) Using state estimation methods to correct the error A combination of these two approaches has advantages. Addressing this issue is important for overall accuracy. Annex C and Annex D provide examples of instrumentation channel characterization and the effects on the overall accuracy of the GPS-synchronized measurements. Further work is recommended to develop methods for characterizing the instrumentation channel errors, and algorithms to correct for these errors. GPS-synchronized equipment may also be connected to existing instrumentation in substations that may serve other purposes (e.g., metering). For example, the instrument transformers may be connected in an
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arrangement that generates a phase shift (e.g., delta connection). The resulting phase shift must be accounted for. Optical CTs and VTs present an opportunity for more accurate measurement because of their inherently linear response. Nevertheless, in case of optical CTs and VTs having analog outputs, the analog interface device, i.e., the electronic equipment associated with converting the optical CT/VT measurements to analog output signals, must be qualified for PMU related applications. Refer to IEEE Std C37.233-2009 for information related to optical sensor characterization and testing. The interface device introduces signalprocessing and conversion latency, typically in the order of few tens of microseconds (equivalent to TVE of 1% to 4% if not compensated for). There are methods to compensate for delays associated with this signal conversion, either in the optical CT/VT analog interface device (preferred), or within the PMU. For example, adjusted time tagging within the PMU (i.e., subtracting sensor latency before generating the PMU time stamp) can yield very accurate synchrophasor data. Ultimately, optical sensors providing digital output may be more suited for PMU applications than analog outputs. IEC 61850-9-2 allows for suitable digital outputs from the merging unit, which provide digital time-tagged measurements of voltage and current signal waveforms with the signal processing delays already accounted for (within the accuracy specification of the digital instrument transformer). In these cases, the PMU function will be a simple mathematical conversion from sampled values to synchrophasor data through a purely digital algorithm (no analog-to-digital conversion errors), with very consistent accuracy and repeatability.
5.5 Characterization of GPS-synchronized measurement devices (PMUs)

Equipment for synchronized measurements from various vendors may have different designs and, therefore, different ways of data acquisition and processing and different accuracy characteristics. It is expected that devices conforming to IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 will have matching characteristics and perform similarly within the allowed error limits. It is additionally possible for a user to identify specific application requirements and coordinate expected performance with manufacturers. Full characterization of a GPS-synchronized device should include error analysis of both timing accuracy and magnitude accuracy over a generally accepted range of operating conditions defined in terms of frequency, frequency rate of change, voltage magnitudes, current magnitudes, harmonics, and imbalances. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 defines the standard and testing ranges and limits.
5.6 GPS-synchronized equipment reliability

Reliability data for GPS-synchronized equipment are scarce. The few in-service reliability data available from first-generation equipment may not be representative of the present technology. Nevertheless, we have included Table 2 to illustrate reliability data for some PMUs on the western system (North America) over a two-month period in 2002. The synchrophasor system performance analysis typically includes recording of data loss, signal loss, and PMU time-synchronization failures. In Table 2, signal reliability is the percent of time the system continuously received data from the PMU. Sync reliability is the percent of time the PMU is synchronized with a GPS. Note that the few available data indicate that most of the unreliability is due to the GPS signal availability. It should be emphasized that device quality might have improved significantly since 2002, and many new devices and systems provide much better reliability. This example is only a reference. System reliability additionally depends on system architecture, which, in turn, is influenced by system requirements and purpose.
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Table 2 Synchrophasor system performance for a random two-month period in 2002

Station PMU GCoul JDay Malin Colstrip BigEddy MValley Keeler Reliability (%) Signal 97.52 99.929 99.997 99.82 99.99 99.983 99.996 Sync 99.974 99.996 93.74 100 99.988 99.74 99.95 Notes PMU failed after 2 days Normal, modem PMU clock failure Communications system problems Normal, fiber, digital PMU clock problems Normal, modem
6. PMU installation, commissioning, and maintenance
6.1 Preface
This clause discusses recommendations for PMU installation, and is based on general installation requirements for PMUs and typical substation configurations. The information found in this clause is only considered a starting point, and is expected to be expanded and modified as applications are expanded.
6.2 Overview
A PMU installation requires access to the power system signals to be measured and a time signal to timestamp the measurements (see Figure 2). It also requires a communications system to transmit the measurements to a remote location in real time, at the PMU reporting rate and matching the format and the interface. In some cases, the PMU will have status inputs (Boolean 1 or 0) or other measured value (analog) inputs such as temperature, wind speed, or power factor. PMU communication provides support for analog and digital data as well as phasor, frequency, and rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) data. Access to these signals will depend on the situation, but needs to be considered at the planning and specification stages. See IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 for more detail on synchrophasors.
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Figure 2 Representative (example) PMU system showing major elements
6.3 Pre-installation procedures

6.3.1 Installation design In most cases, a PMU installation is considered a permanent installation and requires a complete design. Following are supplementary guidelines to help scope a project and proceed with the design. Typical design includes selection of power system sources, inputs, outputs, alarms, absolute time source, and communications interfaces. Some of the key components of a typical PMU are described in the following subclauses. 6.3.2 Timing input Timing accuracy is critical. The choice of hardware, antenna location, cabling, and routing of the cable are therefore critical in the overall design of the PMU system. For a GPS system, an antenna open to GPS satellites should have a clear sky view (free from obstructions) above about a 10 degree elevation, so that some satellites are always in view. In cases where this is difficult to achieve, some compromise is possible because the PMU internal clock should be able to ride through complete or intermittent loss of GPS synchronization. When available, it is recommended that the GPS clock be configured with its position LOCKED (a setting in some GPS clocks). With the position LOCKED, the GPS clock can deliver accurate time with only one satellite visible / receivable. Figure 3 shows recommended antenna mountings. In the northern hemisphere most of the signals will come from the south (see Figure 4). It is expected that there may be obstructions that obscure the sky within ten degrees of the horizon. Above that, good visibility of the sky should be achievable.
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Figure 3 Recommended antenna mounting locations
Figure 4 Example of GPS signal visibility pattern reflecting the orbit for various satellites Figure 4(a) shows what is called a sky plot or a polar plot of the satellite orbits. It indicates the trajectories of the GPS satellites for a day, essentially the view from a fish-eye lens gazing upward. This particular plot is based on a latitude of 45 degrees north (about the latitude of Minneapolis), so the satellites trajectories across the sky are predominantly to the south. (The satellites would appear to rise in the east and set to the south, or rise in the south and set to the east. At this assumed latitude, some do go directly overhead. If the location were further north, the hole in the plot would move down the diagram, as no satellites would go directly overhead.) Figure 4(b) shows the time of day that the various satellites would be visible. At any latitude, at least six satellites should be in the sky at all times, and at this latitude, the number is often as many as nine. In the northern hemisphere, the antenna should be mounted with a clear view to the south. Small obstructions more than half a meter away from the antenna will not cause a problem, but a large flat obstruction within a few hundred meters could act as a reflector and cause multi-path problems. Check around the mounting location for a structure, such as a flat metal roof, that is oriented so it can reflect a satellite signal to the antenna (keeping in mind satellites will traverse most points in the sky). Also check for obstructions that can block the signal, and high power signal sources that can saturate the GPS input. The most reliable antenna mounting option is an open air sky-view installation.
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The satellite synchronization signal (center frequency) is transmitted in the 1 GHz to 2 GHz range, which attenuates rapidly in a cable. Most device suppliers recommend limiting cable runs to less than 50 m. There are alternatives for longer cable distances, such as high-gain antenna or in-line amplifiers and low-loss cable. It is common practice to compensate the time signal to address delays and latency associated with the length of the antenna cable. The cable length could be a straight run from the antenna to the clock receiver and/or the distance within the control room to distribute the clock signal. Cable delay compensation and/or clock offset are also available in some clocks. When substations do not have adequate lightening protection that includes the antenna location, such as at distribution substations or pole line locations, it is advisable to incorporate a lightning arrestor into the antenna design. It is common practice to use a signal source that will provide the required signals at the accuracy the PMU requires for meeting timing requirements. Some PMUs input time from a local source, such as a GPS receiver or clock server, using a local signal type such as IRIG-B, 1 PPS, or IEEE 1588. Some of these signals degrade rapidly. Delays are associated with the dielectric constants (i.e., capacitance of cable) and the length of the transmission medium. Therefore, excessive cable runs should be avoided. When using this type of PMU, consult the vendors as to what signals they require and whether the delays are compensated. For example, IRIG-B may be specified and can be used in any of its modulated forms, but the dc level-shift or the modified-Manchester coding forms will allow the highest accuracy. The example shown in Figure 5 uses Manchester time coding.
Figure 5 Example showing forms of IRIG-B comparing the unmodulated (level shift) B000, 1 kHz modulated B120, and modified Manchester B200 A GPS-fed clock can potentially serve a number of devices using one IRIG-B output port. The number of clients (users) that a clock can serve depends on both the drive capacity of its IRIG-B port as well as the amount of load (both capacitive and resistive) that the devices connected to the clock represent. The cabling, associated routing, and termination methods also affect the clock loading. To design a highly reliable timing circuit, product specifications should be studied and respective manufacturers may be consulted. Some of the key factors to consider are the following:
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Load and capacitance of the wire/cableuse ultra low capacitance cables. For example, twistedpair usually has lower capacitance than coaxial cable; Cumulative sum of the loads represented by input impedances of all clock clients (PMU and nonPMU) and the associated cabling should not be larger than the clocks output port (IRIG-B port) output serving capacity with some safety margin (e.g., more than 30% margin). The impact or presence of redundant clock architecture should be considered. For example, if the application has primary and alternate clock provisions into the respective device input, both clocks need to have similar port output ratings.
The use of fiber-optic time distribution may overcome several of the issues previously referenced. Signal propagation in cabling should be considered and corrected for longer cables (on the order of 1 ns/ft or 3 ns/m of delay for electrical cables and 5 ns/m for glass optical fibers). Also, dispersion in longer cable length (depending on the amount of effective impedance/capacitance) will be seen as slowing down the rise-time of the clock pulse edge received by the PMU. Accordingly, minimizing cable lengths will be beneficial. When daisy chaining of the clock signal is considered, the user should carefully examine the devices to make sure the receiving device does not process the clock and then pass to other devices that are part of the daisy chaining. Processing time by the first device will introduce delays for the other subsequent devices that are part of the daisy chain. The type of connector, e.g., screw-terminal versus BNC, usually has negligible impactall other factors being equal. When driving several receiving devices from one time signal output, the signal level and termination should be checked to verify adequate signal amplitude and quality are available for the receiving device to lock into the timing signal. When designing the timing circuit, the substation environment and routing of the cable should also be considered. In larger substations, it may be more practical and economical to use two or more clocks and GPS antennas to serve devices in different parts of the substation as opposed to running long cables to all devices from one clock. This approach also helps with distribution of the load on a given clock. Some PMUs (and other devices) have options to accept clock signals (through IRIG-B, 1 PPS, etc.) and/or to use an internal GPS clock to provide internal timing information if connected to a GPS antenna. The choice of timing circuit depends on various factors. Generally, sharing GPS antenna signals can become complicated, especially when active antennas (antenna requiring power from the clock) are used. Accordingly, use of a PMUs internal GPS clock connected to the GPS antenna is more practical when the PMU is the only device (or one of very few devices) using the time information. In cases where absolute timing information is necessary for several devices, use of external clock connected via IRIG-B interface (or 1 PPS signal) is more practical. Use of an external clock may also facilitate on-site troubleshooting processes. It should also be noted that the naming convention for identifying a clock when using 1 PPS signal is not standardized; it is product specific. Consequently, the use of IRIG-B protocol may be more appropriate as opposed to using the 1 PPS signal for sharing clock signals. 6.3.3 Voltage and current input When possible, the PMU should be installed with test access to the PT and CT inputs so test signals can be injected for performance tests and calibration. When multiple PMU devices are installed, test procedures are required to account for the various sources of current and voltages signals.
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Good measurements require consideration of the input signal sources. PT and CT characteristics and cable coupling and other loads may lead to distortion, both in amplitude and phase. PMUs require an accurate time source to generate accurately time-stamped measurements (in accordance with standards such as IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011). The most universally available time source for this purpose is the GPS satellite system. The fundamental GPS time pulse extraction may be augmented by backup or flywheel oscillators and may be distributed to PMUs internally, by direct connection, or by network. The PMU measurement and reporting rates must be sufficient to capture the characteristics of interest. Performance standards describe necessary data rate and corresponding bandwidths, but desired parameters will dictate actual rates used. PMU full-scale ranges are a function, also, of the measurement being made and the system used. For example in steady-state configurations monitoring disturbances, full-scale settings will be different from a multifunction device performing protection or fault recording along with steadystate PMU data. User-defined scaling factors will impact resolution and dynamic range for measurement/monitoring phasor quantities. Scaling factors are application driven. For example, under certain operating conditions, when voltages up to 200% of nominal voltage are of interest, the scaling factor of 50% would be desirable and would prevent the secondary voltage measurements from being clipped. This threshold set point gives some overhead for large swings, but good resolution for nominal input. On the other hand, current values will need a much larger dynamic range. It is very important to consider references to nominal current with respect to normal currents on the primary system. When connecting current measurement inputs of the PMU to the CTs, the rating and ratio of the CTs relative to normal primary current levels should be considered. For example, at a wind farm with certain energy generation capability, the nominal primary current may be 400 A while the short circuit duties near the station may be much higher (e.g., on the order of 60 kA). In order to have adequate resolution (and accuracy) at 10% of nominal current (40 A primary), using a protection CT output (operating near 1% of its 3000 A rated value) may not be appropriate. Fault recording and relaying requires a scale that will accommodate very high currents; phasor measurements are concerned with normal operational and system swing currents that range from somewhat over nominal to light load (10% of nominal). Setting the maximum readable value at about two times nominal will give good measurements at light load and normally will cover swings. However, it may be considered more important to capture all swings and overloads at the expense of lighter loads. If synchronized measurements are desired during faults, values up to 40 per unit (pu) may be considered. Sometimes the PMU is a part of another device, such as a relay or digital fault recorder (DFR) and the calibration will be dictated by another requirement. This is a user consideration where the user needs to be aware of the tradeoffs. The PMU will also derive frequency from the ac input signals. These are fully user selectable in some PMUs and fixed in others. Some PMUs will allow selecting a backup channel when the primary one has a low signal. To provide a good frequency measurement, it is best to select a voltage input channel that has good signal strength, since these do not vary as much as currents.
6.4 Analog and digital input

Some PMUs allow connecting other measurements such as megawatt (MW) transducers, or sensors for measuring temperature or wind speed. These values will be reported along with phasor values in the time synchronized data packet, which opens up the use of phasor data for many real-time and analysis applications. Generally these data signals are easier to transmit than high-current CT circuits, but they need to be considered. When a PMU provides status inputs such a breaker status, these parameters are represented as a Boolean logic (0 or 1) single bit in a digital word. Access to these signals is usually not difficult, but again needs consideration during installation.
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6.5 Power input

Since PMUs need to operate continuously, and without interruption during disturbances, most applications are designed to connect the PMU to the station dc power. When using station dc, the impact of the dc ripple to the power supply should also be considered to make sure quality or accuracy of the measurements are not impacted. PMU Manufacturers should specify dc ripple immunity.
6.6 Communications
Communications interfaces are critical parts of phasor measurement systems. It is important to carefully plan the system and be sure all aspects are addressed. The first part will be cabling from the PMU to the communications interface device. Next will be the interface medium. The third component is the interface with the PMU. The overall system, including the application end (PDC or other devices), requires complete planning of both the physical and logical networks, both local to the substation and remote, where this Guide only discusses some of the physical design issues at the substation. IEEE Std 1615 [B31] can be consulted for logical network design issues for substation networks. Station architecture must be considered in the design of the communications interfaces. For example, when an application includes an interface with station bus, the PMU communicates with the station bus processor. Likewise, in process bus applications, the PMU interfaces perhaps through a merging unit to the local data processor. 6.6.1 Cabling Cabling is required between the PMU and the communications interface (e.g., modem, router). Cable installation recommendations can be found in IEEE Std 525 [B28] and IEEE Std 1615 [B31], where care should be taken in routing communication cables in existing cable trays. The principal issues are interference and cable length. An additional consideration is the impact of the secondary voltage during a nearby fault. When possible, use fiber-optic (FO) cable for all signals that travel outside of a single rack (grounding unit). Care should be taken with communications cable to ensure that the length does not exceed maximum specified distances, as shown in Table 3. In addition, IEEE Std 1615 should be followed regarding the application of FO and copper cabling for serial and Ethernet cables. If the signal is to run between buildings (e.g., between a control building and a communications interface building), it is best to use FO cables. In some cases, this requires signal converters at each end, but many vendors have FO communication ports built into their equipment. When metallic cables are used, considerations should be given to minimize the most likely sources of interference. Coaxial cable has good electrostatic shielding but is subject to electromagnetic interference, particularly where ground differences can occur (conduction through the ground). Shielded twisted pair (CAT5) has good rejection for both electrostatic and electromagnetic interference, but all shielding has limitations. High magnetic fields can penetrate most kinds of shielding and are best treated with appropriate grounding and bonding practices. It is best to route cables with some thought as to what is in close proximity. Also note that many substation cables are large and heavy, so they may pinch a poorly routed communications cable, which may result in loss of shielding and transmission properties. Table 3 summarizes the signal types, the recommended and practical length, and some comments. In addition to the physical installation considerations, the communication types need to match in type and rates. Some, but not all, PMUs can report at higher rates than required by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, if required by the application.
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Table 3 Recommended cable lengths for signal transmission

Signal type Asynchronous serial (EIA-232) V.35 Synchronous serial (EIA-422) Ethernet thin-net Ethernet 10BaseT Ethernet 10/100BaseT Ethernet 100BaseFX
a
Cable type Twisted pairs Twisted pairs Twisted pairs Co-axial CAT4 CAT5 FO
Recommend max length 15 m @ 20 kbps 600 m @ 100 kbps 90 m @ 10Mbps 1200 m @ 100 kbps
Interference/comments Actual length depends on cable and data rate. Standard well specified and followed. Widely used outside of U.S. Bipolar low-level signal has good transmission characteristics. Good static shielding, use tri-axial cable where there are grounding issues. Actual length depends on cable and data rate. Good shielding, move up to Cat5 for better signal Good shielding, use ruggedized version for better mechanical protection.a Best for interference rejection and avoiding grounding problems.
100 m 100 m 2 km
Standard CAT5 is unshielded twisted pair (UTP). This should be shielded twisted pair (STP).
6.6.2 Interface medium PMUs generally will have asynchronous serial (EIA-232, previously known as RS-232) or Ethernet communications. Both will handle data at the rate and block size used in most measurement systems. An interface device between the PMU and the communications system is required. The user must identify the communications medium, interface, and technology required for the particular application (e.g., whether multi-cast communications is needed). Generally, a modem translates between a digital data system and an analog communications system, and a service unit or router or bridge translates between a digital data system and a digital communications system. In either case, the PMU output is a digital data type and needs one of these devices to interface to the communications system. Most importantly, the appropriate sides of the interface have to match the PMU and communications system, and must handle the required data rate. If the PMU output is asynchronous serial, the interface must handle asynchronous serial at the given rate. See Table 4. 8 PMU communications by Ethernet match directly with digital systems and interface well with digital communications such as SONET. Ethernet-based digital systems are well developed and supported, so building these systems is generally very straightforward. Care needs to be exercised when connecting the local Ethernet system through a digital communications system (e.g., SONET), usually called the Wide Area Network (WAN) connection. The WAN needs to support the minimum data rate with some room for overhead, and the interface needs to have sufficient buffering to match WAN and Ethernet speed differences. Most of these systems currently use Internet Protocol (IP) for data communications. Building and managing these systems is centered on setting up IP hosts, subnets, and routing. Additional considerations for communications interface include data exchange with neighboring systems, neighboring countries, local independent (electricity) system operator (ISO), or at the regional levels. Depending on the application, data reliability and accuracy may be critical factors. Cyber security requirements are also important considerations when the application is considered critical. Each utility will have its own recommendations, but the use of a virtual private network (VPN) form of communications not connected to the internal Local Area Network (LAN) is one option for providing isolation and security. Care should be used when applying only VPN technology for security, as whatever traffic traverses the VPN may be inherently trusted and create a vulnerability to both connected systems.
8 Notes in text, tables, and figures of a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement this standard.
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Table 4 Examples of required data rates using IEEE C37.118 data format and protocol
30 FPS 5 phasors, no analog/digital 10 phasors, no analog/digital 5 phasors, 2 analog/ 1 digital 10 phasors, 2 analog/ 1 digital All integer format (bytes/s) 1260 1860 1440 2040 All floating-point format (bytes/s) 1980 3180 2280 3480
NOTE 1Asynchronous serial requires 10 bits/byte, so required bps rates are 10 times the above figures. NOTE 2UDP/IP over Ethernet has a fixed size overhead of 54 bytes per packet, so actual required rate is higher than that requirement above. It ranges from 23 040 bps for phasor/integer to 41 120 bps for the 10 phasor, 2 analog/1 digital/floating point shown above. NOTE 3Since data is sent continuously at the rates shown in the table, the communications channel should have a capacity at least that large, and should be at least 10% higher than the required data rate to accommodate error correction and short dropouts. The PMU port speed should likewise be equal or higher than the actual data rate. In many cases this requires high serial data rates, such as 38.4 kpbs or 57.6 kpbs. NOTE 4When TCP/IP is used, the spare bandwidth needs to be significantly larger in order to accommodate retries. Additionally, when TCP is used, the transmission data buffering needs to be large enough to accommodate the largest expected communication loss time.
6.6.3 Communication over serial port IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 and IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 define the concept of frames for transmitting data from a PMU to a PDC. The standard does not impose any restriction on the communications media itself. Basically a Configuration frame, Data frame, Header frame and a Command frame are specified. These frames have a particular structure and data type associated with them. Configuration frame, Data frame, and Command frame are binary types, while Header frame is a ASCII type. The Data frame is the most frequently transmitted message based on the PMU sample rate, and the typical size is of the order of few hundreds of bytes. The variable size in the Data frame is the number of phasors and analog and digital signals transmitted depending on the PMU capability. For example, if serial communications is chosen to transmit the PMU data, the data transfer capability depends on the baud rate of the communication port. Table 5 shows the typical data transfer capabilities, assuming that the PMU supports up to 12 phasor channels. Table 5 Estimated number of phasor channels that can be transmitted at various bit rates and PMU reporting rates over serial port, assuming that the PMU supports only up to 12 phasor channels
Bit rate (bps) 9 600 19 200 38 400 56 700 115 200
a
Reporting rate (FPS) 10 12 12 12 12 12 12 12a 12 12 12 12 15 10 a 12 12 12 12 20 6a 12 12 12 12 25 4a 12 12 12 12 30 2 10 12 12 12 50 0 4a 12 12 12 60 0 2 10 12 12
Calculated required bandwidth is numerically very close to the actual bit rate. Actual number of phasors may be less than the estimate. The above estimates were calculated for 1 start bit, 1 stop bit, 8 data bits and no parity bit, or a total of 10 bits to transmit each byte.
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6.7 Summary of design considerations

