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Damage Mechanisms
Graphitization
Description of Damage It is a change in the microstructure of certin carbon steels and 0.5 Mo steels after long term operation in the 800 to 1100 F range may cause a loss in strength, ductility and/or creep resistance.
Temperature Range
Affected Materials
Prevention
Inspection
800F - 1100F; Graphitization Some grades of CS and 0.5Mo steels before Spheroidization < 1025F
Addition of 0.7% Cr
850F - 1400F; Spheroidization before Graphitization > 1025F May Cause a loss in strength and or creep resistance.
Temper Embrittlement
reduction in toughness. This change causes an upward shift in the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. (by Charpy impact testing)
Pressurization sequence - MPT of 650F - 1100F; Quicker at 350F for older steels and 150F newer; Primarily 2.25Cr; Older 2.25Cr manuf. 900F but more severe in longHeat treat to 1150F and cool rapidly for prior to 1972 particularly susceptible term exposure at 850F temporary reverse; Limit J and X factors.
Strain Aging
found in most older vintage steels and 0-0.5 Mo low alloy steels under the combined effects of deformation and aging at an intermediate temperature. This results in an increase in hardness and strength with a reduction in ductility and toughness
Intermediate Temperature
Mostly pre-1980s carbon steels with large grain size and C-0.5 Mo low alloy steel
No issue for newer steels with enough Al for deoxidizer; BOF better than older Bessemer; Pressurization sequence; PWHT or "Butter"
None
885F Embrittlement
is a loss in toughness due to a metallurgical change that occurs in alloys containing a ferrite phase, as a result of exposure in the temeratur range 600 to 1100.
600F - 1000F
Use low ferrite or non-ferritic alloys; Heat treat to 1100F and cool rapidly
Impact/bend test samples; Cracking during t/a or when below 200F; Increase in hardness
1000F - 1750F
SS with sigma may have lack of toughness below 500F; Minimize weld metal ferrite content; Solution anneal at 1950F and water quench to reverse
Brittle Fracture
Material selection; Minimize pressure at None to minimize; Susceptible vessels ambient temperatures; PWHT; "Warm" inspect for pre-existing flaws pre-stress hydrotest
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Damage Mechanisms
Description of Damage
Temperature Range SEE Table 4-2 for Threshold Temp: C.S. --> 700F C-1/2 Mo --> 750F 1.25Cr thru 9Cr --> 800F 304H --> 900F 347H --> 1000F
Affected Materials
Prevention
Inspection
Minimize temperatures; Higher PWHT may help; Minimize hot spots in heaters
Thermal Fatigue
Design and operation; Liner to prevent cold liquid from contacting hot surface
Short Term Overheating Stress Rupture Steam Blanketing Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW) Cracking
Local overheating above design temperature Short-term, high-temp failures. > 510F
All fired heater tube materials and common materials of construction CS and low alloys Widely differing thermal expansion coefficients; Most common CS to Austenitic SS All metals and alloys
Minimize temperature excursions; Visual; IR monitoring; Tubeskin Burner management thermocouples Tube rupture quickly follows DNB; Visual for bulging on tubes and Burner management; BFW treatment burners Ni based fillers; 300 SS rods used in low Visual and MT/PT for OD cracks; UT temp location only; Pup piece with for ID cracks intermediate coefficient Minimize flow interruptions, severe restraint, rain/fire water deluge; Review injection points; Thermal sleeves Design; Erosion - harder alloys; Corrosion - corrosion resistant alloys; Impingement plates; Tube ferrules Mechanical, design, or operational change; Sufficient NPSH; Streamline flow; Remove air; Decrease velocities; Fluid additives Good design; Material selection; Minimize stress risers Design; Supports and vibration dampeners; Stiffeners on small bore; Branch sizing Highly localized; MT/PT to confirm cracking only
Thermal Shock
Erosion/Erosion Corrosion
N/A
VT, UT, RT; Corrosion coupons; IR scans for refractory Accoustic monitoring; Pumps may sound like pebbles being thrashed around; VT, UT, RT for loss of thickness MT, PT, SWUT for cracks; Vibration monitoring Visual/Audible signs of vibration
Cavitation
Most common materials of construction All alloys; Stress levels and number of cycles to failure vary by material All engineering materials