Table 6 summarizes basic design considerations in the order of importance. Since many factors impact the application, it is important to scope the entire project before deciding on equipment and design. For the overall project consideration, spare parts, training, overall cost, and company policies are equally important factors. Table 6 Summary of design considerations for PMU installation
Question
Primary source of current and voltages?
Answers
Number of available voltage sources, location of the voltage source (bus side or line side). When line voltages are used, contingencies are commonly considered in case a line is out of service. The choice of IRIG vs. GPS antenna connection is a user consideration based on the device specification. The choice of synchronization is based on the PMU designconnect IRIG-B, IEEE 1588 over Ethernet, or a GPS antenna as required by the manufacturer. Note that some devices may accept both IRIG-B and IEEE 1588 as redundant clock sources. When a GPS receiver is provided within the device, the clock is internal to the device. The mounting location for the antenna must provide for best reception of the signal. Several GPS receivers can be connected to one antenna. When using an IRIG-B input, the clock is naturally external to the PMU. It is recommended to use unmodulated IRIG-B signals as opposed to modulated IRIG-B. If system is Ethernet connected and PMU is EIA-232, make sure the interface conversion is available with type and speed required (see Table 5). If FO, will it match the PMU interface? If not FO, is the distance short enough for metallic cabling (see Table 3)?
Additional comments
Number of feeder currents needed for important power flow calculations?
Does PMU require direct GPS antenna input?
IRIG-B/1PPS signals are generally easier to route, but check wiring availability. Long cable runs or serial line drivers may cause unacceptable delays in IRIG B/1PPS signals. A suitable GPS antenna splitter is required when connecting more than one GPS receiver to a single antenna. Some antennas require preamplifier power so the receiver and splitter must be capable of routing appropriate power to the antenna.
Does the PMU output match the communications system interface? What types of communications are established within the substation?
What is the impact of including a PMU into an existing CT and PT circuits, and the additional burden impacting PMU performance?
Most PMU devices have a very low burden.
Does the application have particular filtering needs (P and M classes as defined in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011)?
Yes, be sure the PMU has settings that match or use alterable settings to satisfy the application requirements.
Other factors include grounding and shielding when metallic mediums are used. Design considerations should include methods of grounding the shield and whether the cable shield is grounded on both ends or one end. A good design with engineering calculations for the overall burden is necessary to prevent installing a PMU in a circuit that would impact performance of the PMU. When impact of the burden is high, separate sources (CTs and PTs) may have to be used or installed to achieve PMU performance. Filter in this context is in reference to P and M class. In general, microprocessor based devices may have filtering beyond the intent of the reference to the P and M classes.
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6.8 Pre-installation tests

The extent of pre-installation testing depends on power company practices. At a minimum, some quality assurance testing should be done to verify that units work in the planned system and are reasonably calibrated. Many of the tests can be performed using conventional test equipment. In addition, a risk assessment is needed to investigate worst-case problem scenarios that may occur while commissioning the PMU. A complete set of test and performance results for each PMU type must be acquired to confirm that the product meets the user specification. This testing is referred to as type test (see IEEE Std C37.233-2009 for additional information regarding different types of tests). As part of the pre-installation testing, wiring checks are performed to verify that the PMU connectivity meets the user specifications and the manufacturer-specified installation requirements. Performing some basic tests will confirm proper wiring, terminations, and grounding of the equipment mounted. Preinstallation tests for the communications components, such as cabling, will be the next step in the preinstallation test sequence. Typically, the biggest problem is data communications, so minimizing other problems ahead of time is worth the effort. Cyber security should be coordinated with testing, such that testing is done without cyber security first to confirm the PMU data flow and then later with cyber security applied to confirm the application still works when secured. Communications links should be installed and successfully tested for continuity or transport prior to the day of commissioning the PMU.
6.9 Verification of end-to-end calibration

Full calibration and characterization of the PMU and measurement system are generally performed in a lab environment where the input values can be precisely controlled. For installation, it is important to verify measurement calibration continuity from instrumentation to the end device or application. The verification will be based on the actual system signals. When the PMU installation includes test switches supervising the current and voltage inputs to the PMU, the inputs can be accurately measured, but since the real system is constantly changing, it is difficult to achieve precision. Calibrated test equipment can be used to provide test signal sources or reference measurements for validating the field installations and PMU calibrations. Application considerations may affect the type of installation testing. Other factors impacting the testing include the type of installation (e.g., Y or Delta transformer connectivity), the PMU filtering, and any instrument transformer compensation (phase or magnitude) to offset for current and VT inaccuracies. The principal points covered include the following: GPS connectivity is validated, clock is locked in, and the PMU and IRIG-B output modes are coordinated (i.e., modulated or unmodulated), and the proper UTC offset is configured on both the PMU and the clock. Accuracy of the measured quantities, and whether the values are reasonably correct. Whether the measured values are in reasonable agreement with other measurements. Whether the phase angle is consistent with other local devices for basic connectivity verification. Whether the phasing is in agreement with other devices capable of producing PMU-type values. Whether communication with other devices, or data streaming, is working properly. 25
6.9.1 Correctness of measured value A simple method of performing a check on the measured values is a comparison of the values reported by the PMU with the voltage and current measured with a calibrated meter. If the negative and zero sequence components are small, the positive sequence phasor magnitude is approximately the average of the rms values of all three phases. For a PMU with three-phase voltage and current inputs, it is best to confirm the input values when the system is in steady-state condition and large value swings are not anticipated. All three-phase voltage magnitudes are measured, with a calibrated rms meter in quick succession, and are then averaged. The averaged values are then compared against PMU secondary positive sequence values displayed by the device software or local display. The same process is generally repeated for three-phase currents. For current and voltages, the compared input and displayed values are anticipated to be within 1% to 2%. If the currents are very steady and midrange, the comparison should also be within 2%. It is a good practice to also verify the phase angle relative to a known reference and anticipate less than 2 degrees deviation between measured and displayed values. When the phase imbalance is significant (magnitude differences > 2%), it is advisable to use phase angle as well as magnitude readings to estimate the positive sequence value. 6.9.2 Comparison with other measured values For a dedicated and newly installed PMU, the measurements can be compared with other Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) connected to the same PT and CT circuits. Additionally, the phasor measurements can be compared with panel meters and transducer measurements, such as those available through the Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system. For angular measurements, some IEDs may also provide similar measurements, but state estimator (SE) values can be used as an alternative (since the angles in the SE output are only relative, angular differences between two locations in the system need to be compared). Keep in mind that the EMS measurement may be a single-phase measurement. The telemetered values may not agree very closely because of variances in technology or manufacturing, or inaccurate calibration of existing equipment. Nevertheless the comparison provides a way to check on any wiring-related problems. It is best to take the measurements when there is sufficient amount of current flowing through the portion of the system where the PMU values are monitored and wiring is being confirmed. When single-phase voltage or current measurements are available, single-phase metering is used similarly to the three-phase without averaging. It is possible that the single-phase measured values can be further off than expected. When only power measurements are available, the user can either combine the phasor current with the appropriate bus voltage and compare power, or divide a power measurement by (3 lineto-ground voltage) to determine the current. Comparison with another certified (calibrated and traceable) PMU can provide a good check of measured phase angles. It is important that the comparisons are made at the same time, since loading and angles constantly change. 6.9.3 Phasing of local signals The phasing of the signals relative to one another (as well as the polarity of the connections) should be checked. It is usually beneficial to convert the phasor values into MW and MVAR and compare with other measurements. At low values, various measurement systems may differ significantly, but anything near full scale may provide useful comparison within a few percent.
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6.9.4 System signal phasing In general within a single power company, the phase naming convention is consistent throughout the system. For example, phase-A is well defined and should be the same at all substations. One way to validate that phase-A at a new PMU installation agrees with other installations is by comparing the phase angle with the nearest installed PMU. When the PMU installations are at two adjacent stations, then the angle between them can be approximately calculated by Equation (1):
= arcsin(
where
PX ) V 1V 2
(1)
P = power flow on the line X = line reactance V1 and V2 = bus voltages Power flows from buses with leading angle to those with lagging one. The measured angle will be reasonably close to the value calculated from the power flow equation, Equation (1). Even if the stations are not adjacent, or the parameters are not well known, the measurement phasing can be confirmed using a heuristic approach and applying the following rules: Power flows from buses with leading angles to those with lagging angles. By noting the power flow in the area between the stations being compared, if it is notably flowing from one to the other, the angle polarity should be consistent with power flow direction. If there is little power flow, the distance is short, or the impedance is low, the angle will be small. Higher voltage systems have lower impedance. Multiple lines or a meshed grid have lower impedance. If the stations are fairly close (within 300 km), expect an angle of 30 degrees or less. If they are more distant, it could be higher (possibly more than 90 degrees in a meshed grid). If the power flow between stations is not clearly one direction or the other, the angle could go either way but the total will be smaller, perhaps in the area of 15 degrees. Large errors of 30 degrees can usually be detected if the PMU is assumed to be connected for lineto-neutral measurements but is actually line-to-line (or vice versa).
Since the main objective here is to detect phasing errors and phase selection errors resulting in a 120 degree phase shift, such a large discrepancy will be distinguishable from the angles estimated by power flow using the rules previously mentioned. However, certain factors such as Y- and phase shifting transformers, as well as series capacitors, can produce results that make phase checking difficult to determine. A similar approach is recommended when the PMU data is compared with a neighboring system. The first step is to confirm the phase naming convention and determine the relative phase angle relation between comparable power system phases. With these large errors removed, comparison to SCADA-based EMS load flows can be expected to be within 2 or 3 degrees.
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6.10 Communications operation

Deployment of appropriate communications technology with well-defined monitoring and maintenance system is important in meeting life-cycle requirements when installing PMU and associated interface equipment and a data concentrator. Communications from the PMU to the data concentrator is a critical link. Initial checkout details depend on the particular system. A few general observations are offered here. Data are sent at the selected reporting rate from the PMU in packets that are precisely time tagged and terminated with a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) or checksum. In many cases, the communications medium provides its own packetizing with a check word. The receiving device (e.g., PDC) should use the check word to detect corrupted data, and time tags to keep track of missing data. This information is essential for initial system checkout as well as ongoing maintenance and repair. After installation, corrupt and missing data must be monitored closely for a few days. For example, the communications system may not lose more than 3 packets per hour at a data rate of 30 data points per second, and may vary based on application, design, and tolerance requirements among factors influencing communications requirements. At the receiving end, it is not possible to differentiate between data that has been lost in communication and data that was never sent. Pre-installation testing must include enough monitoring to prove that the PMU outputs data reliably to meet the application requirements. Overall performance is also impacted by levels of redundancy in the application. Patterns of data loss indicate different problems depending on the type of communications. For example, alarms are commonly set to identify/measure the acceptable number of lost packets over a given time period. For example, with EIA-232 serial systems using audio channel (analog) or digital communications, the user may set parameters for monitoring lost packets after a few check-word errors and a few lost packets per hour. Lost packets may have increased activitiesparticularly longer periods of outageat certain times of day if affected by microwave channel fading (weather related). Occasional frequent outages can indicate communications system synchronization problems or modem resynchronization due to low signal levels. Any more than a few lost samples per hour usually indicates a communications problem that should be resolved. Network-based systems over analog channel communications will behave somewhat like the EIA-232. Network over digital communications can be divided into connected types like Transmission Control Protocol (TCP/IP) and non-connected types like User Datagram Protocol (UDP/IP). TCP/IP provides packet ordering and retransmission in the case of missing or corrupted packets. With a good communications system, data will be delayed occasionally, but otherwise there will be no data loss apparent to the user. With a degraded or overloaded system, data delay may become significant enough such that the PMUs internal buffers overflow and TCP cannot recover lost packets, which would result in longer outages while the system holds data waiting for recovery, and perhaps resynchronizes the data stream. With UDP, data is sent to a destination, but there is no built-in ordering or recovery. Sometimes ordering and retransmission can be built into the application. UDP is used commonly with phasor measurement systems since UDP is a one-way communication to the receiver(s), and therefore it is undelayed, could use on average lower bandwidth than TCP, and is simple. With a good communications system, data will rarely be delayed and data loss will be less than one packet per hour (in practical experience, these systems have been observed to run weeks without any data loss). The overall performance is application dependent, and the user will need to define acceptable levels of lost data packets (i.e., occasional packet loss may be tolerated based on the application). If a general purpose network is being used, there may be greater loss during periods of heavy use. Router or switch misconfiguration problems can cause high loss. A good commission or maintenance testing will often 28
identify key sources of configuration or data errors. A sound engineered system with detailed engineering and design records provides means for guidance of the maintenance staff to troubleshoot and expedite repairs, and helps in maintaining the system to meet overall performance requirements.
6.11 Record keeping

A permanent record of installation details and initial tests is important. The installation will normally have formal drawings that include wiring and physical layout, and should also include details of scaling, ratios, and settings. A clear record of settings is essential for checkout, verification, and ongoing maintenance. This record must include all PT/CT scaling, method of synchronization and GPS clock accuracy, PMU calibration factors, communications settings, triggers, limits, and recording parameters. It will be used and confirmed during the checkout outlined above. Additional information such as cable type and length (signal attenuation and delays), CT/PT/CCVT details, line or bus voltage source, etc., can help with ease in troubleshooting. The record of initial tests can be used as a baseline during ongoing maintenance and provides a baseline for problem resolution. Installation test records have also been used to identify whether a particular issue/feature was tested initially, or if a problem is introduced as the result of a change in the system, or some kind of component failure.
7. Testing and calibration
7.1 Overview
This clause describes test and calibration procedures for PMUs used in the electric power industry to monitor the condition of the electric power grid. The tests include those specified in IEEE Std C37.1182005, IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011, and IEC 61850-90-5, as appropriate. This clause contains detailed description of testing and calibration procedures together with quality conditions and class accuracy that test and calibration equipment must satisfy. The purpose of this clause is to provide a basis for comprehensive testing of PMUs. The testing should provide characterization of PMU measurements under a wide variety of conditions suitable for most deployments. There may be some specialized deployments that will require specialized tests that are not covered by this clause. This clause covers all tests required for conformance to the standards and some tests that are not required but are useful during PMU algorithm design.
7.2 Objective of testing

7.2.1 Compliance Specific testing is required to claim conformance to IEEE Std C37.118-2005, IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, and IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 as specified by the standard: a) Documentation should be provided by any vendor claiming compliance with IEEE Std C37.118.12011 that should include the following information: 1) 2) 3) Performance class Measurements that meet this class of performance Test results demonstrating performance 29
4) 5) 6)
Equipment settings that were used in testing Environmental conditions during the testing Error analysis if the verification system is based on an error analysis as called for above
b) Compliance certification is by PMU and class of performance. All signals supplied under a particular class of service must meet the compliance requirements under the specified class of service to qualify the PMU as compliant. 7.2.2 Manufacturing When a PMU is manufactured, functional testing of the PMU is conducted to verify that no manufacturing defects have caused the device to deviate from the intended design. 7.2.3 Installation and commissioning Testing a PMU following installation is needed to verify that the PMU is configured as intended and has been installed correctly. See Clause 6 for details. 7.2.4 Periodic maintenance Installed PMUs are periodically tested to verify that the PMU performance has not deviated beyond required performance limits over the course of its service history. Periodic maintenance also verifies that the PMU configuration has not changed from the intended and documented configuration. See Clause 6 for details.
7.3 Types of tests