Mechanical Fatigue
N/A
Vibration-Induced Fatigue
N/A
Refractory Degradation
N/A
Refractory materials
Reheat Cracking
low alloys, 300 SS, and Ni base alloys; High Strength Low Alloys (HSLA) All metals with the exception of most noble metals; SEE Table 4-4 for Galvanic Series CS, low alloys, and copper alloyed Al
Joint configurations in heavy walls; Minimize stress risers Design; Differing alloys not in intimate contact; Coatings
Galvanic Corrosion
N/A
Corrosion rates increase with temp up to about 250F. More severe 212F - 250F for CS
Surface prep and proper coating Selection of insulation type; Maintain coatings and insulation
VT and UT
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Damage Mechanisms Cooling Water Corrosion Boiler Water Condensate Corrosion CO2 Corrosion
Description of Damage
Caustic Corrosion
Prevention Inspection Design process inlet < 135F; Process side > 140F; Brackish CS, all grades of SS, copper, Al, Operation; Chemical treatment; pH; Oxygen content; Outlet temps; and salt water outlet > 115F titanium and Ni base alloys Maintain water velocities; Avoid ERW EC/IRIS tubes tubes Primarily CS; Some low alloy, 300 SS Oxygen scavenging treatment; Amine Water analysis; Dearator cracking N/A and copper based alloys inhibitor treatment WFMT Cr > 12% (SS); Corrosion inhibitors; Increasing corrosion with Increase pH > 6; Operation problems; increasing temp up to dewpoint < CS and low alloys VT, UT, RT 400 SS and Duplex SS resistant; Water 300F analysis Sulfuric acid dewpoint < 280F; Maintain temps > 280F; Avoid 300 SS Hydrochloric acid dewpoint < CS, low alloys and 300 SS if chlorides present; Soda Ash wash to UT for wall loss; VT and PT for SCC 130F; pH < 6 neutralize the acids Treat water with biocides; Maintain flow VT; Measure biocide residual; 0F to 235F; pH range 0 - 12 Most common materials of velocities; Empty hydrotest water; Operating conditions indicate fouling; (Any) construction Maintain coatings Foul smelling water Most effective coatings and cathodic Structure to soil potential; Soil Corrosion rates increase with Carbon steel, cast iron, and ductile protection; Special backfill may help to resistivity; VT, guided UT, Pressure increasing metal temperature iron lesser degree testing High solution strength caustic UT Scans, RT, Injection points, general corrosion of CS above Design; Adequate water flooding; Primarily CS, low alloys and 300 SS Boroscope steam generating 175F and very high CRates Burner management; Dilution of caustic equipment above 200F. N/A Primarily copper alloys as well as Alloy 400 and cast iron Difficult to predict; Addition of alloying VT (may change color but may require elements may help; CP or coatings may scale removal), Metallography, Loss of help "metallic ring" Loss of "metallic ring"; Reduction in hardness
Temperature Range
Affected Materials
Dealloying
Graphitic Corrosion
< 200F in the presence of moisture or an aqueous phase Oxidation of CS significant > 1000F; 300 Series SS susceptible to scaling > 1500F. SEE Table 4-6 for CR at elev. Temps
Difficult to predict; Internal Primarily gray cast iron, but also coatings/cement linings for internal nodular and malleable cast irons graphitic corrosion; external coatings or which tend to crumble when attacked CP in corrosive soils CS and low alloys; All 300 SS, 400 SS and Ni base alloys oxidize to varying degrees
Oxidation
Sulfidation
> 500F
CS, low alloys, 300 SS and 400 SS; Ni base alloys to varying degrees depending on Cr content; Copper base alloys at lower temps than CS CS and low alloys, 300 SS and 400 SS, cast SS, Ni base alloys with significant Fe content and HK/HP alloys CS and low alloys All; No known alloy immune under all conditions
Upgrade to higher Cr; Al diffusion treatment of low alloys may reduce but not completely protect
Monitor process conditions and temperatures; UT for thickness loss; Proactive and retroactive PMI
Carburization
> 1100F
Alloy selection (Si & Al oxidizers); Lower Hardness/Field metallography if temperatures and higher oxygen/sulfur process side accessible; RT, UT, MT partial pressures. for cracking in advanced stages Control chemistry of gas phase; Cr and Mo form more stable carbides Protective layer of sulfur (usually as H2S); Material selection for specific application; Al diffusion treatment Field metallography; Hardness tests for softening Compression wave UT for heater tubes; RT for pitting/thinning; VT if ID is accessible
Decarburization
Elevated temperatures
Metal Dusting
900F - 1500F
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Damage Mechanisms
Description of Damage
Temperature Range Affected Materials Prevention Metal temps above the melting point of liquid species: Blend or change fuel source; Burner Oil ash - melting points below All conventional alloys for process design/management; Low excess 1000F possible; Waterwall heaters and boilers; 50Cr-50Ni family oxygen; Alloy upgrade to 50Cr-50Ni for corrosion - melting points 700F; show improved resistance hangers/supports Coal ash - melting points 1030F to 1130F Carbon steels, low alloys, 300 SS and 400 SS; Ni based alloys more resistant
Inspection
Nitriding
Change in color to dull gray; Hardness testing (400 - 500 BHN); Check 300 SS for magnetism; Metallography; ECT; PT, RT, or UT for cracking in advanced stages VT in some cases, PT (surface prep may be necessary), ECT, UT
> 140F
300 SS; Ni 8% - 12% most susceptible; Ni > 35% highly resistant, Ni > 45% nearly immune
Material selection; Low chloride water for hydrotest; Coatings under insulation; Avoid designs with stagnant areas where chlorides can concentrate Reduce corrosion (inhibitors, material selection, coatings, BFW chemical control, etc.); PWHT; Controlled start-up (thermal expansion)
Corrosion Fatigue
N/A
UT, MT
CS, low alloys and 300 SS; Ni base alloys more resistant.
PWHT at 1150F for CS; Alloy upgrade WFMT, EC, RT, ACFM for crack to Ni based alloys; Design/operation of detection; PT not effective (tight, scaleinjection system; Water wash filled cracks); SWUT for crack depth equipment prior to steamout
Any temperature
N/A
Ambient - 300F; Decreases with increasing temp; Not likely to occur above 160F to 180F
Amine Corrosion
Increases with increasing temps; Above 220F can result in acid gas flashing and severe localized corrosion
< 150F
Copper - zinc content below 15%, 9010CuNi and 70-30CuNi nearly immune, Copper alloys with aqueous ammonia prevent ingress of air, upgrade to 300 and/or ammonium compounds; CS in SS or Ni alloys; CS - PWHT or addition anhydrous ammonia water (0.2%), weld < 225 BHN, prevent ingress of oxygen Keep metal with low melting point away Many commonly used materials from other metal; Grind out cracks not acceptable Use lower strength steels; PWHT; Low hydrogen, dry electrodes, and preheat CS, low alloys, 400 SS, Precipitation for welding; Bake out at 400F or higher; Hardenable SS, some high strength Controlled pressurization sequence; Ni base alloys. Protective lining, SS cladding, or weld overlay Proper operation; Avoid buildup of HSAS; Design should control local pressure drop to minimize flashing; Primarily CS; 300 SS highly resistant Avoid oxygen inleakage; Remove solids and hydrocarbons; Corrosion inhibibitors Symmetrical/balanced flow in and out of air cooled exchangers; Maintain CS; 300 SS, duplex SS, Al alloys and velocities 10 to 20 fps for CS, resistant Ni base alloys more resistant materials > 20 fps; Water wash injection and low oxygen All commonly used materials; Order of increasing resistance: CS, low Pitting resistant alloys more have alloys, 300 SS, Alloys 400, duplex SS, improved resistance; Limit chlorides; 800, and 825, Alloys 625 and C276 Water wash; Filming inhibitors and titanium. Page 4 of 12
Copper - monitor pH, ECT or VT on tubes for cracking; CS - WFMT, AET, or External SWUT
Frequent UT and RT profile thickness; IRIS and ECT tubes; Monitor water injection
RT or UT Thickness; Monitor feed streams; Corrosion coupons may be helpful if salts deposit on the element
Description of Damage
Temperature Range Increases with increasing temp up to point where water vaporizes > 500F
Prevention Upgrade CS to Ni base can help; Remove chlorides (neutralize, water All common materials of construction wash, absorb, etc.); Minimize carryover of water and salts Use alloys with high chromium content; Order of increasing resistance: CS, 300 SS are highly resistant at service low alloys, 400 SS, and 300 SS temps Low alloys, 300 SS and 400 SS are generally not suitable; CS, Cu-Ni alloys, Alloy 400, an other Ni base alloys have been used in some applications CS, low alloys, 300 SS, 400 SS, and Ni base alloys Monitor CS operating > 150F for thickness; Minimize water, oxygen, sulfur and other contaminants in feed; Alloy 400 (solid or clad) used to eliminate blistering/HIC/SOHIC. PWHT to minimize possibility of SCC.