As with other power system protection and control devices, PMUs must undertake various types of tests to verify reliable and suitably accurate operation in the installed system. These tests include a thorough conformance test, which typically includes electrical, environmental, mechanical, and performance conformance tests for each new model of PMU. Factory acceptance tests verify that a manufactured product performs as designed. Field acceptance tests (commissioning tests) and periodic maintenance tests verify that PMUs are configured and perform as desired in the particular installation. These tests should follow the requirements and procedures of the relevant international, national and industrial standards, and guidelines where applicable. The application of a PMU has some unique requirements, as follows: High accuracy of time synchronization of the measurement results and time tagging Unified performance of all PMU units across an installed system Interoperability of PMUs and other PMU system components, such as PDCs
These unique requirements demand a comprehensive set of functional performance, conformance, and interoperability tests to be conducted, employing a well-defined test approach to verify that the performance of an installed PMU system can meet its desired objectives and allow products from various vendors to be integrated into the PMU system. The descriptions of different types of tests in this document focus on the conformance and functional performance tests that are unique to PMUs and synchrophasor measurement devices. The conformance tests are designed to verify whether the PMU meets the requirements of IEEE Std C37.118-2005 or IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, under steady-state, transient, and dynamic power system conditions, and the associated interface requirements as given in IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 or IEC 61850-90-5. For other standard tests, such as electrical, environmental,
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and mechanical tests, please refer to the relevant international, national, and industrial standards and guidelines as listed in Clause 2 and Annex A. 7.3.1 PMU conformance tests PMU conformance tests will be included in a comprehensive type test program and performed on each new type of PMU devices. A complete set or a subset of conformance tests should also be performed for PMU devices after firmware/software and hardware revisions depending on the extent of the revision. A complete PMU test program will also include electrical, environmental and mechanical tests. Please refer to the relevant international, national, and industrial standards and guidelines, such as IEC 61850-3 or IEEE Std 1613 [B31], for requirements of these tests. The description of the PMU conformance tests in this guide includes performance and interoperability conformance tests that are unique to PMU and synchrophasor measurement devices. The conformance tests are performed to verify whether a PMU or a synchrophasor measurement device meets the requirements of the relevant standards, e.g., IEEE Std C37.118-2005, IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011, and IEC 61850-90-5. 7.3.1.1 PMU message protocol conformance test To verify the interoperability of different PMU models, a message protocol conformance test can be performed to confirm all configuration/command/data frame implementations conform to the relevant standards, e.g., IEEE Std C37.118-2005, IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011, and/or IEC 61850-90-5. If manufacturer/user custom control/data message frames are defined, they should be verified according to agreements between manufacturers and users. 7.3.1.2 PMU performance conformance test IEEE Std C37.118-2005 defines the TVE metric and establishes the level 0 and level 1 performance compliance requirements under steady-state conditions. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 establishes M-class and P-class performance compliance requirements under steady-state as well as transient and dynamic conditions. Consistent performance among all PMUs in an interconnected system is of great importance for interoperability. This subclause describes the purpose of each performance conformance test and the requirements of the test. Performance tests are divided into steady-state and dynamic tests, latency, and time quality tests. Steady-state tests are defined as tests where the magnitude and frequency of the test signals do not change during an individual subtest. Otherwise, a test will be considered as a dynamic test. The steady-state and dynamic test requirements for test signals injected at the PMUs input terminals are defined by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 or IEEE Std C37.118-2005. 7.3.1.2.1 Initial functionality verification Prior to the full spectrum steady-state tests and/or dynamic tests, a PMU must pass the following basic functionality tests.
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7.3.1.2.2 Basic functionality test The basic functionality of a PMU device must be verified at all reporting rates under the following conditions: Pure sinusoidal input signal (THD < 0.1%). Input signal frequency at rated 50 Hz and/or 60 Hz system frequency. Balanced three-phase input signal. Single-phase input signals. Input signal is synchronized to produce known phase angles for each reported phasor. PMU must report correct phasor values in the preceding tests with TVE less than 1% as specified in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. Additionally, the out-of-band interference test should be run to verify the filters at each reporting rate.
Manufacturer-implemented non-standard reporting rates may be verified according to the manufacturers own specifications and/or agreement between the manufacturer and users. 7.3.1.2.3 Steady-state performance conformance test The steady-state performance conformance tests are conducted to confirm that the accuracy of a PMU is within the specified limits when exposed to specified steady-state operating conditions. The steady-state performance conformance test should be performed according to the signal range and test conditions specified in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 Table 3. Additionally this guide presents a test plan for a phase or magnitude unbalance test. It is common practice to verify manufacturer-specified steady-state performance of a PMU in extended signal ranges and test conditions according to manufacturers own specifications or agreement between the manufacturer and users. 7.3.1.2.4 PMU performance conformance levels In order for a PMU to conform to IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, it must be classified by performance class (M or P). The P or M performance level is to be specified for each data reporting rate that a PMU supports. 7.3.1.3 Multifuncation PMU device performance test When phasor measurement is one of the functions in a multifunction device, the performance test of such devices should also verify the following: That operation of other functions will not cause interference, degradation, and disruption of the performance of the PMU function under all operating conditions. That the PMU function will not cause interference, degradation, and disruption to the performance of other functions under all operating conditions. That the actual range of input signals for a multifuncation PMU is determined by (1) the types of transducers dictated by its primary functions, and (2) the IEEE C37.118 required signal range for phasor measurement.
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7.3.1.4 Certification of conformance Certification of conformance should be issued only to PMUs fully conformed to the requirements of IEEE Std C37.118-2005, IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, and/or IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011, accompanied by a detailed test report. Both certification of conformance and the test report will declare that all tests were conducted in full compliance with the test requirements and test procedures specified in the standard or proposed standard, and that the tests were performed by qualified test laboratories. The test report must contain a detailed description of each test conducted, test equipment used, test setup description, test conditions, and test results. 7.3.2 Interoperability test PMUs and all other system components that communicate with each other, such as PDCs from different manufacturers, must conform to the same protocol specified by IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 or IEC 6185090-5 through protocol conformance tests. Protocol conformance is the basis for all system components to be interoperable with each other, but protocol conformance may not be sufficient. To further confirm that PMUs, PDCs, and other system components from different manufacturers can interoperate and work with each other as a system, a set of tests, including performance tests, should be conducted. The tests to show interoperability are in addition to protocol conformance tests conducted for individual PMU, PDC, or other system component. Interoperability tests should confirm that system components work properly together and adhere to performance requirements as required by applications. Tests for interoperability should also be conducted for PMUs, PDCs, and other system components with custom-defined protocols, if any. The tests to demonstrate interoperability may be conducted by a qualified independent test laboratory, or jointly by manufacturers and user representatives. The tests may be performed in a laboratory or field environment. 7.3.3 Factory acceptance test Each PMU unit passes a proper factory acceptance test program to detect any manufacturing defects, similar to substation protection, control, and networking devices. In addition to electrical, environmental, and mechanical tests, each PMU must be verified in the factory acceptance test that it can: Correctly receive the synchronized timing signal according to the specifications (e.g., correct reception of GPS signals under specified signal strength). Send/receive configuration/command/data frames according to protocols defined (e.g., send/receive configuration as given in IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 or initiate an IEC 61850-90-5 frame through a 61850 client). Meet phasor measurement performance requirements at a selected set of test conditions within the specifications of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011.
7.3.4 Field tests Field tests are conducted to verify the proper functionality of a PMU at its installed location after it has been installed. The field tests include field commissioning tests and periodic maintenance tests. 7.3.4.1 Field commissioning test A field commissioning test will be conducted after a PMU is installed.
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As with any other digital IEDs installed in the substations, the PMU field commissioning test must include routine visual inspection, insulation test, wiring check, basic functionality check, etc., as required by the relevant standards, such as 2003 NETA Acceptance Testing Specifications for protection and control equipment. In addition, a PMU field commissioning test will verify the following: Phase A designation verification and confirmation. Correct phase sequence verification. Correct phasor magnitude measurement verification. Correct indication of time synchronization being normal or in a locked or synchronized condition. Also, synchronized timing source verification (e.g., GPS signal strength and reception meet the specification). Data and control frames sending/receiving verification.
PMUs are not usually deployed as independent measurement devices. A PMU system typically consists of many PMUs and one or more PDCs. Once a PMU passes the above basic tests and its proper communication with PDCs are established, further system integration tests are conducted as a part of the PMU field commissioning tests. The system integration tests verify the following: Proper sending/receiving data/control frames to/from PDCs Proper registration of each PMU in the PDC database Proper logging of PMU activities, such as on-line/off-line time, setting change, and so on PMU status monitoring and trouble reporting Proper handling of communications channel problems and PMU malfunctions Communications channel throughput and PDC loading levels
7.3.4.2 Periodic maintenance test Performance of a PMU must be checked periodically to verify that it has not been changed and deteriorated.
7.4 Test equipment

This subclause describes the test equipment used to perform the tests. General requirements for calibration and test equipment may be found in ANSI/NCSL Z540.3-2006 [B1]. In that standard, a quantity called the Test Uncertainty Ratio (TUR) describes how much better calibration equipment must be than the equipment being calibrated. The ratio is defined as ratio of the span of the tolerance of a measurement quantity subject to calibration, to twice the 95% expanded uncertainty of the measurement process used for calibration. The standard also requires that in order to achieve a false acceptance rate of less than 2% in acceptance testing, the TUR shall be at least 4:1. This figure has been used in the synchrophasor standards. However, recognizing that the TVE of a synchrophasor is a quantity that combines uncertainties, this subclause applies stricter requirements on the calibration equipment for the factors that could contribute to TVE (ANSI/NCSL Z540.3-2006 [B1]).
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Test equipment will generally be in one of the following categories: Full-featured calibration laboratory equipment: Specialized test instruments developed and adapted specifically for PMU testing. These may be systems made from general or specially developed hardware, hand-tuned and controlled for testing. Design and documentation of the collective test system must demonstrate traceability to national standards. Synchrophasor standards require uncertainty less than 25% of the allowed error. However, it is generally recommended that uncertainty of test equipment should be less than 10% of the allowed error (e.g., if a TVE of 1% is allowed for a PMU, the test setup used to examine the accuracy of that PMU should have traceable uncertainty of better than 0.1%). Standard test equipment: General purpose test equipment that can be used to test PMU functions. It should be 4 to 10 times more accurate than the test tolerance, but this will vary depending on the circumstance. These test setups may be used in a laboratory or field location. They must be calibrated against a standards laboratory, which will have the full-featured test equipment and calibration method well defined and repeatable.
In general, any offset and delays associated with the test equipment should be taken into account, for example if a test equipment has a settle-time delay (for example, 1 cycle), then this time should be subtracted from PMU step response time. Similarly, possible digital to analog conversion errors should be compensated for dynamic signal calibration. 7.4.1 Time reference Test equipment must be accurately synchronized to UTC. PMUs make measurements relative to UTC, and the test equipment needs to use that same reference to verify measurements. 7.4.2 Steady-state signal sources This subclause describes the requirements for the voltage and current channels of the multiphase signal generator for steady-state PMU tests. For steady-state tests, the signals have a constant amplitude and frequency during the test. 7.4.2.1 Steady-state magnitude The voltage and current sources should have an amplitude uncertainty of less than 0.1% of the specified test level, with total harmonic and noise distortion of less than 0.1% of the specified test level. 7.4.2.2 Steady-state phase The voltage and current phases must be known relative to a cosine wave of the nominal frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) synchronized to the on time second of UTC. This phase is referred to as absolute phase angle. The absolute phase angle of the test voltage must be known for each report time (i.e., the times the PMU assigns to its phasor measurements). The absolute phase angle must have an uncertainty of less than 1 mrad (0.057 degrees) relative to the specified test phase, or alternatively the absolute phase angle of the test signal must be known with an uncertainty of less than 1 mrad (0.057 degrees).
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7.4.2.3 Steady-state balance The three-phase voltages and currents of the test signal source should be known to better than 0.1%. For balanced tests, the magnitude of the zero sequence and negative sequence should each be less than 0.3%. 7.4.2.4 Steady-state frequency and rate of change of frequency The frequency of the source should be known with an uncertainty of less than 0.1 mHz. The ROCOF should be less than 1 mHz/s. 7.4.2.5 Steady-state harmonics The test signal generator must be capable of generating multiple harmonics from the 2nd though the 50th harmonic of the nominal frequency. The magnitude of the harmonics must be at least 10% of the magnitude of the nominal input magnitude. These signals must be generated in conjunction with a signal at nominal magnitude and frequency. 7.4.2.6 Steady-state out-of-band interfering signals The test signal generator must generate out-of-band interfering signals (interharmonics) with frequency from 0.1 Hz up to the Nyquist frequency of the highest reporting rate to be tested. The magnitude of the interharmonics must be up to 10% of the magnitude of the nominal input frequency. These signals must be generated in conjunction with a signal at nominal magnitude and frequency. 7.4.3 Dynamic signal sources This subclause describes the requirements for the voltage and current channels of the multiphase signal generator for dynamic PMU tests. For dynamic tests, the amplitude or frequency of the signals will vary during the test. 7.4.3.1 Amplitude and phase modulation During the dynamic compliance measurement bandwidth test, the magnitude of the fundamental phasor should have an uncertainty of less than 0.2% of the nominal magnitude and the phase uncertainty should be less than 2 mrad (0.12 degrees). The magnitude of the modulation should have an uncertainty of less than 0.2% of the nominal magnitude. The phase of the modulation should have an uncertainty less than the equivalent of 1 ms. The frequency of the fundamental should have an uncertainty of less than 0.5 mHz and the rate of change of the frequency should have an uncertainty of less than 10 mHz/s. 7.4.3.2 Frequency ramp During the frequency ramp dynamic test, the magnitude of the fundamental phasor should have an uncertainty of less than 0.2% of the nominal magnitude, and the phase uncertainty should be less than 2 mrad (0.12 degrees). The frequency of the fundamental should have an uncertainty of less than 0.5 mHz. The rate of change of the frequency should have an uncertainty of less than 10 mHz/s.
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7.4.3.3 Magnitude step During the dynamic magnitude step test, the magnitude of the source must settle to the new magnitude with less than 0.2% variations within one cycle of the nominal frequency. The phase of the fundamental must settle to the same phase as before the step within 1 cycle of the nominal frequency within 2 mrad (0.12 degrees). The magnitude of the step should have uncertainty less than 0.1% of the nominal magnitude. The time of the step must be within 1 ms variations. 7.4.3.4 Phase step During the dynamic phase step test, the magnitude of the source must settle to the same magnitude as before the step with less than 0.2% variations within one cycle of the nominal frequency. The phase of the fundamental should settle to the new phase with less than 2 mrad (0.12 degrees) variations within 1 cycle of the nominal frequency. The magnitude of the phase step must have uncertainty less than 2 mrad (0.12 degrees). The time of the step should be within 1 ms variations. 7.4.4 Equipment calibration Test equipment needs to be calibrated to reference standards. Established worldwide standards are maintained as a comparison between first level physical standards maintained by designated standards laboratories worldwide. First level standards are compared with each other using a suitable device that can be exchanged between laboratories. Each laboratory makes measurements before and after exchanging the device and compares measurements with the other laboratories. Analyses of results show how close the reference at each laboratory is to the other. A statistical comparison of the results of measurements provides a true standard and an offset that each laboratory can use to correct their measurement to the standard. PMU calibration has not reached the point of developing a worldwide standard or even recognized first level laboratories to maintain such a standard. Further, there is not yet consistent agreement on the measurements and tests that need to be performed to verify these measurements. However, many of the measurements are straightforward within the realm of current standard measurement. For verification of the measurements particular to PMU technology, it is necessary to depend on a reference system suitably linked to first principles for which an estimate of accuracy has been determined by a suitable suite of tests. This then needs to be confirmed by comparison with tests done by other laboratories using the same or other methods. Once an acceptable reference has been developed, it can be used for calibration of other test systems using the transfer PMU as previously described. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and several other laboratories have developed special tests for many of the PMU tests described in this guide. This is the start of a test verification process for a worldwide standard compliance for PMUs. 7.4.4.1 Steady-state signal calibration The test system output can be calibrated under steady-state output conditions using standard reference instruments. Under steady state the test system must be capable of generating three-phase voltages and currents with a set amount of balance and at varying frequency and amplitude. Voltage and current magnitude and frequency are well-established measurements. Test system output should be calibrated at suitable amplitude and frequency points using certified test instrumentation. PMU testing requires that voltage and current signal phase angles be determined with respect to a UTC time reference. The following paragraphs describe two possible methods to perform this calibration. Both calibration methods use a high-speed/high-resolution oscilloscope to compare the phase of a synchronized oscillator with a UTC synchronized clock signal, typically a 1 PPS signal. Since the rate of
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change of a nominal frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) signal is not fast enough to easily align with the 1 PPS signal, this first method uses a reference PMU that is capable of measuring the phase angle of signals with frequencies significantly higher than power line frequencies. It also requires that the signal generator will put out synchronized waveforms at much higher frequencies than the normal power signal. The second method is not as precise, but does not require a reference high frequency PMU nor a specialized multifrequency signal source. These procedures take advantage of the fact it is easy to synchronize an oscilloscope (or counter) with a 1 PPS signal, and the time of a zero crossing of a sine wave can be more precisely determined than the time of a peak. For the first method, assume the bandwidth of the reference PMU is 500 kHz. For each phase of the reference PMU, set the signal generator to 30 kHz, then adjust the phase of the signal so the positive-going zero crossing of the signal is aligned with the positive edge of the 1 PPS signal. The signal phase angle measured by the reference PMU should be 90 degrees. Note the error, the difference between the result of the measurement and the known value of 90 degrees. Readjust the phase of the signal so the negativegoing zero crossing of the signal is aligned with the positive edge of the 1 PPS signal. The signal phase angle measured by the reference PMU should be 90 degrees. If the error observed is not the negative of the previous error, the results indicate there is an offset in the signal, possibly due to dc in the signal. There could also be another form of waveform distortion. Taking half the difference between these two test results, one can convert the angle to a time delay of the 30 kHz signal. Repeat the above time delay determinations at 10 kHz, 3 kHz, 1 kHz, and 500 Hz. Plot these time delays to see if they fall on a straight line. Fit a line to the lower part of the data that is straight and project the time delay above power line frequencies. Apply this as a correction to the signal phase angles measured. Repeat the above procedure to demonstrate that with this correction the measured time delay at 30 kHz is now negligible. Use this data to analyze the uncertainty of the phase angles measured by the reference PMU.
NOTEThe uncertainty in the time delay estimates for 10 kHz and 30 kHz will be the smallest. The lower frequency measurements will show more scatter, but look to see that there is no significant slope to this data.
The second method is shown in Figure 6. The test signal output is set to a 90 phase angle output at the nominal system frequency. By the synchrophasor standard, A-phase will have a positive zero crossing at a 90 phase angle and will have a negative zero crossing at a +90 phase angle. Use the synchronized 1 PPS signal from a GPS source to trigger the trace on the oscilloscope. The signal source should cross 0 V at the trigger point. At nominal system frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz), the zero-crossing does not change. For offnominal frequencies, the angle changes constantly and may not align at the 1 PPS. However at exact integer frequencies off nominal (e.g., 49, 51, 59, 61) the zero crossing will be aligned with the 1 PPS, making this method of synchronization useable for checking phase over a band of frequencies. Use positive and negative zero crossings to average out dc offset as previously described to improve accuracy.
Figure 6 Phase calibration of reference PMU with the 1 PPS clock signal 38
The principal problem with this method is that the zero crossing needs to be measured within a microsecond, and the slope of a 100 Vpeak 60 Hz wave is 37 700 V/s or 0.037 V/s. With the input set to input a 100 V signal, determining a zero crossing to within 1 s is not possible. If the oscilloscope limits input overload without distortion, the input can be amplified to show the waveform at a millivolt level so that the zero crossing can be clearly determined. Alternatively, a diode limiter can be used to reduce the voltage signal to a low level so that the 0 crossings can be seen clearly without overdriving the front end. For observing the 0 crossings of the current signals, use a low resistance non-inductive shunt. In all cases, care is required to prevent ground loops from distorting the signal. It is important to note that oscilloscopes that have a low-resolution digital front end (7 or 8 bits) do not allow an accurate location of the positive zero crossing. Any dc offset will also change the phase angle based on zero crossing. With 8 bits full scale, the zero location could be off by 1 count out of 127. If the full scale is 100 V, this is about a 0.79 V error that is equivalent to about 10 s or about 0.22 degrees at 60 Hz. (1% TVE = 0.57 deg if magnitude is perfect.) However, if the full scale is reduced to 1 V, this is about a 0.0079 V error that is equivalent to about 0.1 s or about 0.0022 degrees, which is insignificant. 7.4.4.2 Dynamic signal calibration A stable and accurate signal source is required for dynamic signal production. It may not be possible to measure the signal with standard calibration instruments during dynamic signal production. It is necessary to rely on other confirmation methods such as analysis of the signal production equipment or a reference PMU with known analysis capability. The first method relies on analysis of the test equipment being used and the test methodology. In most cases, dynamic signals will be produced by a test set that converts signals stored in a digital file to analog signals using D/A converters. In this case, the accuracy of these reproduced signals can be verified by the following: Calibration of the D/A converters at magnitudes that cover the range that will be required Calibration of the D/A output clock relative to time and frequency references Characterization of the output frequency response allowed by D/A output filters Accounting for loading effects such as cabling and test unit burdens
This method depends on careful analysis of all these effects, and should provide sufficient accuracy for performing dynamic tests. Test equipment designed for performing dynamic test signals should have established performance characteristics and is a good choice for these measurements. A secondary method of monitoring the test signals should also be used, such as by recording the waveforms or comparing measurement results with a PMU with previously established performance. A second method of dynamic signal calibration uses both a stable signals source and a reference PMU to determine the actual values of the phasors, frequency, and ROCOF. This reference PMU can be made up of a multichannel sampling system and appropriate software to calculate these quantities. This system must be able to receive clock signals to determine the absolute time of each sample. Use of the 1 PPS signal and a 1 MHz or 10 MHz clock signal to synchronize the sampling to UTC is recommended. Alternatively the system could read IRIG-B or similar timing codes to synchronize to UTC. The reference PMU has to be itself confirmed using analytical methods to be sure it accurately determines the correct phasor value from the analog signals, both for steady-state and dynamically changing signals. Modulated waveforms can be confirmed to be accurate by fitting synchronized samples of the signals to an appropriate model. Stenbakken et al. [B59] describe two analysis models that fit the data. The first is the Taylor expansion model that fits modulation frequencies from 0.1 Hz to over 1 Hz. The second is the three waveform model that fits modulation frequencies from 1 Hz to over 70 Hz.
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7.4.5 PMU data communication and analysis PMU data communication includes transmitting PMU measurements and receiving PMU commands. Various transmission methods, such as EIA-232, EIA-485, and Ethernet 10/100BaseT, and various transmission protocols, such as TCP/IP and UDP/IP, are well-known methods. The test system needs to have various communication capabilities available to communicate with different PMUs. At a minimum, the test system should be able to send commands and receive data using the following: EIA-232, 38.4 kbps, commanded or spontaneous 10/100BaseT usingTCP, TCP/UDP, or UDP (multicast, unicast), or spontaneous UDP (multicast, unicast)
PMUs do not necessarily support all communication modes, so the test system must be able to be set up for the particular DUT. 7.4.6 Automated features Test time can be substantially reduced if testing is automated. Test equipment could provide options for performing automated testing (batch mode). The automation of testing should include applying the signals, waiting for the PMU measurement to settle, and measuring the responses. The results need to be stored in a convenient way for later review.
7.5 Methods for performing the tests

This subclause provides recommendations for how the tests can be performed. This subclause is ordered similarly to Clause 5 of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, which specifies methods for determining total vector error (TVE), frequency error (FE), and rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) error (RFE) used to assess PMU performance in the various tests. This subclause goes on to present recommended test procedures for steady-state compliance, dynamic compliance, and reporting latency. 7.5.1 Total vector error, frequency error, and rate of change of frequency error 7.5.1.1 Total vector error The TVE definition that IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 describes can be rewritten as shown in Equation (2):
r r VMeasured Vtrue TVE r Vtrue
(2)
where
r Vtrue is the true phasor
r VMeasured is the PMU measured phasor
Notice that the measured phasor can be a voltage phasor or a current phasor. Figure 7 shows how TVE, magnitude error and angle error are interrelated. The plot in this figure shows the TVE calculated for angle errors from 0.5 to 0.5 degrees and magnitude errors of 0%, 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.3%. As expected, the TVE is greater than the magnitude error except for the case that the phase error is zero. For even a 0.5 degree 40
phase error, the TVE increases considerably. For all practical purposes, the TVE is dominated by phase errors for phase errors greater than 0.5 degree. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 specifies the minimum amount of time to take measurements: 5 s unless otherwise noted in the individual test. TVE should be calculated for each measurement during this time. The error reported for the test should be the maximum of these error values.
Figure 7 TVE in percentage for angle errors of 0.5 degrees to 0.5 degrees and magnitude errors of 0%, 0.1%, 0.2% and 0.3% 7.5.1.2 Frequency error and rate of change of frequency error FE and RFE measurements are tested for accuracy using the following error definitions: FE = Frequency error = |ftrue fmeasured| = |ftrue fmeasured| RFE = ROCOF error = |(df/dt)true (df/dt)measured| where The measured and true values are taken at the same instant of time ftrue is the deviation of the true frequency from the nominal frequency fmeasured is the deviation of the PMU measured frequency from the nominal frequency (df/dt)true is the true rate of change of the frequency (df/dt)measured is the PMU measured rate of change of frequency 7.5.1.3 Reporting rates and reporting times The PMU should be configured to operate at each of the required reporting rates as specified by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. With near nominal three-phase input voltage and current signals, the TVE of the PMU should be measured. The reporting time stamps should be examined to see that the fractional second values are integer multiples of the reciprocal of the reporting rate 1/Fs (rounded or truncated to the appropriate significant figure). Thus, if Fs is 20 per second, the time stamps should occur at intervals of exactly 1/20 s, or 50 ms.
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7.5.2 PMU settling time During PMU testing, the PMU may be subjected to nonsystem like changes in the input signals. Some settling time will be required before test data are taken. This settling time will vary from PMU to PMU, for different PMU settings, and on the type of signal presented by the test system. For some test systems the nominal test signal will be applied to the PMU before each test. Changes to the new parameter will be a change in signal magnitude, frequency, distortion, etc. For other test systems the signals may be set to zero before each test and the new signals applied as a step. For each such test condition transition, the settling time of the PMU must be estimated. This settling time can be provided by the manufacturer. Otherwise it can be determined by selective transition measurements on the PMU. The PMU settling time could be up to 2 s to 4 s or as little as a few reports. 7.5.3 Steady-state compliance test plans This subclause describes how to perform tests to assess steady-state compliance of a PMU. Suggestions for step-by-step methods to perform the tests (test plans) follow. 7.5.3.1 Steady-state compliance According to IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, steady-state compliance should be confirmed by comparing the phasor, frequency, and ROCOF estimates obtained under steady-state conditions to the corresponding input values and calculating TVE, FE, and RFE as defined above. Steady-state conditions are where Xm, , and of the test signal, and all other influence quantities, other than the quantity being tested, are fixed for the period of the measurement. Note that for off-nominal frequencies, the measured phase angle will change at a rate proportional to the difference in frequency between the applied signal and the nominal frequency, 50 Hz or 60 Hz. The steady-state compliance tests are specified by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. Influence quantities, minimum range of influence quantities, and limits for performance of P and M class PMUs are found in the standard and will not be repeated in this guide. Testers must refer to the standard for the latest required limits. The influence quantities are as follows: Signal frequency (range) Signal magnitude: voltage Signal magnitude: current Phase angle Harmonic distortion Out-of-band interfering signals
For each parameter of an influence quantity (e.g., frequency tested in frequency variation tests) determine the magnitude error, phase error, FE, and RFE at each time stamp. Calculate the TVE at each time stamp. Over the time specified for the test, calculate the maximum, minimum, mean, and standard deviation of these errors. These statistics can be plotted versus the parameter values tested. Use the largest maximum error for the range of parameters to compare with the test requirements.
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7.5.3.1.1 Frequency variation compliance For certification of compliance, IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 requires that the signal frequency compliance tests be performed over the given ranges and meet the given requirements at three temperatures: T = nominal (~23 C), T = 0 C, and T = 50 C. This is a series of subtests where magnitudes are held at nominal and frequency is changed by 0.1 Hz between each test. The first subtest is at nominal frequency minus the bandwidth range limit, and the last test is at nominal frequency plus the bandwidth range limit. These bandwidths are listed in Table 7 in the column Bandwidth for each reporting rate, Fs. See IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 Table 3 and Table 4 for the required TVE, FE, and RFE limits for the given Fs, where Fs is the reporting rate. a) c) e) f) Begin at the frequency range: nominal minus the range limit. Capture the PMU output for 5 s. Increase the frequency by 0.1 Hz. Repeat steps b) through e) until the upper frequency range limit is reached.
b) Wait for the system to settle. d) Calculate the maximum TVE, FE, and RFE.
g) Compare the results to the class limits in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. h) Place the PMU into a temperature chamber set to 0 C. Allow PMU to reach temperature equilibrium within 1 C. i) j) Repeat steps a) through g). Set temperature chamber to 50 C. Allow PMU to reach temperature equilibrium within 1 C.
k) Repeat steps a) through g). 7.5.3.1.2 Steady-state magnitude compliance: voltage and current For both current and voltage input ranges, apply steady-state, nominal frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz), balanced three-phase inputs. Compare the measurement with the input. The test signals must be known with uncertainty no greater than 0.1%. Nominal values are determined by the application and are typically 70 V rms or 120 V rms for voltage, and 5 A rms for current. Depending on the level or class, the PMU must operate over a range of voltages and currents, usually given as magnitudes relative to the nominal values. See IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 Table 3 and Table 4 for magnitude values and test limits. a) c) e) f) Begin at the low magnitude limits. Capture the PMU output for 5 s. Increase the input magnitudes by 10% of the nominal value (not a percentage of the actual value). Repeat steps b) through e) until the upper magnitude limits are reached.
b) Wait for the system to settle (see 7.5.2). d) Calculate the maximum TVE, FE, and RFE.
g) Compare the results to the class limits in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011.
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7.5.3.1.3 Phase angle compliance For both current and voltage input ranges, the phase test can be performed with fin (input frequency) offset and | fin f0 | < 0.25 Hz to provide a slowly varying phase. The phase errors of the phasors can be determined over several cycles of the absolute phase angle. For example, the frequency can be set to 0.12 Hz above the nominal frequency (50.12 Hz or 60.12 Hz) and measurements taken over 50 s. These data will cover six cycles of the absolute angle. If the phase errors are plotted versus the true phase-A phase angles, the plot will show the angle errors versus the true phase angle of 180. During this test the maximum TVE, FE, and RFE must remain within the required limit. 7.5.3.1.4 Response to harmonic distortion signals Response to harmonic distortion is specified for 2nd harmonic to 50th harmonic individually. a) Begin at nominal levels for all influence quantities.
b) Inject into the voltage and current inputs harmonics starting with the second harmonic with the magnitude set to the level specified by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 for Class P or M PMUs. c) e) f) Wait for the system to settle (see 7.5.2). Calculate the maximum TVE, FE, and RFE. Change to injecting the next harmonic. d) Capture the PMU output for 5 s.
g) Repeat steps b) through f) until 50 harmonics have been tested. h) Compare the results to the class limits in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. Optional: Repeat this test for input frequencies other than nominal such as f0 1 Hz, within the rated input frequency range of the PMU. Test input: Both voltage and current. 7.5.3.1.5 Response to out-of-band interfering signals There are no requirements for Class P response to out-of-band interfering signals. This test is for Class M compliance only. Out-of-band compliance (M class only) is to be checked with the frequency of the dominating signal components within the nominal system frequency 10% of the Nyquist frequency of the reporting frequency (Fs). See Table 7. The in band is defined as the frequency range from the nominal frequency minus half the reporting rate, f0 Fs/2, to the nominal frequency plus half the reporting rate, f0 + Fs/2. Out-of-band compliance can be confirmed by adding a single frequency sinusoid to the fundamental power signal at the required amplitude level and varying the frequency of this signal over the out-of-band range from below the in band (at least down to 10 Hz) to the second harmonic (2 f0) for reporting rates up to 50 per second or 60 per second. For higher reporting rates, such as 100 per second or 120 per second, start at the upper end of the in-band and inject frequencies up to f0 higher. Thus, for reporting rates of 100 per second and 120 per second the testing will go from 2 f0 to 3 f0. If the positive sequence measurement is being tested, the interfering signal must be positive sequence. This test should be repeated three times with input signal (fin) frequency at nominal (f0), at fin = f0 + 2/3 the signal frequency bandwidth and at fin = f0 2/3 the signal frequency bandwidth. Table 7 shows the bandwidth and the in-band range for each reporting rate, and nominal frequency. The in-band range is the range in which interfering signals will not be injected. 44
Table 7 Out-of-band interference test with IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011

60 Hz nominal 10% Nyquist Bandwidth of Fs (Hz) (Hz) 2 2.4 3 4 5 5 0.5 0.6 0.75 1 1.5 3 10% Nyquist of Fs (Hz) 0.5 1.25 2.5 In band Fs/2 (Hz) 5 6 7.5 10 15 30 Fnom = 60 (Hz) 55 to 65 54 to 66 52.5 to 67.5 50 to 70 45 to 75 30 to 90 In band Fs/2 (Hz) 5 12.5 25 Fnom = 50 (Hz) 45 to 55 37.5 to 62.5 25 to 75
Fs 10 or less 12 15 20 30 60
50 Hz nominal Fs 10 or less 25 50 Bandwidth (Hz) 2 5 5
Interfering signals are not injected at the in-band frequencies above. Apply a steady-state, balanced, three-phase signal to both current and voltage inputs, at nominal steadystate magnitude and nominal system frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz). Inject into the voltage and current inputs a positive-sequence interharmonic at frequency fi where, as shown in Equation (3): |fi f0| Fs/2 where Fs is the reporting rate f0 is the nominal frequency fi = finterharmonic is the frequency of the interfering signal frequency a) c) e) Add an interharmonic signal at fi = f0 Fs/2 at 10% nominal magnitude. Capture the PMU output for 5 s. Run steps b) through d) repeatedly, decreasing the interharmonic frequency logarithmically until it reaches 10 Hz: For each test run, the amount that the interharmonic frequency decreases should increase logarithmically, thus providing many tests near fi = f0 Fs/2 and fewer tests further away from fi = f0 Fs/2. For example, the first decrease should be 0.1 Hz (f0 Fs/2 0.1), the next decrease 0.2 Hz (f0 Fs/2 0.2), the third decrease 0.4 Hz (f0 Fs/2 0.4), then 0.8 Hz (f0 Fs/2 0.8) until an interharmonic frequency below 10 Hz is reached. For the last frequency use 10 Hz rather than the frequency below 10 Hz. (3)
b) Wait for the system to settle. d) Calculate the maximum TVE, FE, and RFE.
f)
Add an interharmonic signal at fi = f0 + Fs/2 at 10% nominal magnitude.
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g) Run steps b) through e) repeatedly, increasing the interharmonic frequency logarithmically until it reaches 2 f0: For each test run, the amount that the interharmonic frequency increases should increase logarithmically, thus providing many tests near fi = f0 + Fs/2 and fewer tests further away from fi = f0 + Fs/2. For example, the first increase should be 0.1 Hz (f0 + Fs/2 + 0.1), the next increase 0.2 Hz (f0 + Fs/2 + 0.2), the third increase 0.4 Hz (f0 + Fs/2 + 0.4), then 0.8 Hz (f0 + Fs/2 + 0.8), until an interharmonic frequency above 2 f0 is reached. For the last frequency use 2 f0 rather than the frequency above 2 f0. Run all steps a) through h) two more times with the input signal frequency at nominal frequency plus and minus 10% of Fs/2 (the Nyquist frequency of the reporting rate, Fs).
h) Compare the results to the class limits in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. i)
Test input: Both voltage and current.

NOTEOut-of-band interfering signal testing requires many test runs. Increasing the increment of interharmonic frequency change logarithmically rather than at small, constant increments reduces the total number of individual test runs while ensuring that many tests are run near the bandwidth limits.
7.5.3.2 Unbalanced three-phase signals Unbalanced tests are not required by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. Since unbalance only applies to sequence components of a polyphase system, it is not included in the standard where the requirements apply to both single-phase and sequence components. It is generally agreed that unbalanced testing is good to do but is not required for certification. This subclause describes methods for performing unbalanced three-phase signal test. 7.5.3.2.1 Response to unbalanced signals, phase, and magnitude For both current and voltage input ranges, apply steady-state, nominal frequency input with two phases at nominal magnitude and the third being varied as nominal 10%, and nominal 20%. Compare the measurement magnitude and phase angle with that expected, and compute the TVE for each phasor, the magnitude error for each phasor, and the phase error for each phasor. For example, apply the same test at nominal frequency minus 1 Hz. Measure the magnitude of any modulation of the TVE, magnitude error, and phase error. Test imbalances: Test frequencies: Test frequencies: Test input: Magnitude 10%, and 20% on one phase only, and phase 60, 40, and 20 on one phase only 49 Hz, 50 Hz (nominal frequency 50 Hz) 59 Hz, 60 Hz (nominal frequency 60 Hz) Both voltage and current
7.5.4 Dynamic compliance tests This subclause describes how to perform tests to assess the dynamic performance of a PMU. These are tests for signals with time varying magnitudes and/or frequencies.
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7.5.4.1 Dynamic compliancemeasurement bandwidth The measurement bandwidth is determined by applying sinusoidal amplitude and phase modulated signals to the PMU. This can be done by applying the modulation applied to balanced three-phase input signals (voltages and currents) with simultaneous modulation applied to signal amplitudes and phase angles. Mathematically the input signals may be represented by Equation (4), Equation (5), and Equation (6): Xa = Xm [1 + kxcos(t)] cos [0t + kacos(t )] Xb = Xm [1 + kxcos(t)] cos [0t 2/3 + kacos(t )] Xc = Xm [1 + kxcos(t)] cos [0t + 2/3+kacos(t )] where Xm is the peak amplitude of the input signal 0 is the nominal power system frequency in radians per s (2 f0) is the modulation frequency in radians per s fm = /2 is the modulation frequency in Hz kx is the amplitude modulation factor ka is the phase angle modulation factor t is time kx = 0.1 and ka = 0.1 for combined phase and amplitude modulation tests. kx = 0 and ka = 0.1 for phase modulation tests. For class P and M, the modulation frequency should range as specified in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. a) c) e) f) Begin with combined phase and amplitude modulated input at = 0.1 Hz. Capture the PMU output for at least 2 full cycles of modulation. Increase the modulation frequency by 0.2 Hz. Repeat steps b) through e) until the upper frequency range limit is reached. (4) (5) (6)
b) Wait for the system to settle (see 7.5.2). d) Calculate the maximum TVE, FE, and RFE.
g) Compare the results to the class limits in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. h) Repeat the entire test for phase modulation only. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 only prescribes these combined amplitude-phase and phase only tests. However, an amplitude only test may be useful to observe if there is an effect on the frequency measurement due to processing issues in the PMU. Adding this test is an option to consider. 7.5.4.2 Dynamic complianceperformance during ramp of system frequency PMU performance during system frequency change is tested with a ramp of frequency applied to balanced three-phase input signals (voltages and currents).
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The ramp rate is specified by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. The ramp range for class P and M class is specified by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011.
For Fs = 12 FPS, ramp range will be 2 1/3 (two and one-third) Hz to allow for an integer number of samples in the result. Note that the allowed TVE may be exceeded during a transition time when a change is made to the applied ROCOF. A time period of two sample periods after any change in the test ROCOF will not be included in the TVE calculation for the test. An example of this transition time is when the ROCOF is changed from a 0 Hz/s value to a ramp at 1 Hz/s. The test should not include frequency discontinuities (frequency steps or ROCOF steps). Mathematically, the input signals may be represented by Equation (7), Equation (8), and Equation (9): Xa = Xm cos [0t + Rf t 2] Xb = Xm cos [0 t 2/3 + Rf t 2] Xc = Xm cos [0 t + 2/3 + Rf t 2] where Xm is the amplitude of the input signal 0 is the nominal power system frequency Rf (= df/dt) is the frequency ramp rate (fixed value in this equation) a) c) Begin with input at nominal magnitude and lower frequency range. Begin ramping the frequency with a positive ramp rate specified by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. (7) (8) (9)
b) Wait for the system to settle (see 7.5.2). d) Calculate the maximum TVE, FE, and RFE excluding data from the first two sample periods following the change in ramp rate. e) f) Hold the frequency constant for at least two sample periods then begin ramping the frequency at the negative ramp rate. Calculate the maximum TVE, FE, and RFE excluding data from the first two sample periods following the change in ramp rate.
g) Compare the results to the class limits in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. 7.5.4.3 Dynamic complianceperformance during step changes in amplitude or phase A recommended practice for measuring a PMUs response to step changes in input is to run a series of step tests where the step is displaced in time relative to the PMU report time. The results are recombined to trace a complete response curve. For each test in the series, the step is applied a fraction of the reporting period later in time relative to the beginning of a reporting cycle. In each test, the influence quantity (amplitude or phase) is stepped, the response data are gathered, and the influence quantity is returned to its previous value in preparation for the next test in the series. At the end of the series of tests, the data from all tests are indexed and overlaid to create a smooth curve approximating the step response of the PMU. From the curve, delay time compensation error (called response delay in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011), response time, and overshoot can be calculated. This technique is called equivalent time sampling.
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A total number N tests should be run, where N = 10. The first step occurs at the beginning of a reporting cycle (for example at the same time as the 1 PPS timing signal). PMU data are gathered, then the input returned to nominal. The next step occurs 1/N times the reporting period after the beginning of a reporting cycle, the subsequent test 2/N, then 3/N, etc., until all N tests are complete. When the PMU data are indexed and overlaid, the result will be a curve similar to the line shown in Figure 8, which shows the curve as well as a set of values that correspond to a step input that is aligned with a time stamp for t = 0. The delay time compensation error (called delay time in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011) is non-zero if the value that corresponds to 50% of the step does not occur at the zero time stamp. The time difference between the 50% number for the time stamp and the t = 0 time stamp is the compensation error. In Figure 8, the 50% value is given by a step that occurred slightly before the t = 0 test. The response time is the period of time from the time that TVE, FE, or RFE first exceed their specified limits to the time that they return to and remain below its specified limit. Overshoot and undershoot have the same meanings as in an analog system and will not be dealt with further here.
Figure 8 Sample of step change at t = 0, illustrating response time, delay time compensation error, and overshoot measurements [Note that maximum overshoot may be over or under the final value, and the delay time
compensation error may be positive (response after step) or negative (response before step)]
a) c)
For the first test, let n = 0. At the beginning of a reporting cycle plus n / (N Fs) (i.e., n reporting period / N)) step the influence quantity (amplitude or phase) by the amount specified in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. Increment n by one (n = n + 1), then repeat steps c) through d) until n = N 1. Index and overlay the PMU data to obtain a smooth response curve.
b) Begin with three-phase balanced input at nominal amplitude and frequency.
d) Gather the PMU data, return the influence quantity to nominal and wait for the PMU to settle. e) f)
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The measurement delay time is the time from the step in influence quantity until the point at which the response curve exceeds 50% of the difference between the nominal value and the value after the step. Note that delay time compensation error can be positive (after the step, as shown in Figure 8) or negative (before the step) depending on how the PMU applies the time stamp. The response times are the times between TVE, FE, and RFE exceeding the limits and the time where TVE, FE, and RFE reach and remain within the limits as specified in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. Compare the measurement delay and response times to the limits in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. 7.5.4.4 Measurement reporting latency compliance testing Designs of real-time systems such as control loops rely on measured latency information. Precise measurement of this information is crucial for the synchrophasor-based system design. In addition, additional latencies introduced through communications and intermediate processing (PDC) of the data records must be taken into account for control applications. The power grid is analog and runs in continuous time. The PMU discretizes continuous time and performs the power grid measurements at well-defined time instants, which are determined by the reporting rate. An event on the power grid can be any kind of dynamic condition. Examples of events are the time of an amplitude or phase step change or the time when a dynamically modulated signal has a certain phase or magnitude. Power system events happen freely and are not necessarily synchronized with the PMU reporting time. The difference between event time and the discrete measurement time is found in all systems with digital signal processing. This difference is well understood and can be easily accounted for by using control system theory. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 5.3.4 provides latency definition. The standard may be interpreted as describing two latencies. The first is defined as the time between the occurrence of an event at the PMU input and the time the event is reported in the data at the output port of the PMU. It is called latency in measurement reporting (LMR). A second latency, the PMU reporting latency (LRP) is defined as the maximum time interval between the data report time as indicated by the data time stamp and the time when the data becomes available at the PMU output. Maximum permissible latencies for M and P class PMUs are specified in Table 12 of IEEE Std C37.118.12011. Whether LRP or the more stringent maximum LMR is used for comparison with Table 12 depends on how the standard is interpreted and should be noted in the specifications for the PMU being tested. PMUs with a reporting rate synchronous (50 Hz or 60 Hz) or higher will likely have difficulty in meeting these requirements (particularly maximum LMR). While higher rates are described in the standard, sufficient details do not exist therein to adequately determine compliance. The user of this guide is advised to exercise caution when applying the synchrophasor standard at higher rates until proper test and acceptance criteria are developed. In the event changes are made to clarify these issues, the user is further advised to use the most recent revision of the standard. Since a PMU may rely on a microprocessor running a real-time operating system, the measurement reporting latency may not be consistent from report to report. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 requires measurement of the reporting latency over at least 1000 consecutive reports. The latency is the largest of these values. It is recommended that the maximum uncertainty of the reporting latency measurement be 100 s. a) c) No special input is required. Subtract the time in the time stamp of the report from the time captured in item b).
b) Within 100 s of the report arriving at the output port of the PMU, capture the time.
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d) Repeat steps b) and c) for 1000 consecutive reports. e) f) The largest of these 1000 time differences is the LRP. Add one reporting period to the LRP determined in step e) to get the maximum LMR. Decide which of the two latency definitions will be reported and compare it to the limits in IEEE Std C37.118.12011 Table 12. Report the result along with the latency definition used (LPR or maximum LMR).
7.5.4.4.1 Additional information The reporting time requirement can be understood by referring to Figure 9, which illustrates the fact that each individual synchrophasor measurement represents an average value of the PMU input signal observed over a finite time interval, shown as a measurement window. The length of the measurement window varies and is determined by the PMU performance class (P or M), and additionally in case of M class, the selected reporting rate. In the example of Figure 9, the interval is 10 cycles.
Figure 9 Input signal with step change in magnitude Since IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 is a performance-driven standard, the actual position of the window with respect to the time stamp is not explicitly defined. It is contained within the definition of the TVE concept, 5.3, and Annex C of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. The intent of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 is that the performance requirements be met and the PMU manufacturer should determine how the data is processed to achieve that result. In the examples described in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, Annex C, the measurement window is shown centered on the time stamp. That arrangement is also indicated in Figure 9, which shows two windows centered on the reporting times 28.1 and 28.2. Of course, the value being calculated from the input samples is not available until some short time after the last sample within the time window. There is therefore a short delay before the number is transmitted. This is shown in Figure 10, which illustrates the LRP.
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Figure 10 Timeline for the event at 28.133 IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 defines latency measurements in 5.3.4. Two different latencies are defined in the two paragraphs in this subclause: Latency in measurement reporting (LMR) defined in the first paragraph is the time delay from when an event occurs on the power system to the time that it is reported in data. PMU reporting latency (LRP) is the difference between the PMU time stamp and the actual time at which the record with that time stamp is output (denoted by the first transition of the first bit of the output message). The two definitions are illustrated in Figure 11. LRP depends only on the time interval from the time tag to the last sample in the measurement window (generally the length of the window) and the time to process and emit the measurement. LMR is the measured delay from an event and when it is reported. It is not the maximum or minimum of such values. It depends upon where within the reporting interval the event occurs in addition to the time to make the measurement and send it. This will include filtering and windowing parameters. If we agree to represent an arbitrary event with a step change in value, the time tag is required to be within of a reporting period of an event (IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 5.5.8). Then the minimum difference between LRP and LMR is of the reporting period. Detailed analysis reveals that the maximum value of LMR is one reporting interval greater than LRP, that is, LMR = LRP + 1/Fs. It is called maximum LMR.
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Figure 11 Illustration of PMU Latencies 7.5.4.5 Time quality tests IEEE Std C37.118-2005 defines a time quality indication field in the FRACSEC portion of all messages. This time quality is 0 when the PMU is locked to a traceable source of UTC time and indicates a maximum time error when the PMU is not locked to its time source. IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 renames the above time quality indication the message time quality indication and adds a second PMU time quality indication that is zero only when it is not implemented (as for preIEEE-C37.118.2 devices) and indicates time quality whether the PMU is locked to a traceable time source or not. This time quality field has also been added to the IRIG-B time code extensions of IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 Annex F and to the synchrophasor profile for IEEE Std 1588-2008. This guide does not provide a test plan for the PMU time quality indication. At the time of writing of this guide, time sources and PMUs implementing this indication have not been designed and there has been no field experience with such devices. Test plans have not been discussed nor devised. 7.5.4.5.1 Message time quality test Testing the message time quality involves measuring the steady-state phase error while the device is locked to its time source (this will be the baseline phase error), removing the time source from the PMU, and measuring the phase error and comparing it to the message time quality over a period of no less than 1000 s. The phase error minus the baseline phase error is assumed to be caused by the PMUs timing inaccuracy. If the phase error drifts beyond the phase error that would be caused by the message time error, the PMU fails the message time quality test.
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7.5.5 Tests of multifuncation PMUs 7.5.5.1 Modified multifuncation PMU testing Devices that have additional functions above those spelled out in IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 should adjust the preceding testing of PMU as follows and should perform the additional testing described as follows. 7.5.5.1.1 Range of input signals for multifuncation PMU The actual measurement range of a multifuncation PMU is determined by (1) the types of transducers dictated by its primary functions, and (2) the IEEE C37.118.1 required signal range for phasor measurement. 7.5.5.1.2 Maximum resources loading The performance of the phasor measurement function of a multifuncation PMU can be tested under the maximum computing and communications resources utilization conditions. 7.5.5.1.3 Potential interference scenario verification The performance of the phasor measurement function of a multifuncation PMU can be tested for scenarios that may result in interference between primary functions and the phasor measurement function.
7.6 Synchrophasor message format