Affected Materials
Inspection AUT or RT for thickness; Corrosion coupons; Check pH UT, VT and RT for thickness; Verify operating temps; Check process H2S levels periodically
425F - 750F; Has been reported from 350F - 800F Minimal below 250F; Rapid CRates above 450F
N/A
N/A
2% - 2.5% molybdenum shows improved resistance; Change or blend crudes; Inhibitors Material selection; Velocity < 30 fps; Order of increasing resistance: CS, Recovery ovhd temps at least 30F > 304L, 316L and Alloy C276 dew point 304L satisfactory for concentration 100% and temp < 120F ; 316L required Order of increasing resistance: CS, 120F - 225F; 316L and Alloy 20 304L SS, 316L SS, and Alloy 20 effective at concentrations up to 85% at boiling temps Material selection; 300 SS < 140F; Cu Primarily CS; SS, Cu alloys, and Ni and Ni resistant, but Cu vulnerable in base alloys usually resistant ammonia Materials selection; Proper operation; Caustic wash to neutralize Material selection; Flush with alkaline or soda ash to neutralize or purge with nitrogen or nitrogen/ammonia; Keep firebox above dewpoint; Heat treatment at 1650F PWHT all CS welds; Material selection (clad or solid); Water wash non-PWHT CS prior to welding, heat treatment or steam out
RT or UT Thickness; Monitor TAN, sulfur, Fe, and Ni contents RT or UT Thickness; Corrosion coupons
RT or UT Thickness; Sample Iron in water; Corrosion coupons RT or UT Thickness; Monitor pH of ovhd accumulators; Corrosion coupons UT or RT of turbulent zones and hottest areas; Corrosion coupons
N/A
Order of increasing resistance: CS, 316L, Alloy 20, high Si cast iron, high Ni cast iron, Alloy B-2 and Alloy C276
Sensitized austenitic SS; 300 SS, Alloy 600/600H, and Alloy 800/800H
N/A
Crack detection best with WFMT or ACFM; PT usually not effective; SWUT crack depths; AET
Blistering, HIC, and SOHIC ambient to 300F or higher; SSC < 180F
Coatings or alloy cladding; Water wash to dilute HCN or inject ammonium Monitor free water phase; Crack polysulfide's to convert to thiocyanates; detection best with WFMT, EC, RT or HIC-resistant steels; PWHT can prevent ACFM; SWUT for crack sizing; AET SSC and help with SOHIC; Inhibitors PWHT; Weld hardness < 200 HB and no localized zones > 237 HB; CS with Carbon Equivalent < 0.43; B7M Bolts; Coatings or alloy cladding PWHT at 1150F; Material selection; Coatings or alloy cladding; Water wash non-PWHT prior to steamout or heat treatment; Inhibitors
Aqueous HF environments
WFMT for cracks; Hardness testing Monitoring of pH and CO3-2 concentration; WFMT or ACFM for crack detection; SWUT for crack depth; AET
Generally no temperature ranges; However, > 200F if CO2 > 2% in gas scrubbing units
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Description of Damage
Affected Materials
Prevention
Alloys with Cr (> 5 Cr) and Mo or Order of increasing resistance: CS, Ctungsten and vanadium; Use a 25F to 0.5Mo, Mn-0.5Mo, 1Cr, 1.25Cr, 50F safety factor; 300 SS overlay 2.25Cr-1Mo, 2.25Cr-1Mo-V, 3Cr, 5Cr and/or roll bond clad material
Inspection UT using combination of velocity ratio and backscatter (AUBT); In-situ metallography; VT for blistering; WFMT and RT in advanced stages with cracking
Titanium Hydriding
> 165F
Titanium alloys
No titanium in known hydriding services such as amine or sour water; Use all ECT; Metallography; Crush/Bend test titanium if galvanic coupling may promote hydriding
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Appearance
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Cracking particularly at welds or areas of high restraint Cracks typically straight, nonbranching, with no plastic deformation; Limited intergranular cracking
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Appearance
Noticeable deformation may be observed; May have significant bulging before final fracture occurs