The synchrophasor message formats are given in IEEE Std C37.118-2005 and are extended in IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 with a new CFG-3 message and a continuous time quality (CTQ) field in the SYNC word. This message system is designed for real-time communications between a PMU measuring device and a data collection device such as a PDC. It can also be used for data sent from a PDC to another PDC. The overall data system is described here along with some implementation considerations. Details on the message format itself can be found in IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011. 7.6.1 Message framework As defined in IEEE Std C37.118-2005, there are four types of messages: data, configuration, header, and command. The command message is the only message sent from the receiving device to the PMU. It allows the receiving device to start and stop the data stream, to request a configuration message or the header message. The command message has allowance to send extended commands. Since these extensions are manufacturer specific, methods for testing these are not described here. Each message includes a CRC-CCITT check word (2 bytes). The value of this check word will be checked for each message received from the PMU, and any deviations must be reported in the test report indicating the conditions under which the deviation was detected. Whenever any changes are made to the PMU configuration (such as when the PMU reporting rate is changed in tests according to 6.3.2), the CFG-2 message will be requested from the PMU. All further interpretations of the data messages must be in accordance with this new configuration.
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The CFG-1 message and the header message will be requested from the PMU and analyzed for proper format. Finally, the PMU must be tested to respond properly to the commands to start and to stop sending the data messages as well as provide configuration and header messages. 7.6.2 Implementation issues IEEE Std C37.118.2-2011 describes a general framework and messages for data reporting. Implementation will depend on the type of medium being used and communications protocols. Most implementations will use UDP/IP or TCP/IP protocol over Ethernet. Some additional specifications of unit operation with the protocol layers to be used will simplify interoperability between utilities and within utility systems.
7.7 Final comments

Validation of PMU performance does not end with field installation of the unit. Firmware changes and hardware degradation may produce an instrument that is very different from the one tested in the laboratory. Examining PMU data for evidence of possible discrepancies is a necessary part of WAMS operation, and cross-validation of measurement sources is a necessary preface to the analysis of a major test or disturbance on the system. The basic strategy for field evaluation of PMUs and other measurement sources is to regularly review the data for inconsistencies, and then to resolve such inconsistencies as may be found. The former activity is a normal aspect of WAMS operation. The latter activity may involve such tasks as identifying the cause, upgrading the measurement system, and developing a way to clean or repair the data. Success in such matters may require supplemental laboratory tests or modeling studies, and it is rarely immediate. Sometimes it is possible to compare PMU data against data collected on other devices that share the same inputs, such as a digital fault recorder (DFR) or a PMU of another type. More often, though, one must work solely from PMU data collected at a number of different locations. It can then be difficult to distinguish discrepancies in timing or dynamic response within the measurement system from locational differences in response of the power system itself. Consequently PMU characterization through laboratory tests is essential and may be the only reference for power system analysis.
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Annex A (informative) Bibliography

Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use only. [B1] ANSI/NCSL Z540.3-2006, American National Standard for CalibrationRequirements for the Calibration of Measuring and Test Equipment, National Conference of Standards Laboratories. 9 [B2] Cisco Systems, QOS Quality of Service. 10 [B3] Dion, A., Calmettes, V., Boutillon, E., Reconfigurable GPS-Galileo receiver for satellite based applications, Proc. of ION GNSS 2007, Institute Of Navigation, Global Navigation Satellite Systems Meeting, September, Fort Worth, Texas, USA. [B4] EIPP evaluating dynamic performance of phasor measurement units, March 2004. [B5] EIPP Standards and Performance Task Team preliminary report, August 2004. [B6] Arifian, A., et al., Optic Technology Monitors HV Bus, Transmission and Distribution, 49, no. 5 (May 1997), pp. 6268. [B7] Australian Global Navigation Satellite Systems Coordination Committee, GPS Vulnerability: Information for CIOs, The Trusted Information Sharing Network (TISN), Publications on Critical Infrastructure Protection, 2006. 11 [B8] Behrendt, K., and Fodero, K., The Perfect Time: An Examination of Time Synchronization Techniques, Proc. of the Distributech 06, Feb. 79, 2006, Tampa, FLA. [B9] Carroll, K. M., and Celano, T., Timing via the New LORAN-C System, Proc. of the 2003 IEEE International Frequency Control Symposium and PDA Exhibition, pp. 245249. [B10] Celano, T., et al., Common-View LORAN-C as a Backup to GPS for Precise Time Recovery, 35th Annual Precise Time and Time Interval (PTTI) Meeting, 2003. [B11] Deeths, D., and Brunette, G., Using NTP to Control and Synchronize System ClocksPart I: Introduction to NTP, July 2001. 12 [B12] Depablos, J., et al., Comparative Testing of Synchronized Phasor Measurement Units, paper presented at the IEEE/PES General Meeting, Denver, CO, USA, June 2004. [B13] Dickerson, B., Substation Time Synchronization, Protection, Automation and Control World, Summer 2007, pp. 3945. [B14] Fardanesh, B., et al., Multifunctional Synchronized Measurement Network, IEEE Computer Applications in Power, 11, no. 1, January 1998, pp. 2630. [B15] Fernandez, D., et al., Comparisons Between Lab Measurements and Digital Simulations for a Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer, IEEE PES T&D Conference and Exposition, Latin America, 2006.
ANSI publications are available from the American National Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/). Available at http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk543/tech_topology_and_network_serv_and_protocol_suite_home.html. 11 Available at http://www.tisn.gov.au. 12 Available at http://anselmo.homeunix.net/Sun-BluePrints/0701/NTP.pdf.
10
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[B16] Hamrita, T. K., Heck, B. S., Meliopoulos, A. P., On-Line Correction of Errors Introduced By Instrument Transformers In Transmission-Level Power Waveform Steady-State Measurements, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 15, no. 4, October 2001, pp. 11161120. [B17] Hauer, J. F., Validation of Phasor Calculation in the Macrodyne PMU for California-Oregon Transmission Project Tests of March 1993, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, July 1996, pp. 12241231. [B18] Hauer, J. F., et al., Dynamic Signatures Recorded on the WAMS East Monitor Backbone, August 14, 2003 vs. Other Days, presented by J. F. Hauer to the IEEE/PES IEEE Work Group on Power System Dynamics Measurements, IEEE PES General Meeting, Denver, CO, USA, June 7, 2004. [B19] Hauer, J. F., et al., Performance of WAMS East in Providing Dynamic Information for the North East Blackout of August 14, 2003; IEEE/PES Panel on Major Grid Blackouts of 2003 in North America and Europe, IEEE PES General Meeting, Denver, CO, USA, June 612, 2003. [B20] Hauer, J. F., Martin, K., Lee, H., Evaluating Dynamic Performance of Phasor Measurement Units: Experience in the Western Power System, Interim Report of the WECC Disturbance Monitoring Work Group, partial draft of April 28, 2004. [B21] Hauer, J. F., Martin, K., Lee, H., Evaluating the Dynamic Performance of Phasor Measurement Units: Experience in the Western Power System, Interim Report of the WECC Disturbance Monitoring Work Group, partial draft of August 5, 2005. [B22] Hauer, J. F., et al., Integrated Monitor Facilities for the Western Power System: The WECC WAMS in 2003, Interim report of the WECC Disturbance Monitoring Work Group, June 25, 2003. 13 [B23] Hauer, J. F., et al., Use of the WECC WAMS in Staged System Tests for Validation of System Performance and Modeling: Summary Report for September 2005August 2006, Interim report of the WECC Disturbance Monitoring Work Group, April 25, 2007. [B24] Hauer, J. F., et al. (in association with the Disturbance Monitoring Work Group of the Western Electricity Coordinating Council), Integrated Dynamic Information for the Western Power System: WAMS Analysis in 2005, Chapter 14 in the Power System Stability and Control volume of The Electric Power Engineering Handbook, ed. 2, L. L. Grigsby, ed., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2007. [B25] Holbert, K. E., Heydt, G. T., Ni, H., Use of Satellite Technologies for Power System Measurements, Command, and Control, Proc. of the IEEE 93, 2005, pp. 947955. [B26] Huang, H. et al., Laboratory Performance Evaluation Report of SEL 421 Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU), PNNL technical report PNNL-16852, November 2007. 14 [B27] IEC 60870, Telecontrol Equipment and Systems, Transmission Protocols. 15 [B28] IEEE Std 525, IEEE Guide for the Design and Installation of Cable Systems in Substations. 16, [B29] IEEE Std 1344-1995 (Reaff 2001), IEEE Standard for Synchrophasors for Power Systems. [B30] IEEE Std 1379-2000, IEEE Trial-Use Recommended Practice for Data Communications Between Intelligent Electronic Devices and Remote Terminal Units in a Substation. [B31] IEEE Std 1615-2007, IEEE Recommended Practice for Network Communication in Electric Power Substations. [B32] IEEE Std C37.2-1991, IEEE Standard Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers and Contact Designations.
17
Available at www.wecc.biz/committees/JGC/DMWG/documents. Available at http://www.pnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-16852.pdf. 15 IEC publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States from the American National Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/). 16 IEEE publications are available from The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://standards.ieee.org/). 17 The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
14
13
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[B33] IEEE Power Systems Relaying Committee, Application Considerations of UCA 2 for Substation Ethernet Local Area Network Communication for Protection and Control. 18 [B34] InterNational Electrical Testing Association, NETA Acceptance Testing Specifications, International Electrical Testing Association, 2003. [B35] InterNational Electrical Testing Association, NETA Acceptance Testing Specifications, International Electrical Testing Association, January 1, 2007. [B36] Jacoby, J., et al., Advantages of a Combined GPS/Loran-C Precision Timing Receiver, Proceedings of the 28th ILA Technical Symposium, 1999. [B37] Lilley, R., Church, G., Harrison, M., White Paper GPS Backup for Position, Navigation and Timing Transition Strategy for Navigation and Surveillance, Aug 22, 2006. 19 [B38] Lombardi, M. A., et al., Time and Frequency Measurements Using the Global Positioning System, The International Journal of Metrology, July-September 2001, pp. 2633. [B39] Mack, P., et al., Application of the Galileo System for a Better Synchronization of Electrical Power Systems, Proc. IEEE Power Tech Conference, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2007. [B40] Martin, K. E., IEEE Standard for Synchrophasors for Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 13, no. 1, January 1998, pp. 7377. [B41] Martin, K. E., Synchronized System Measurement Networks in North America: Operating Process and System Formats Based Upon BPAs Phasor Data Concentrator, WAMS Working Note, June 1, 2004. [B42] Martin, K. E., WECC Disturbance/Performance Monitor Equipment: Proposed Standards for WECC Certification and Reimbursement, Draft report of the WECC Disturbance Monitoring Work Group, March 17, 2004. [B43] Martin, K. E., Hauer, J. F., Faris, T. J., PMU Testing and Installation Considerations at the Bonneville Power Administration, presented to the Panel of Performance Characteristics and Evaluation of PMUs, IEEE/PES 2007 General Meeting, Tampa, FL, USA, June 2428, 2007. [B44] Martin, K. E., et al., WECC Disturbance/Performance Monitor Equipment: Proposed Standards for WECC Certification and Reimbursement, March 2004. [B45] Meliopoulos, A. P., and Cokkinides, G. J., Visualization and Animation of Instrumentation Channel Effects on DFR Data Accuracy, Proceedings of the 2002 Georgia Tech Fault and Disturbance Analysis Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, April 29-30, 2002. [B46] Meliopoulos, A. P., and Cokkinides, G. J., A Virtual Environment for Protective Relaying Evaluation and Testing, IEEE Transactions of Power Systems, no. 1, February 2004, pp. 104111. [B47] Meliopoulos, A. P., Zhang, F., Zelingher, S., Hardware and Software Requirements for a Transmission System Harmonic Measurement System, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Harmonics in Power Systems (ICHPS V), Atlanta, GA, USA, September 1992, pp. 330338. [B48] Meliopoulos, A. P., Zhang, F., Zelingher, S., Power System Harmonic State Estimation, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, no. 3, July 1994, pp. 17011709. [B49] Meliopoulos, A. P., et al., GPS-Synchronized Data Acquisition: Technology Assessment and Research Issues, Proceedings of the 39th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2006. [B50] Meliopoulos, A. P., et al., Transmission Level Instrument Transformers and Transient Event Recorders Characterization for Harmonic Measurements, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8, no. 3, July 1993, pp. 15071517. [B51] Mills, D. L., Network Time Protocol Version 4 Reference and Implementation Guide, Electrical and Computer Engineering Technical Report 06-06-1, University of Delaware, June 2006, p. 83.
18 19
Available at www.pes-psrc.org/h/DRAFT%235(7-16-04)H6%20PAPER.zip. Available at www.loran.org/news/GPS-Backup-Released.pdf.
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[B52] NASPI, PMU System Test Guide Full 12_07a document. 20 [B53] NASPI, Performance and Standards Task TeamA Guide for PMU Installation, Commissioning, and Maintenance, Part I: PMU Acceptance Test Checklist. [B54] NASPI, Performance and Standards Task TeamA Guide for PMU Installation, Commissioning, and Maintenance, Part II: PMU Installation Procedures, Performance, and Standards Task Team. [B55] NASPI, Performance and Standards Task TeamSynchroPhasor Accuracy Characterization, Performance, and Standards. [B56] NASPI, PRTT Testing and Interoperability Guide, 2007. [B57] Orpen, O., and Zwaan, H., Dual Frequency DGPS Service for Combating Ionospheric Interference, The Journal of Navigation, vol. 54, no. 1, 2001, pp. 29, 36. [B58] Power System Dynamic Performance Committee, Blackout Experiences and Lessons, Best Practices for System Dynamic Performance, and the Role of New Technologies, IEEE Task Force Report, Special Publication 07TP190, July 2007. [B59] Stenbakken, G. N., et al., Reference Values for Dynamic Calibration of PMUs, Proceedings of the 41st Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-41), January 2008, IEEE Computer Society, compact disk. [B60] Volpe, J., Vulnerability assessment of the transportation infrastructure relying on the Global Positioning System (The Volpe report), John A. Volpe National Transportation System Center, Washington, DC, 2001. [B61] Wesson, K., Shepard, D., and Humphreys, T., Straight Talk on Anti-Spoofing: Securing the Future of PNT, GPS World, January 2012. [B62] Zelingher, S., Stillmann, G. I., Meliopoulos, A. P., Transmission System Harmonic Measurement System: A Feasibility Study, Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Harmonics in Power Systems (ICHPS IV), Budapest, Hungary. October 1990, pp. 436-444.
20
NASPI documents are available at www.naspi.org.
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Annex B (informative) Responses of the reference signal processing model to test signals
B.1 General
This annex provides sample typical responses of the reference signal processing model presented in Appendix C of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. Typical responses are informative only and do not construe specifications or limits. PMUs being tested may respond in a similar or quite different manner but would still be in compliance if they meet or exceed the limits of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. The PMU model response examples from this annex do not include time-stamp round-off error as the model is simulated with a floating-point time resolution with much finer resolution than 1 s.
B.2 Introduction to the graphs

The following graphs were made using a mathematical model of the PMU reference signal processing model of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 Annex C. The graphs are made at the full system sampling rates of 960 samples/second for M class and 900 samples/second for P class. This is done before the decimation to the output reporting rate in order to show the actual internal response to the PMU filters that were used to verify the performance limits of the standard.
B.3 Response of the model to steady-state test signals

B.3.1 Steady-statesignal frequency range B.3.1.1 M class signal frequency range The TVE of the M class reference model at nominal frequency is dominated by the attenuation of the filter following the complex multiplication of the input signal with the nominal frequency carrier. The output of this multiplication is both the difference of the signals and the sum of the signals. The M class filter passes the difference signal and attenuates 20 dB of the sum signal. Following are plots of TVE, magnitude error, and phase error for nominal frequency input at a PMU reporting rate (Fs) of 60 FPS. These plots are taken at the internal sampling rate of the PMU model at 960 samples per second and the sum signal can clearly be seen in Figure B.1:
60
TVE vs Time
4 Magnitude error
0.0313 TVE (%) 0.0313 0.0313 0.0313 0.0313 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Time (seconds) 0.9
x 10
-4
Magnitude Error vs Time

Phase error (degrees)
Phase Error vs Time 0.02 0.01 0 -0.01 -0.02 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Time (seconds) 0.8 1
2 0 -2 -4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Time (seconds) 0.8
Figure B.1TVE, magnitude, and phase error for nominal input at 60 FPS reporting rate B.3.1.1.1 TVE at bandwidth limits TVE as the input frequency changes is dominated by the magnitude roll off of the PMU filter. This can be observed by looking at plots of TVE, magnitude, and magnitude error as the frequency ramps from the low bandwidth limit to the high bandwidth limit shown in Figure B.2 and Table B.1:
TVE vs Frequency 1
0.74 Magnitude vs Frequency
10 Magnitude Error
60 Delta Frequency from Nominal 65
-3 x 10 Magnitude Error vs Frequency
0.73 Magniude
TVE (%)
0.5
0.72 0.71 0.7 55
0 -5 55
0 55
60 Delta Frequency from Nominal
65
65
Figure B.2TVE, magnitude, and magnitude error for Fs = 60 FPS as frequency ramps between the bandwidth limits (M class) More on frequency ramping later. Table B.1TVE, FE, and RFE at the bandwidth limits (M class)
Reporting rate (Fs) upper frequency (Fu) lower frequency (Fl) Fs = 120 Fu=65 Hz Fl=55 Hz Fs = 60 Fu=65 Hz Fl=55 Hz Fs = 30 Fu=65 Hz Fl=55 Hz Fs = 20 Fu=64 Hz Fl=56 Hz Fs = 15 Fu=63 Hz Fl=57 Hz Upper bandwidth frequency (fu) Max TVE(%) = 1.0 Max FE = 3.7e-013 Max RFE = 1.2e-010 Max TVE(%) = 0.92 Max FE = 1.7e-013 Max RFE = 9.1e-011 Max TVE(%) = 0.995 Max FE = 1.4e-013 Max RFE = 1.3e-010 Max TVE(%) = 0.89 Max FE = 1.1e-013 Max RFE = 1.2e-010 Max TVE(%) = 0.88 Max FE = 9.6e-014 Max RFE = 1.4e-010 Lower bandwidth frequency (Ll) Max TVE(%) = 0.83 Max FE = 4.5e-013 Max RFE = 1.4e-010 Max TVE(%) = 0.92 Max FE = 2.1e-013 Max RFE = 1.4e-010 Max TVE(%) = 1.0207 Max FE = 1.3e-013 Max RFE = 1.16e-010 Max TVE(%) = 0.88 Max FE = 1.1e-013 Max RFE = 1.4e-010 Max TVE(%) = 0.89 Max FE = 1.2e-013 Max RFE = 1.4e-010
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Table B.1TVE, FE, and RFE at the bandwidth limits (M class) (continued)
Reporting rate (Fs) upper frequency (Fu) lower frequency (Fl) Fs = 12 Fu = 62.4 Hz Fl = 57.6 Hz Fs = 10 Fu = 62 Hz Fl = 58 Hz Upper bandwidth frequency (fu) Max TVE(%) = 0.89 Max FE = 1.2e-013 Max RFE = 1.7e-010 Max TVE(%) = 0.85 Max FE = 1.1e-013 Max RFE = 1.4e-010 Lower bandwidth frequency (Ll) Max TVE(%) = 0.88 Max FE = 1.0e-013 Max RFE = 1.6e-010 Max TVE(%) = 0.86 Max FE = 1.0e-013 Max RFE = 1.7e-010
B.3.1.2 P class signal frequency range For steady-state input at the nominal frequency, the P class reference model filter has extremely good attenuation of all harmonics. This means that the effect of the sum output of the complex multiplication is insignificant and TVE for nominal signals is effectively 0. The P class PMU model also uses magnitude compensation for off-nominal signals, which improves performance; however the attenuation for off-nominal sum signal can be as little as 25 dB. Figure B.3 shows plots of TVE, magnitude, and magnitude error for a frequency ramp from 5 Hz below to 5 Hz above the nominal frequency:
TVE vs Frequency 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 55 60 Delta Frequency from Nominal 65
Magnitude vs Frequency 0.72 0.715 Magniude 0.71 0.705 0.7 55 60 Delta Frequency from Nominal 65
Magnitude Error 2 1 0 -1
TVE (%)
-2 55
65
Figure B.3TVE, magnitude and magnitude error for P class In the preceding figures, the effect of the sum signal at off-nominal frequencies is apparent. The effect of the frequency compensation for magnitude is also apparent when compared to the M class magnitude plot. See Table B.2. Table B.2TVE, FE, and RFE at the bandwidth limits (P class)
Reporting rate (Fs) upper frequency (Fu) lower frequency (Fl) Fs = 60 Fu = 62 Hz Fl = 58 Hz Upper bandwidth frequency (Fu) %TVE =0.03 FE =2.0e-013 RFE = 1.3e-010 Lower bandwidth frequency (Ll) %TVE = 0.032 FE = 3.5e-013 RFE = 7.5e-011
Note that the P class reference model filter is the same at all reporting rates so the performance will be the same for all reporting rates. B.3.2 Steady-state signal magnitude range The PMU reference model performs the same under any steady-state signal magnitude. The results of this test for the limits of the magnitude range are trivial and are not shown here. The results will not be trivial for real-world PMUs. 62
B.3.3 Steady-state phase angle range The PMU reference model performs the same under any steady-state phase angle. The results of this test for the limits of the magnitude range are trivial and so are not shown here. The results will not be trivial for real-world PMUs. B.3.4 Steady-state worst-case harmonic distortion The PMU reference model is most susceptible to interference from lower harmonics. This is due to filter design tradeoffs between reporting latency, relation of frequency and ROCOF measurements and the time stamp of the phasor, and applications need for out-of-band noise immunity. B.3.4.1 M class response to harmonic distortion Table B.3M class response to 10% 2nd through 8th harmonics
Fs = 120 Fs = 60 2nd %TVE = 1.12 FE = 0.018 RFE = 19.5 %TVE = 0.038 FE = 0.0023 RFE = 2.46 %TVE = 0.012 FE = 0.0016 RFE = 1.66 %TVE = 0.013 FE = 0.0013 RFE = 1.40 %TVE = 0.004 FE = 0.0006 RFE = 0.62 %TVE = 0.007 FE = 0.0001 RFE = 0.13 %TVE = 0.010 FE = 0.0002 RFE = 0.16 3rd a %TVE = 0.13 FE = 4e-014 RFE = 2e-011 %TVE = 0.036 FE = 2.5e-014 RFE = 2.4e-011 %TVE = 0.020 FE = 1.3e-014 RFE = 2.6e-011 %TVE = 0.018 FE = 2.9e-014 RFE = 5e-011 %TVE = 0.007 FE = 7e-014 RFE = 9.6e-011 %TVE = 0.010 FE = 5e-014 RFE = 9e-011 %TVE = 0.009 FE = 5e-014 Rfe = 6e-011 4th %TVE = 0.13 FE = 0.018 RFE = 19.5 %TVE = 0.035 FE = 0.0023 RFE = 2.46 %TVE = 0.014 FE = 0.0016 RFE = 1.656 %TVE = 0.014 FE = 0.0013 RFE = 1.40 %TVE = 0.005 FE = 0.0006 RFE = 0.62 %TVE = 0.010 FE = 0.0001 RFE = 0.13 %TVE = 0.008 FE = 0.0002 RFE = 0.16 5th %TVE = 0.13 FE = 0.0015 RFE = 6.56 %TVE = 0.034 FE = 0.0002 RFE = 0.81 %TVE = 0.019 FE = 0.0002 RFE = 0.72 %TVE = 0.016 FE = 3.4e-005 RFE = 0.15 %TVE = 0.007 FE = 6e-005 RFE = 0.28 %TVE = 0.009 FE = 2.0e-005 RFE = 0.09 %TVE = 0.008 FE = 1.8e-005 RFE = 0.08 6th a %TVE = 0.13 FE = 5e-014 RFE = 2.5e-011 %TVE = 0.034 FE = 3.5e-014 RFE = 3.5e-011 %TVE = 0.014 FE = 3.1e-014 RFE = 4.5e-011 %TVE = 0.016 FE = 1.7e-014 RFE = 3e-011 %TVE = 0.005 FE = 6e-014 RFE = 6.9e-011 %TVE = 0.010 FE = 4e-014 RFE = 8e-011 %TVE = 0.008 FE = 5e-014 RFE = 1e-010 7th %TVE = 0.13 FE = 0.0015 RFE = 6.56 %TVE = 0.034 FE = 0.0002 RFE = 0.81 %TVE = 0.019 FE = 0.0002 RFE = 0.72 %TVE = 0.015 FE = 3.4e-005 RFE = 0.15 %TVE = 0.007 FE = 6e-005 RFE = 0.28 %TVE = 0.010 FE = 4e-014 RFE = 8e-011 %TVE = 0.009 FE = 1.8e005 RFE = 0.08 8th %TVE = 0.13 FE = 0.003 RFE = 5.37 %TVE = 0.034 FE = 0.0002 RFE = 0.81 %TVE = 0.014 FE = 0.0015 RFE = 2.83 %TVE = 0.017 FE = 0.0007 RFE = 1.26 %TVE = 0.005 FE = 0.0006 RFE = 1.11 %TVE = 0.010 FE = 2.0e-005 RFE = 0.09 %TVE = 0.009 FE = 0.0002 RFE = 0.43
Fs = 30
Fs = 20
Fs = 15
Fs = 12
Fs = 10
Harmonic numbers with multiples of 3 are zero sequence and have no effect on the Frequency and ROCOF measurements.
ROCOF is most sensitive to harmonic distortion. The higher the reporting rate, the more susceptible the ROCOF measurement is.
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B.3.4.2 P class response to harmonic distortion Since the P class reference model filter has excellent harmonic rejection, the TVE, FE, and RFE for harmonics are very small. See Table B.4. Table B.4P class response to 1% 2nd through 8th harmonics
Fs = Any 2nd %TVE = 1.8e-012 FE = 1.1e-013 RFE| = 3.1e-011 3rd a %TVE = 1.8e-012 FE = 1.0e-013 RFE = 2.6e-011 4th %TVE = 1.5e-012 FE = 8e-014 RFE = 2.1e-011 5th %TVE = 2.2e-012 FE = 1.5e-013 RFE = 3.9e-011 6th a %TVE = 2.7e-012 FE = 2.4e-013 RFE = 4.2e-011 7th %TVE = 2.1e-012 FE = 1.2e-013 RFE = 4.0e-011
Harmonic numbers with multiples of 3 are zero sequence and have no effect on the Frequency and ROCOF measurements.
B.3.5 Steady-state worst-case out-of-band interfering signal For each PMU reporting Rate Fs , the passband is defined as |f f0| Fs/2 where f is the frequency of an interfering signal and f0 is the nominal frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz). IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 5.5.5 Table 3 and Table 4 specify limits for TVE, FE, and RFE in the presence of out-of-band interfering signals where |f f0| Fs/2. There are no specified limits for P class, only for M class. For the test, the input test frequency is varied between f0 and 10% of the Nyquist frequency of the reporting rate. The worst-case performance happens when the input frequency is furthest away from nominal (f0 10% of Nyquist) IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 Annex C PMU reference model has a passband of Fs/5 on either side of nominal frequency. The worst-case interference is when the interfering signal is near the band limit frequency. Performance improves rapidly as the frequency of interfering signal gets further from the nominal frequency. For the model, the off-nominal input test frequency contributes to TVE due to the magnitude error of the filter response. The worst case is when the input frequency is at f0 10% of Nyquist. Example For IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 Annex C model with nominal frequency f0 = 60 Hz and Fs reporting rate 30 FPS, Table B.5 shows TVE, FE, and RFE for input and interfering frequencies on either side of nominal under worst-case conditions.
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Table B.5Worst-case effect of out-of-band interfering signals for Fs = 60 and 10 FPS

Fs Fin TVE (%) 63.0 Hz 60 FPS 57.0 Hz FE (Hz) RFE (Hz/s) TVE (%) FE (Hz) RFE (Hz/s) 29 Hz 0.99727 1.99E-13 1.24E-10 0.95245 2.20E-13 5.88E-11 54 Hz TVE (%) 60.5 10 FPS FE (Hz) RFE (Hz/s) TVE (%) 0.13599 4.97E-14 9.12E-11 0.13516 4.97E-14 7.81E-11 29.5 Hz 1.1041 2.27E-13 8.48E-11 1.0698 2.27E-13 9.76E-11 54.5 Hz 0.29562 7.82E-14 7.17E-11 0.30457 7.11E-14 1.11E-10 30 Hz 1.1497 2.34E-13 7.16E-11 1.1907 2.27E-13 9.08E-11 55 Hz 0.99495 4.974E-14 8.473E-11 1.0008 5.68E-01 1.43E-10 90 Hz 1.1515 2.20E-13 8.44E-11 1.1925 2.42E-13 8.48E-11 65 Hz 0.99515 6.39E-14 1.24E-10 1.001 3.55E-14 5.21E-11 90.5 Hz 1.1024 2.34E-13 9.12E-11 1.0688 2.27E-13 1.04E-10 65.5 Hz 0.3094 8.53E-14 7.17E-11 0.29098 5.68E-14 1.24E-10 91 Hz 0.98901 2.20E-13 1.04E-10 0.95627 2.27E-13 9.81E-11 66 Hz 0.13072 6.39E-14 9.44E-11 0.13338 5.68E-14 7.33E-11
59.5
FE (Hz) RFE (Hz/s)
Note that the effect of out-of-band interfering signals on FE and RFE are negligible. The errors shown here are primarily due to floating point errors in the simulation.
B.4 Response to dynamic input signal tests

B.4.1 Dynamic measurement bandwidth tests response To understand how the PMU reference model responds to modulated input, it is helpful to look at the response to phase modulation (PM) and amplitude modulation (AM) separately. Plots of PMU response with respect to input signal frequency can be quite informative, especially when troubleshooting. Figure B.4 shows plots for measured phase at reporting rate of 60 FPS versus both time and frequency for a a = x = 1 Hz phase modulation at Ka = Kx = 0.1 Hz modulation index:
Phase vs Time Measured Phase (degrees)
Phase vs Frequency Measured Phase (degrees) 10 5 0 -5 -10 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 Delta Frequency from Nominal 0.1
10 5 0 -5 -10 0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (seconds) 2
Figure B.4Phase versus time and frequency for 1 Hz modulation at 0.1 index
65
The phase modulation is specified to be Ka cos(m t ) so the measured phase begins at 5 degrees at 0 Hz delta frequency and increases to 0 degrees at 0.1 Hz delta frequency. A. 0.1 Hz delta frequency is where the modulation is crossing 0 (going positive) so the phase continues to increase towards 5 degrees while the frequency decreases back to 0. Frequency crosses 0 at the positive peak of the modulation signal so phase begins to decrease as the frequency decreases and phase reaches 0 at 0.1Hz, which is the negative going zero crossing of the modulation signal. Frequency begins to increase and phase continues to decrease as the modulation continues towards the negative peak where it began. Note that for a modulated phase, the input frequency is at its maximum and minimum at the zero crossings of the modulation; this is where the ROCOF is at its maximum. Dynamic measurement bandwidth uses combined amplitude and phase modulated input signals to test PMU response. For all tests, amplitude and phase modulations indices are fixed at 0.10 (10%). Modulation frequency (Fmod) is varied from 0.1 Hz up to the reporting rate divided by 5 (Fs/5). The worst-case response for the reference PMU at any reporting rate is at the maximum modulation frequency of Fs/5. Table B.6 shows maximum TVE, FE, and ROCOF error for the worst-case modulation frequencies: Table B.6Response to combined amplitude and phase modulated input, 10% index
Fs = 120 Hz M-class Fmod = 24 Hz %TVE = 3.01 FE = 1.16 RFE = 215.0 Fmod = 12 Hz %TVE = 1.75 FE = 0.34 RFE = 33.5 Fmod = 6 Hz %TVE = 0.56 FE = 0.095 RFE = 5.59 Fmod = 4 Hz %TVE = 0.35 FE = 0.047 RFE = 2.04 Fmod = 3 Hz %TVE = 0.74 FE = 0.038 RFE = 1.20 Fmod = 2.4 Hz %TVE = 0.35 FE = 0.022 RFE = 0.65 Fmod = 2 %TVE = 0.76 FE = 0.023 RFE = 0.48 P-class Fmod = 12 Hz %TVE = 1.98 FE = 0.33 RFE = 30.5 Fmod = 6 Hz %TVE = 0.52 FE = 0.078 RFE = 3.6 Fmod = 3 Hz %TVE = 0.13 FE = 0.019 RFE = 0.43 Fmod = 2 Hz %TVE = 0.06 FE = 0.008 RFE = 0.13 Fmod = 1.5 Hz %TVE = 0.03 FE = 0.005 RFE = 0.05 Fmod = 1.2 Hz %TVE = 0.02 FE = 0.003 RFE = 0.03 Fmod = 1 Hz %TVE = 0.015 FE = 0.002 RFE = 0.02
Fs = 60 Hz
Fs = 30 Hz
Fs = 20 Hz
Fs = 15 Hz
Fs = 12 Hz
Fs = 10 Hz
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B.4.1.1 Effect of phase modulation on TVE The effect of phase modulation on TVE is also quite informative, especially what happens as the modulation frequency increases. The next few plots show TVE for low modulation frequencies increasing to higher modulation frequencies. Figure B.5 shows TVE versus time and frequency for 60 FPS reporting rate, 3 Hz modulation frequency, and 0.1 modulation index. The maximum TVE is well within the limits but is maximum at 0 Hz delta frequency. This is where the modulation is crossing 0 and the ROCOF is at its highest. At either end of the delta frequency (0.1 index 3 Hz modulation frequency = 0.3 Hz delta frequency) the TVE is at its lowest. As the modulation frequency increases, so does the maximum TVE:
TVE vs Time 0.03 0.02 0.01 0
TVE vs Frequency 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 -0.4
TVE (%)
0.2
0.4 0.6 Time (seconds)
0.8
TVE (%)
-0.2 0 0.2 Delta Frequency from Nominal
0.4
Figure B.5TVE versus time and frequency for Fs = 60, 3 Hz phase modulation at 0.1 index The plots in Figure B.6 were made at 6Hz modulation frequency, 0.1; the maximum TVE is about 0.15% and the minimum TVE is about 0.05. Notice that the TVE samples are symmetrical on either side of 0 delta frequency. This is an effect of the relation between the modulation frequency and the sample rate.
TVE vs Time 0.25 0.2 TVE (%) 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Time (seconds) 0.8 1
TVE vs Frequency 0.25 0.2 TVE (%) 0.15 0.1 0.05 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 Delta Frequency from Nominal 1
Figure B.6TVE versus time and frequency for Fs =60, 6Hz phase modulation at 0.1 index An interesting and important effect occurs then the TVE samples are not symmetrical about 0 delta frequency, as shown in the plots of 8 Hz modulation frequency in Figure B.7:
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TVE vs Time 0.4 0.3 TVE (%) 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Time (seconds) 0.8 1 TVE (%) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -1
TVE vs Frequency
-0.5 0 0.5 Delta Frequency from Nominal
Figure B.7TVE versus time and frequency for Fs = 60, 8 Hz phase modulation at 0.1 index Notice on the plot of TVE versus time the lines between the TVE sample points. This effect could be a problem an insufficient number of samples is taken. The maximum TVE may not be found, as illustrated by the following set of plots taken at 9.8 Hz modulation frequency. In the plots in Figure B.8, it is clear that an insufficient number of samples were taken to determine the maximum TVE. The pair of plots took a sufficient number of samples.
TVE vs Time 0.8 0.6 TVE (%) 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Time (seconds) TVE vs Time 0.4 0.5 TVE (%) 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 Delta Frequency from Nominal TVE vs Frequency 1 TVE vs Frequency
0.8 0.6 TVE (%) 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (seconds) 2 TVE (%)
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 Delta Frequency from Nominal 1
Figure B.8TVE versus time and frequency for Fs = 60, 9.8 Hz phase modulation at 0.1 index Finally, the plots in Figure B.9 show what happens at the upper limit of the measurement bandwidth test. The upper set of plots was taken at modulation frequency of 12 Hz (still at 60 FPS reporting rate) and the lower set taken at modulation frequency of 11.9 Hz. Both show the maximum TVE at about 1.15%.
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TVE vs Time 1.5 1 0.5 0 1.5 1 0.5 0 -2
TVE vs Frequency
TVE (%)
0.5
1 1.5 Time (seconds) TVE vs Time
TVE (%)
-1 0 1 Delta Frequency from Nominal TVE vs Frequency
1.5 1 0.5 0
1.5 1 0.5 0 -2
TVE (%)
0.5
1 1.5 Time (seconds)
TVE (%)
-1 0 1 Delta Frequency from Nominal
Figure B.9TVE versus time and frequency for 12 Hz and 11.8 Hz modulation at 0.1 index B.4.1.1.1 Combined amplitude and phase modulation An interesting thing happens to TVE when phase and amplitude modulation is combined (see Figure B.10).
TVE vs Time 0.4 0.3 TVE (%) 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Time (seconds) 0.8 1 TVE (%) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 59 59.5 60 60.5 Delta Frequency from Nominal 61 TVE vs Frequency
Figure B.10TVE versus time and frequency for AM and PM at 6 Hz, 0.1 index TVE as frequency is increasing is lower than TVE as frequency is decreasing. The maximum TVE is where the frequency crosses zero, which is also the maximum ROCOF because this is where the phase error is at its maximum. The main contributor to TVE at the frequency endpoints (where the ROCOF is 0) is magnitude error due to the filter roll-off described in B.3.1. The reason that the TVE versus frequency is different for increasing and decreasing frequency is because the amplitude modulation is 180 degrees out of phase with the frequency modulation. When the frequency is increasing, the amplitude is decreasing, and its contribution to TVE is reduced compared to when the frequency is decreasing and the amplitude is increasing.
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B.4.1.2 Effect of modulation on frequency error and rate of change frequency error The plots in Figure B.11 illustrate FE and RFE under 1 Hz phase modulation with 0.1 modulation index:
2 Frequency error 1 0 -1 -2 0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (seconds) 2 x 10
-3
Frequency Error vs Time 2 Frequency Error 1 0 -1
-3 x 10 Frequency Error vs Frequency
-2 59.8
59.9
60 Frequency
60.1
60.2
Figure B.11Frequency error versus time and frequency for 1 Hz phase modulation at 0.1 index The frequency error is greatest when the delta frequency is crossing zero. This is because the rate of change of frequency is at its greatest at this point, and the effect of the very small difference between the phasor time stamp and the actual time of the frequency measurement has its greatest effect. The sign of the frequency error changes and is positive while the frequency is increasing and negative when it is decreasing. See Figure B.12.
2 ROCOF error 1 0 -1 -2 0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (seconds) 2 x 10
-3
ROCOF Error vs Time 2 ROCOF Error 1 0 -1
x 10
-3
ROCOF Error vs Frequency
-2 59.8
59.9
60 Frequency
60.1
60.2
Figure B.12FE versus time and frequency for 1 Hz phase modulation at 0.1 index RFE is greatest where the delta frequencies are greatest and least where the delta frequency crosses zero. The reason for this is that ROCOF itself is zero when the modulation signal is at its positive and negative peaks and maximum where the modulation signal is crossing zero. As the phase modulation frequency increases, so does the error due to the effect of the small time offset from the phasor estimate (see Figure B.13): An improvement can be made to the frequency and ROCOF estimation by centering the estimate over the time stamp. This is made at the cost of one or two internal PMU sample periods of additional latency. Figure B.14 shows plots at the same modulation as above using a three sample estimate of frequency centered on the phasor being reported at the time of the time stamp. Maximum FE is improved from 0.069 Hz to 0.024 Hz and RFE is improved from 3.08 Hz/s to 1.37 Hz/s.
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Frequency Error vs Time 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 0 1 1.5 Time (seconds) ROCOF Error vs Time 0.5 2 Frequency Error Frequency error 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 59
Frequency Error vs Frequency
60 60.5 Frequency ROCOF Error vs Frequency
59.5
61
4 ROCOF Error 0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (seconds) 2 ROCOF error 2 0 -2 -4
4 2 0 -2 -4 59 59.5 60 Frequency 60.5 61
Figure B.13FE and RFE versus time and frequency for 6 Hz phase modulation at 0.1 index
Frequency Error vs Time 0.01 0.005 0 -0.005 -0.01 0 1 1.5 Time (seconds) ROCOF Error vs Time 0.5 2 Frequency Error Frequency error 0.01 0.005 0 -0.005 -0.01 59
Frequency Error vs Frequency
60 60.5 Frequency ROCOF Error vs Frequency
59.5
61
1 ROCOF Error 0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (seconds) 2 ROCOF error 0.5 0 -0.5 -1
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 59 59.5 60 Frequency 60.5 61
Figure B.14Similar plots using a three sample estimate of frequency centered on the phasor being reported at the time of the time stamp
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Table B.7Response to combined amplitude and phase modulated input, 10% index
Fs = 120 Hz M class Fmod = 24 Hz %TVE = 0.83 FE = 0.28 RFE = 26.5 Fmod = 12 Hz %TVE = 1.60 FE = 0.29 RFE = 26.3 Fmod = 6 Hz %TVE = 0.56 FE = 0.077 RFE = 3.9 Fmod = 4 Hz %TVE = 0.35 FE = 0.047 RFE = 2.04 Fmod = 3 Hz %TVE = 0.34 FE = 0.030 RFE = 0.75 Fmod = 2.4 Hz %TVE = 0.34 FE = 0.021 RFE = 0.44 Fmod = 2 %TVE = 0.34 FE = 0.017 RFE = 0.29 P class Fmod = 12 Hz %TVE = 1.79 FE = 0.33 RFE = 29.4 Fmod = 6 Hz %TVE = 0.47 FE = 0.078 RFE = 3.6 Fmod = 3 Hz %TVE = 0.12 FE = 0.019 RFE = 0.43 Fmod = 2 Hz %TVE = 0.06 FE = 0.008 RFE = 0.13 Fmod = 1.5 Hz %TVE = 0.03 FE = 0.005 RFE = 0.05 Fmod = 1.2 Hz %TVE = 0.02 FE = 0.003 RFE = 0.03 Fmod = 1 Hz %TVE = 0.01 FE = 0.002 RFE = 0.02
Fs = 60 Hz
Fs = 30 Hz
Fs = 20 Hz
Fs = 15 Hz
Fs = 12 Hz
Fs = 10 Hz
B.4.1.3 Response to amplitude modulation only Though IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 does not specify AM only testing, the graphs of the PMU response should be useful to the practitioner. Note that there are no plots versus frequency. That is because there is no frequency shift to AM only. It is interesting to note that the maximum modulation frequency may expose the worst-case TVE. Figure B.15 shows a plot of TVE at Fs = 60 FPS with a 12 Hz modulation frequency:
TVE vs Time 1.5 1 0.5 0
TVE (%)
0.2
0.8
Figure B.15TVE for AM at 12 Hz, index 0.1 at Fs = 60 FPS
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However at 11.9 Hz, it is apparent that the TVE goes above where it was at 12 Hz (see Figure B.16):
TVE vs Time 1.5 1 0.5 0 1.5 1 0.5 0 TVE vs Time
TVE (%)
0.2
0.8
TVE (%)
2 Time (seconds)
Figure B.16TVE for AM at 11.9 Hz, 0.1 index at Fs = 60 FPS The second plot shows once again why it is important to make sure enough samples are gathered to help ensure that maximum TVE is reached. B.4.2 Dynamic response to linear frequency ramp test signals B.4.2.1 M class TVE response to frequency ramps In B.3, a plot from a frequency ramp was used to illustrate the impact of magnitude roll off of the M class reference models filter on TVE. For reporting rates of Fs below 30 FPS, the TVE is above 1% until the input frequency reaches reporting rate divided by 5 (Fs/5). This is the basis for the M class limits of IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011. See Figure B.17.
TVE vs Frequency 1
TVE (%)
0.5
0 55
60 Frequency
65
Figure B.17TVE versus time and frequency for 1Hz frequency ramp from 5hz to +5hz at Fs = 30 FPS The primary contributor to the M class TVE is the magnitude roll off of the M class reference models filter, which is not required to be frequency compensated. Figure B.18 shows graphs of magnitude and Figure B.19 shows phase error over the ramp:
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10 Magnitude error 5 0 -5
x 10
-3
Magnitude Error vs Time 10 Magnitude Error 5 0
4 6 Time (seconds)
10
-5 55
60 Frequency
65
Figure B.18Magnitude error versus time and frequency for 1 Hz frequency ramp from 5Hz to +5Hz at Fs = 30 FPS
Phase Error vs Time 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 0 2 4 6 Time (seconds) 8 10 Phase Error (degrees) Phase error (degrees) 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 55 60 Frequency 65 Phase Error vs Frequency
Figure B.19Phase error versus time and frequency for 1 Hz frequency ramp from 5Hz to +5Hz at Fs = 30 FPS B.4.2.2 M class frequency and RFE response to frequency ramps The primary contributor to PMU reference model frequency and ROCOF error under ramp test is the small offset of the frequency measurement from the time stamp. See Figure B.20 and Figure B.21.
Figure B.20Frequency error versus time and frequency
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2 ROCOF error 0 -2 -4
x 10
-5
ROCOF Error vs Time 2 ROCOF Error 0 -2
x 10
-5
ROCOF Error vs Frequency
4 6 Time (seconds)
10
-4 55
60 Frequency
65
Figure B.21ROCOF error versus time and frequency The ROCOF error for frequency ramp tests is very low. B.4.2.3 P class TVE response to frequency ramps The P class reference PMU model requires magnitude compensation for the frequency roll off of the filter. Since magnitude roll off is the main contributor to TVE in the M class model, the P class model responds to frequency ramps with lower TVE (see Figure B.22):
TVE vs Time 0.2 0.15 TVE (%) 0.1 0.05 0 0 2 4 6 Time (seconds) 8 10 TVE (%) 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 55 60 Frequency 65 TVE vs Frequency
Figure B.22TVE versus time and frequency for P class frequency ramp Despite the improved TVE performance of the P class PMU, the bandwidth (BW) is limited to 2Hz for the ramp test. This gives even better TVE. See Table B.8.
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Table B.8Response to frequency ramp rate = 1 Hz/s, ramp range = BW

M class Fs = 120 Hz BW = 5 Hz Fs = 60 Hz BW = 5 Hz Fs = 30 Hz BW = 5 Hz Fs = 20 Hz BW = 4 Hz Fs = 15 Hz BW = 3 Hz Fs = 12 Hz BW = 2.4 Hz Fs = 10 Hz BW = 2 Hz P class same for all Fs BW = 2 Hz
%TVE = 1.02 FE = 0.003 RFE = 3e-008 %TVE = 0.92 FE = 0.003 RFE = 1.6e-006 %TVE = 0.97 FE = 0.003 RFE = 3.4e-005 %TVE = 0.93 FE = 0.004 RFE = 0.0003 %TVE = 1.05 FE = 0.004 RFE = 0.0008 %TVE = 0.96 FE = 0.005 RFE = 0.0021 %TVE = 1.13 FE = 0.007 RFE = 0.0042
%TVE = 0.04 FE = 0.003 RFE = 6e-008
B.4.3 Dynamic response to step changes in amplitude When a step change in input occurs, the Annex C PMU model output amplitude is a finite impulse step response centered around the 50% point of the step because the Annex C model uses a symmetrical FIR filter centered around the time of each report. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 limits the response time, which is the difference in time that the TVE leaves the specified accuracy limit until it returns to and remains within the specified limit. In Figure B.23, the response time is shown. Recall that the response time is the time that the TVE exceeds 1%. Figure B.24 shows the TVE during the step change in amplitude. A minor difference may exist between the time reported for the instant a step change is applied and the actual time, shown in Figure B.23 and Figure B.24 as a delay-time compensation error. The measurement delay time compensation error can be very small. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 also limits the maximum overshoot, which is a maximum percentage of the step magnitude that the signal can reach before it settles to the final value. Figure B.23 shows this overshoot and undershoot.
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Figure B.23Measurement response to a 10% step change in magnitude
Figure B.24TVE for a 10% step change in amplitude B.4.4 Dynamic response to step changes in phase When a step change in the input occurs, the Annex C PMU model output phase is a finite impulse step response centered around the 50% point of the step. It makes no difference if the step change was amplitude or phase because the Annex C model uses a symmetrical FIR filter centered around the time of each report. Figure B.25 shows the response to a 90 step change in phase at time t = 0. IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 limits the response time, which is the difference in time that the TVE leaves the specified accuracy limit until it returns to and remains within the specified limit. In Figure B.26, the response time is the time elapsed between the vertical lines shown about one eighth of a second before and one eighth of a second after the step change in phase. These are the times that the TVE exceeds the specified limit of error in response to the step change in phase.
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Figure B.25Measurement response to a 90 step change in phaseexample
Figure B.26TVE for a 90 step change in phase It is worth pointing out that the error is not calculated in quite the conventional way, by taking the difference between the measurement and the true value and finding a ratio. Because of the way TVE is defined, the errors are Vee-shaped functions, such as shown in Figure 7 in 7.5.1.1 of this guide. It is observed in 7.5.1.1 that the TVE is dominated by phase errors for phase errors greater than 0.5 degrees. In fact, if the amplitude error is zero, the TVE due to phase error can be expressed as shown in Equation (B.1): TVE = 1.75 where is the phase error in degrees and the TVE is in percent. In the case of a 90 phase shift, the error will be 45 at the center of the response, so the TVE will be nearly 79%, as shown in Figure B.26. (B.1)
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B.5 Synchrophasor TIMEBASE and TVE

According to IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 5.4.2 on reporting times: For a reporting rate N frames per second (FPS) where N is a positive integer, the reporting times shall be evenly spaced through each second with frame number 0 (numbered 0 thru N1) coincident with the UTC second rollover (e.g., coincident with a 1 PPS provided by GPS). These reporting times (time tags) are to be used for determining the instantaneous values of the synchrophasor as defined in 4.2. Synchrophasors carry with them a TIMESTAMP that is specified to represent the absolute time of the phasor measurement. The fractional part of the second is represented by a 24-bit unsigned integer called FRACSEC. To recover the fraction of a second, the 24-bit unsigned integer is divided by the TIMEBASE, which is a number transmitted in the CFG-2 message. A popular TIMEBASE is 1 million (106). The resolution of the fraction of a second will be the inverse of the TIMEBASE; typically 1/106 second or 1 s. Note that only 20 bits would be required to carry FRACSEC with a 106 TIMEBASE, so four FRACSEC bits are typically unused. If all 24 bits were used, the resolution would be 16 times more precise. A typical PMU with steady-state nominal frequency will output a very accurate phasor. However with a time base of 106, the time stamp for many of the measurements will be rounded off to 1 s precision. Consider a nominal frequency of 60 Hz and synchrophasor reporting rate (Fs) of 30 reports per second: Beginning with a report made on the UTC second, the tenth report will be made at 1/3 of a second and twentieth report at 2/3 of a second. However the FRACSEC representations will be rounded to 0.333333 and 0.666667, for an error of minus and plus 1/3 s, respectively. In fact, two out of every three synchrophasor measurements at Fs = 30 will have a round-off error of 1/3 s. Applications and PMU test systems may use different interpretations of the time tag. In this guide, in line with IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 5.4.2., it is recommended that the time tag in a PMU report is interpreted as evenly spaced through each second, regardless of the resolution of the time tag. It is worthwhile to be aware that some applications and test equipment might have used the digitally reported value of the time tag, possibly affected by the truncation of the value.
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Annex C (informative) Effects of signal channels

C.1 Introduction
Even though a PMU is required by IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 to have errors less than 1% (TVE), the overall error in a synchrophasor measurement system may be larger due to other sources. In particular, the errors in instrument transformers and the associated cabling may be significant. This annex examines such sources of error. From the measurement point of view, two observations must be made. First, such sources of error are what is termed Type B uncertainty by metrologists. That means that no amount of repeated measurement and data processing will reduce their effect. A value that is wrong because (for example) of a scaling error is always wrong, no matter how many times the measurement is made. Second, the source of error is external to the PMU hardware. A PMU that meets all the requirements of the PMU standard (IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011) in terms of its accuracy can still furnish synchrophasor readings that (for example) do not agree with readings from another PMU in a nearby part of the power system, even if both are compliant with the same standard. The differences are not the result of PMU problems. They are system differences, caused by the differences of the instrument transformers, the cabling, and the transformer burdens. Established standards set classes for instrument transformers based on application-dependent limits in the phase and magnitude errors. These standards were developed when there were, for all practical purposes, two applications for the instrumentation transformer: metering and protection. For metering, with the implication of energy billing, it was crucial to establish performance specifications that gave very accurate results provided the quantities being measured were close to nominal. The frequency could be expected to be very close to the nominal value of power frequency, for example, and no significant attention had to be paid to the frequency response of the device. Typically, accurate performance within 1% or 2% of the rated power frequency was required. For a protection application, on the other hand, conditions were expected to be at times far from nominal. A CT was expected to furnish good current values even if there was a very large overcurrent, for example, 20 times greater than the rated current. In this situation, the stringent accuracy requirements of metering were relaxed. It may be worthwhile to note that the 2011 revision to IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 (as compared to its predecessor IEEE Std C37.118-2005) effectively acknowledges different requirements for protection and metering applications and sets different dynamic performance requirements for the P class and M class synchrophasor data. PMUs are expected to furnish good results in a wide variety of circumstances, and yet at the time this is written (2012) no particular PMU-application standards have been written to specify the performance of the instrument transformers that they are connected to. It is common when a PMU is installed to use existing voltage and CTs. Often little consideration is given to the suitability of the transformer characteristics or to the cabling system that connects it to the PMU because there are few cost-effective options. Testing performed on instrument transformers prior to installation determines accurately the phase and magnitude errors of an individual device or of a type under certain conditions. In principle, such errors, if known, and if constant as a function of time and environmental conditions, could be stored in the PMU and used to correct the readings if necessary. It is important to keep in mind that some of these corrections may be suitable in only a limited or narrow range of conditions.
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C.2 Instrument transformer standards

The magnitude and phase errors permitted by some current standards are presented for the convenience of the reader in Table C.1, Table C.2, and Table C.3. They are representative as of November 2012: Table C.1Maximum magnitude and phase error for ANSI class type CTs (IEEE Std C57.13)
ANSI CT type Relaying Metering 1.2 Metering 0.6 Metering 0.3 Load current (%) 10 to 2000 10 100 10 100 10 100 Max. magnitude error (%) 10 2.4 1.2 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.3 Max. phase error (degrees) Not specified 2.08 1.04 1.04 0.52 0.52 0.26
Table C.2Maximum magnitude and phase error for ANSI class VTs (IEEE Std C57.13)
ANSI VT type Relaying Metering 1.2 Metering 0.6 Metering 0.3 Max. magnitude error (%) 10 1.2 0.6 0.3 Max. phase error (degrees) Not specified 2.08 1.04 0.52
Table C.3Maximum magnitude and phase errors of IEC class CTs (IEC 60044-x series)
IEC CT type Relay type 10P Relay type 5P Load 100% Max. limit 100% Max. limit 5% 20% 100% 120% 5% 20% 100% 120% 5% 20% 100% Max. magnitude error (%) 3 10 (composite error) 1 5 (composite error) 3.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.75 0.35 0.2 Max. phase error (degrees) Not specified Not specified 1 Not specified 3.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.167
Metering type 1.0 accuracy
120%
5% 20% 100% 120%
0.2
0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1
0.167
0.250 0.133 0.083 0.083
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The maximum error values given in this summary are, of course, all applicable at the nominal power frequency. No guidance is given if the frequency is not close to nominal; for example, IEC 60044-7 specifies the standard reference range of frequencies shall be from 99% to 101% of the rated frequency for the accuracy classes for measurement, and from 96% to 102% for the accuracy classes for protection. That is an unfortunate circumstance, because it has been established experimentally 21 that many transformers exhibit resonance conditions with their cabling and burden that can result in very significant performance challenges. Certainly, the errors can greatly exceed those allowed in the PMU itself.
C.3 Measured results on instrument transformers

The solution for the challenge of not knowing the errors caused by the instrument transformers and/or the cabling involves field calibration methods that are beyond the scope of this guide. Nevertheless, it is worth examining the problem in enough detail to understand, at least approximately, how serious a problem it might be. Figure C.1 shows a simplified equivalent circuit of the arrangement shown as a physical picture in Figure 1 of this guide.
Figure C.1Simplified equivalent circuit of VT and CT feeding PMU The instrument transformers shown in Figure C.1 will typically have significant inter-winding capacitances and capacitances to ground; these are not shown in the figure. Such features complicate the response further. Figure C.2 shows the frequency response (amplitude and phase) of a commercial wound-type VT as measured and reported in Meliopoulos et al. [B50].
21
See for example Meliopoulos et al. [B50].
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Figure C.2Magnitude and phase error of a VT

(adapted from Meliopoulos et al. [B50])
The resonance exhibited by the particular device whose response is shown here is thought to be broadly representative. At and near power frequency, the transformer is within the limits established by standards. The magnitude error and phase error are both negligible (i.e., within the allowed errors specified on the VT nameplate) at power frequency (as expected for VTs that are built and installed properly). Nor, according to these authors, are the errors significantly affected by the transformer burden, provided that the burden is within a reasonable range (as specified on the VT nameplate). The pronounced resonance peak in the response above 1 kHz should be noted. Nevertheless, for most PMU applications, the filtering in the PMU should reduce the effect of this resonance to insignificance. The other common kind of VTs, coupling capacitor voltage transformers (CCVTs), are dismissed in Meliopoulos et al. [B50] as not being useful over the frequency range of interest (for harmonics measurement). Some interesting field measurements have been made on CCVTs, nevertheless, see for example Fernandez et al. [B15]. An example is shown in Figure C.3. Readers who are familiar with the behavior of the sort of tuned coupled inductors used in the IF transformers of radios may recognize a familiar shape. It certainly seems that the circuit parameters have been adjusted so that the amplitude and phase response are flat across the region of power frequency (60 Hz in this example). However, the rest of the response is likely to give significant difference, even at just the second harmonic. It may be pointed out that CTs do not, in general, have such pronounced peaks in their response. A device tested in Meliopoulos et al. [B50], for example, had only 0.17 degree error across the frequency range tested.
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Figure C.3Magnitude and phase error of CCVT versus frequency

(adapted from Fernandez et al. [B15])
C.4 Conclusions
While PMUs are required to meet the requirements on TVE as per IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011, there is no such requirement on a complete synchrophasor measurement system as installed. Significant errors can arise, particularly in systems with capacitive voltage transformers (CVTs), that can be very difficult to determine without field calibration or verification. It is important to keep in mind that if differences are observed between the results of measurements from PMUs that are expected to give similar results, the cause might be in the instrumentation channels, including instrument transformers, the cabling or the burden.
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Annex D (informative) Examples of instrumentation channel impact on accuracy using approximate models
D.1 General
This annex provides a few examples of instrumentation channels. In selecting the instrumentation channels, the following voltage measurement technologies have been considered: Wound-type potential transformers (PTs) Capacitive coupled voltage transformers (CCVTs) Capacitive voltage dividers (CVDs) Resistive voltage dividers (RVDs)
Generally voltage dividers provide accurate wide bandwidth measurements with flat frequency response; however, these technologies are usually limited to laboratory grade instrumentation. In high-voltage power system applications (outdoor relaying and metering units), PTs and CCVTs are commonly used, accordingly examples below include PTs and CCVTs only. Current transformers (CTs) are typically wire-wound ferromagnetic core type transformers with current output. The ratings depend on the maximum permissible current that can be developed on the secondary before saturation occurs. For PMU type applications, saturation is generally not a concern as the current through the CT is typically much lower than the capability of the CT. In the following examples, some basic models for instrumentation channels have been defined. The parameters of these instrumentation channel models have been selected to represent near practical systems. They have been constructed by considering combinations of the following important instrumentation channel parameters: CT types, VT types, CCVT types, instrumentation cables (type, shielded/unshielded, length). Instrumentation channels based on optical CTs and VTs have not been considered in this annex. The instrumentation channel examples listed in Table D.1 are based on data provided from measurements in the field and laboratory settings. Using these sample instrumentation channels, the variability and amount of errors potentially introduced are evaluated and tabulated here. Please note that the examples modeled here are a very small subset of what may actually be installed in the field. Also, the models may not be detailed or accurate enough to represent actual instrumentation channels in some cases. Nevertheless, the results provided in the tables in this annex are simply meant to provide an appreciation for the approximate impact of various parameters on measurement variability. It is also important to note that the resolution of the numbers provided in the tables in this annex may be significantly finer than the accuracy of the models and the resultant numbers. Nevertheless, this higher resolution shows the level of variability and dependency (albeit sometimes very small) as certain system parameters change.
D.2 Description of typical instrumentation channels

In this annex, samples of instrumentation channel models are provided, taking into account the possible effects of the following parameters: 85
Instrument transformer (ratio, impedance, parasitic capacitance) Instrumentation cable type, size, and length Attenuators, if present Burden (e.g., a PMUs input impedance)
The error characterization for each one of these channels is as follows. VT instrumentation channels: The voltage magnitude error is defined as the percentage difference between the primary voltage of the PT and voltage seen by the relay or PMU scaled by a nominal factor knominal, as show in Equation (D.1):
%ErrorV ,magnitude = where: k nominal = V primary k nominal Vrelay V primary 100%
(D.1)
V primary ,nominal V relay ,nominal
In addition, the phase error is defined as the phase angle difference between the reading at the primary side of the PT and voltage reading seen by the PMU. CT instrumentation channels: The current magnitude error is defined as the percentage difference between the primary current of the CT and current seen by the relay or PMU scaled by a nominal factor k, as shown in Equation (D.2):
%ErrorI ,magnitude =
I primary k I relay 100% I primary
(D.2)
In addition, the phase error is defined as the phase angle difference between the current reading at the primary side of the CT and current reading seen by the PMU.
D.3 Potential transformer instrumentation channel error

A PT instrumentation channel example has been analyzed using a model, and the estimated errors have been tabulated. These results provide an approximate quantitative measure of the impact of various elements of the PT instrumentation channel on the quality and accuracy of the synchrophasor data reported by the PMU. The PT instrumentation channel model is shown in Figure D.1. The model includes the effect of parasitic capacitances and instrumentation cable. The PMU burden is also accounted for in the model by a large resistance (typically on the order of few thousand ohms).
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Figure D.1Sample PT instrumentation channel model parameters The simulation is performed for different values of the model parameters. The errors are quantified in terms of magnitude and phase errors. D.3.1 Example, a 199kV/69V PT The base case model parameters for this example are shown in Table D.1. The calculated error results are presented in Table D.2, Table D.3, Table D.4, and Table D.5. The parameters not shown in the results tables can be assumed to be the same as the base case values. Table D.1Base-case parameters for 199 kV/69 V PT instrumentation channel model simulation
Parameter description Nominal ratio PT VA rating PT resistance PT leakage reactance X PT nominal core loss PT nominal magnetization current PT parasitic capacitance Cp Instrumentation cable type Instrumentation cable length PMU burden resistance RB Value 199 kV/69V 30 kVA 0.01 pu 0.025 pu 0.005 pu 0.005 pu 50 nF #10 copper pair 60 m (200 ft) 10 k
Table D.2199 kV/69 V PT instrumentation channel voltage magnitude error in % for different burden resistances and cable lengths
Burden resistance RB () 5k 10 k 20 k 30 m (100 ft) 0.009 0.009 0.009 Instrumentation cable length 60 m (200 ft) 150 m (500 ft) 0.016 0.015 0.014 0.22 0.19 0.18 240 m (800 ft) 0.52 0.48 0.41
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Table D.3199 kV/69 V PT instrumentation channel voltage phase error in degrees for different burden resistances and cable lengths
Burden resistance RB () 5k 10 k 20 k 30 m (100 ft) 0.121 0.115 0.115 Instrumentation cable length 60 m (200 ft) 150 m (500 ft) 0.212 0.198 0.196 0.425 0.411 0.399 240 m (800 ft) 0.638 0.614 0.589
For this high-voltage PT, Table D.2 and Table D.3 show that the impact of burden resistance combined with cable length can be significant, especially for longer cable lengths. We can see estimated voltage magnitude errors close to 0.5% TVE for longer cable runs (240 m or longer is a typical cable run in many 230 kV and higher voltage substations). Phase angle errors are also significant and can exceed 0.57 (1% TVE) for longer cable runs. Table D.4199 kV/69 V PT instrumentation channel voltage magnitude error in % for different parasitic capacitances and cable lengths
Parasitic capacitance Cp (nF) 25 50 75 30 m (100 ft) 0.008 0.009 0.015 Instrumentation cable length (ft) 60 m (200 ft) 150 m (500 ft) 0.012 0.015 0.026 0.17 0.19 0.22 240 m (800 ft) 0.41 0.48 0.61
Table D.5199 kV/69 V PT instrumentation channel voltage phase error in degrees for different parasitic capacitances and cable lengths
Parasitic capacitance Cp (nF) 25 50 75 30 m (100 ft) 0.090 0.115 0.196 Instrumentation cable length (ft) 60 m (200 ft) 150 m (500 ft) 0.185 0.198 0.235 0.382 0.411 0.479 240 m (800 ft) 0.538 0.614 0.779
Similarly, Table D.4 and Table D.5 show that the impact of parasitic capacitances combined with cable length can be significant, especially for longer cable lengths. We can see estimated voltage magnitude errors close to 0.6% TVE for longer cable runs. The estimated phase angle errors at longer cable length are on the order of 1% TVE (0.6), noticeably higher than voltage magnitude errors.
D.4 Current transformer instrumentation channel error

In this subclause, a CT instrumentation channel example has been analyzed using a model, and the estimated errors have been tabulated below. These results provide an approximate quantitative measure of the impact of various elements of the CT instrumentation channel on the quality and accuracy of the synchrophasor data reported by the PMU. The CT instrumentation channel model is shown in Figure D.2. The model includes the parasitic capacitances and instrumentation cable. The PMU burden is also accounted for in the model (usually 0.1 or 0.14 ).
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Phase Conductor CT Cp RPMU Instrumentation Cable
Figure D.2Sample CT instrumentation channel model parameters The simulation is performed for different values of the model parameters. The error is quantified in terms of magnitude and phase error. D.4.1 Example, a 3000/5 A/A CT The base case model parameters shown in Table D.6 represent the model used here for a 3000/5A/A (600:1 ratio) CT. The value of the current magnitude error is calculated using this model to be less than 0.07%, effectively independent of the cable length, the burden resistance, and the parasitic capacitance values. The calculated phase error results are shown in Table D.7 and Table D.8; burden resistance and parasitic capacitance (in a reasonable range) have negligible impact on phase errors. Longer cable lengths appear to be the only significant factor affecting the estimated synchrophasor phase errors, amounting to 0.2 to 0.3 (close to 0.5% TVE) for a 240 m cable length. Table D.6Base-case parameters for 3000/5 A/A CT instrumentation channel model simulation
Parameter description Nominal ratio CT VA rating CT resistance CT leakage reactance X CT nominal core loss CT nominal magnetization current CT parasitic capacitance Cp Instrumentation cable type Instrumentation cable length PMU burden resistance RB Value 3000/5 A 500 VA 0.001 pu 0.003 pu 0.004 pu 0.005 pu 5 nF #10 pair 60 m (200 ft) 0.1
Table D.73000/5 A/A CT instrumentation channel current phase error in degrees for different burden resistances and cable lengths
Burden resistance RB () 0.1 0.14 30 m (100 ft) 0.03o 0.03o Instrumentation cable length (ft) 60 m 150 m (200 ft) (500 ft) 0.04o 0.04o 0.09o 0.09o 240 m (800 ft) 0.23o 0.23o
89
Table D.83000/5 A/A CT instrumentation channel current phase error in degrees for different parasitic capacitances and cable lengths
Parasitic capacitance Cp (nF) 1 5 10 30 m (100 ft) 0.02o 0.03o 0.05o Instrumentation cable length (ft) 60 m 150 m (200 ft) (500 ft) 0.03o 0.04o 0.08o 0.08o 0.09o 0.14o 240 m (800 ft) 0.20o 0.23o 0.32o
D.5 CCVT instrumentation channel error

A sample CCVT instrumentation channel has been analyzed using a model and the estimated errors have been tabulated. The results provide an approximate quantitative measure of the impact of various elements of the CCVT instrumentation channel on the quality and accuracy of the synchrophasor data reported by the PMU. The basic CCVT configuration is illustrated in Figure D.3. The capacitive divider is formed by capacitors C1 and C2. In typical high-voltage CCVTs (115 kV to 500 kV), the capacitor values are selected so that the voltage at the tap point A is in the order of 4 kV to 10 kV. The transformer scales this voltage to standard instrumentation voltage level (e.g., 69 V or 120 V). The output of the transformer is connected to a burden via instrumentation cable (usually a multi-conductor cable, sometimes with an overall shield). The burden represents the PMU or relay input impedance, which is typically resistive. Since the interaction of the capacitive divider and the resistive burden introduces considerable phase shift, a series inductor L is added to compensate for the divider output capacitance. A CCVT equivalent model is shown in Figure D.4. The CCVT model parameters are summarized in Table D.9.
Figure D.3CCVT physical circuit
90
Figure D.4CCVT equivalent model
Table D.9CCVT parameters summary

Parameter description Upper capacitor size Lower capacitor size Drain inductor Compensating reactor inductance Compensating reactor resistance Burden resistance Ferroresonance suppression damping resistor Ferroresonance suppression circuit inductor Ferroresonance suppression circuit capacitor Parasitic capacitance Schematic reference
C1 C2 LD LC RC RB RF LF CF CP
In designing a CCVT, the inductor L is selected by setting the sum of the equivalent capacitive reactance and the inductive reactance to zero at the power frequency. Note that the Thevenin equivalent capacitive reactance at point A is the sum of the upper and lower leg capacitances, C1 + C2, thus, as shown in Equation (D.3):
jL +
j (C1 + C 2 )
=0
(D.3)
Or equivalently:
L=
(C1 + C 2 )
2
The reactor LD, known as the drain reactor, is for the purpose of power line carrier filtering and may be optionally shorted by a manual switch. For the purpose of low frequency analysis (0 to 1 kHz) this reactor has negligible effect and is ignored. In standard CCVT designs, typical values of capacitor dividers are selected so that the sum of the capacitances C1 + C2 is in the order of 100 nF. The corresponding compensating reactor inductance for 91
60 Hz power frequency is in the order of 70 Henries. A reactor of such large inductance must have a magnetic core, and will also have a substantial resistance. As a result, the compensating reactor is also subject to saturation. Furthermore, its resistance makes the CCVT transformation ratio dependent on the burden resistance. Recently, CCVTs with larger capacitance values and smaller compensating reactors have become available. These devices exhibit improved transient response, as well as less sensitivity to burden resistance. The interaction of the transformer saturation characteristics with the divider capacitance makes this circuit subject to ferroresonance. Specifically, during transients, a resonance may occur at the frequency determined by the transformer magnetizing reactance and the circuit equivalent capacitance. This results in overvoltages developing across the transformer that drive the core into saturation. This nonlinear highamplitude oscillation causes severe measurement errors and can damage the circuit components. For this reason, CCVTs include a ferroresonance suppression circuit, usually located across the transformer secondary winding (ZF in Figure D.3). Several ferroresonance suppression circuit topologies are presently in use. These circuits are considered proprietary by some manufacturers, and thus the circuit details are not readily available. However, two generic circuit models capture the basic behavior of these filters: The active suppression circuit illustrated in Figure D.5, and the passive suppression circuit illustrated in Figure D.6. The active suppression circuit inductor LF and capacitor CF are tuned to the power frequency. Thus during normal steady-state operation, the impedance of the LF//CF branch is very large and the suppression circuit draws negligible current. During transients, the impedance of LF//CF branch is lower and thus the resonating energy is dissipated through the filer resistor RF. The passive suppression circuit (see Figure D.6) consists of a saturable core reactor LF and a damping resistor RF1 connected at the center tap of the transformer secondary, plus a spark gap in series with a second damping resistor RF2.
Figure D.5Equivalent circuit of a CCVT with active ferroresonance suppression circuit
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Figure D.6Equivalent circuit of a CCVT with passive ferroresonance suppression circuit During steady-state 60 Hz operation, both of these filter circuits have negligible effect on the CCVT response. However during transients they generally prolong the CCVT transient response. It has been shown that CCVTs with passive ferroresonance suppression circuits have better transient response characteristics (error decays to negligible levels faster). The CCVT simulation model used here is that shown in Figure D.4. The model explicitly represents the upper and lower capacitors, the drain inductor, the compensating reactor inductance and resistance, ferroresonace suppression damping, the parasitic capacitance, and the burden resistance. D.5.1 Example, a 288 kV:120 V CCVT The base case parameter values for this example are given in Table D.10. The simulation is repeated for various instrumentation cable lengths. In addition, different values of burden resistance, and different inductance and capacitance values are used to calculate CCVT phase errors under different conditions. The calculated phase errors are presented in Table D.11 and Table D.12. Table D.11 shows the results of a parametric analysis with respect to burden resistance and instrumentation cable length. Table D.12 shows the results of a parametric analysis with respect to CCVT component parameter inaccuracies. Specifically the varied parameters are the compensating reactor inductance and the capacitive divider capacitance. Table D.10Base-case CCVT instrumentation channel simulation parameters
Parameter description CCVT capacitance class Input voltage Output voltage Upper capacitor size Lower capacitor size Drain inductor Compensating reactor inductance Compensating reactor resistance Schematic reference C1 C2 LD LC RC Value Normal 288 kV 120 V 1.407 nF 99.9 nF 2.65 mH 68.74 H 3000
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Table D.10Base-case CCVT instrumentation channel simulation parameters (continued)

Parameter description Burden resistance Ferroresonance suppression damping resistor Ferroresonance suppression circuit inductor Ferroresonance suppression circuit capacitor Cable type Cable length Transformer power rating Transformer voltage rating Leakage reactance Parasitic capacitance Schematic reference RB RF LF CF CP Value 200 70 0.398 H 17.7 uF #10 pair 100 ft 300 VA 4 kV/120 V 3% 500 pF
Table D.11CCVT phase error (in degrees) versus burden resistance and cable length
Burden resistance () 50 100 200 400 1000 3 m (10 ft) 1.33 0.7 0.37 0.2 0.1 Cable length 300 m (1000 ft) 1.44 0.77 0.41 0.22 0.11 600 m (2000 ft) 1.55 0.85 0.45 0.25 0.12
Table D.12CCVT phase error (in degrees) versus capacitive divider capacitance and compensating reactor inductance
Capacitance error (%) 0 1 5 0% 0.10 0.11 0.17 Inductance error (%) 1% 0.12 0.13 0.19 5% 0.18 0.19 0.24
The results in Table D.11 show that low burden resistances (higher burdens) can have a very significant impact on synchrophasor measurement accuracy. Nevertheless, since most modern PMUs have a fairly high input impedance (more than several kilohms), the impact of burden on voltage phasor accuracy is expected to be minimal. The results also show that changes in the capacitive dividers capacitance (e.g., due to aging or temperature changes) or inaccuracies in selecting the compensating reactors inductance can have noticeable impacts on phase accuracy. The impact of capacitive dividers capacitance change on voltage magnitude accuracy is not shown here since they have a commonly well-understood near-linear relationship; e.g., a 2% change in C1s capacitance will result in nearly 2% error in CCVT voltage magnitude error (ratio error). Additional examples and references can be found in Meliopoulos et al. [B49].
94
Annex E (informative) Example of commissioning tests and measurements

Various tests can be performed or repeated at the time of commissioning a PMU. The extent and complexity of the tests depend on a number of factors, most importantly, the functions that the PMU is serving and the importance of its accuracy and reliability. In most cases during commissioning, PMUs are tested for simple accuracy checks (approximate performance, e.g., within 1% to 2% of what is expected), polarity checks, data format (according to a standard or manufacturers specification) and communication quality. Figure E.1 shows setup for performance testing by a user. This setup can be used in a laboratory or in the field for measuring the performance (including approximate accuracy) of a PMU. The test setup uses 1 PPS signal from GPS to synchronize the 3-phase signal generator software and produce 90 positive sequence angle when the positive-going zero crossing of A-phase is aligned with this 1 PPS. At nominal frequency of 60 Hz (or 50 Hz) this zero crossing does not change (nor does it change for exact integer off-nominal frequencies of 61 Hz or 59 Hz, etc.).
Figure E.1PMU performance test setup example Various kinds of tests can be performed, including steady-state accuracy tests, dynamic performance tests (if the signal generator supports the step and ramp functions), and various protocol tests and delay measurements. A connection testing software (an off-the-shelf tool) can act like a local PDC and be used to confirm correct expected magnitudes and angles. Final results may be taken from a PDC located at a control center at a distance in order to include various types of delays such as the delays within the communications network.
95

Ieee Guide For Synchronization, Calibration, Testing, and Installation of Phasor Measurement Units (Pmus) For Power System Protection and Control

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IEEE Guide for Synchronization, Calibration, Testing, and Installation of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) for Power System

Protection and Control

IEEE Power and Energy Society

Sponsored by the Power System Relaying Committee

IEEE 3 Park Avenue New York, NY 10016-5997 USA 6 March 2013

IEEE Std C37.242-2013

IEEE Std C37.242-2013

Power System Relaying Committee

IEEE Power and Energy Society

IEEE-SA Standards Board

Notice to users Laws and regulations

Updating of IEEE documents

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3. Definitions, special terms, acronyms, and abbreviations

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3.2 Special terms

3.3 Acronyms and abbreviations

5 IEEE Standards Dictionary Online subscription is available at: http://www.ieee.org/portal/innovate/products/standard/standards_dictionary.html.

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FPS GNSS PMU PT ROCOF TVE VT

4. Synchronization techniques, accuracy, and availability

4.2 Role of time synchronization in PMUs

Information on references can be found in Clause 2.

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4.3 Satellite-based synchronizing sources

The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex A.

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4.4 Terrestrial systems

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4.5 Synchronization distribution methods

5. Synchrophasor measurement accuracy characterization

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5.2 Data accuracy characterization

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b) Wound-type VT-based instrumentation channel d) OVT-based instrumentation channel

5.3 Data accuracy

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5.4 Characterization of instrumentation channels

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5.5 Characterization of GPS-synchronized measurement devices (PMUs)

5.6 GPS-synchronized equipment reliability

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Table 2 Synchrophasor system performance for a random two-month period in 2002

6. PMU installation, commissioning, and maintenance

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Figure 2 Representative (example) PMU system showing major elements

6.3 Pre-installation procedures

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Figure 3 Recommended antenna mounting locations

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