Cracks propagate transverse to the stress and usually dagger-shaped, transgranular, and oxide filled; May stop and restart; May be axial or circumferential, or both, at the same location; "fishmouth" Open burst with edges drawn to a near knife-edge Cracks at the toe of weld in the HAZ of the ferritic material Surface initiating cracks may appear as craze cracks Localized loss in thickness; Pits, grooves, gullies, waves, rounded holes and valleys; Often with a directional pattern Sharp-edged pitting but may have a gouged appearance in rotational components clam shell type fingerprint with concentric rings called beach marks Crack initiating at a point of high stress or discontinuity Cracking, spalling or lift-off from the substrate, softening or general degradation from exposure to moisture; Erosive services: washed away or thinned Intergranular and can be surface breaking or embedded More active material can suffer generalized loss in thickness or crevice, groove or pitting corrosion General or localized; Normally a distinctive iron oxide (red rust) scale forms May be highly localized; Loose, flaky scale covering the corroded component Page 8 of 12
Appearance General corrosion, localized underdeposit, pitting, MIC, SCC, fouling, grooving along ERW tubes Oxygen: pitting anywhere in the system; CO2: smooth grooving Localized thinning and/or pitting; May be deep pitting and grooving in areas of turbulence General wastage often with broad, shallow pits Localized pitting under deposits or tubercles; Cup-shaped pits within pits External thinning with localized losses due to pitting Localized metal loss as grooves in a boiler tube or thinned areas under insulating deposits; Often a color change or deep etched appearance; May be uniform through the cross-section or localized Widespread or localized; Damaged areas will be soft and easily gouged with a hand tool
General thinning; Usually covered on the outside surface with an oxide scale
Most often uniform thinning but may be localized; Sulfide scale will usually cover the surface
In advanced stage may be a volumetric increase N/A Low alloys can be uniform but usually small pits filled with crumbly residue; SS and high alloys local, deep, round pits
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Appearance
alligatorhide
"spider web"; Branched, transgranular, and may have "crazecracked" appearance "rabbit ears"; Transgranular but not branched, often multiple parallel cracks "spider web"; Predominantly intergranular, parallel to weld in adjacent base metal but can occur in the weld or HAZ Cu: bluish corrosion products at surface cracks, single or highly branched, either trans or intergranular Brittle cracks in an otherwise ductile material Can initiate sub-surface, but in most cases is surface breaking; Higher strength steels cracking is often intergranular
General loss in thickness with potential for high localized rates; Low velocities may have localized under-deposit corrosion
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Appearance General uniform thinning, localized corrosion or underdeposit attack Uniform loss in thickness from the process side with an iron sulfide scale Localized general or severe thinning of CS; May be accompanied by cracking due to hydrogen stress cracking, blistering and/or HIC/SOHIC damage Localized corrosion, pitting, or flow induced grooving in high velocity areas General or localized corrosion of CS
General thinning; Localized corrosion or underdeposit attack can occur General but attacks CS HAZ rapidly; Hydrogen grooving in low flow Intergranular; Quite localized; Typically next to welds, but may be in base metal Surface cracking on ID primarily in HAZ, but also in weld or adjacent to HAZ; Typically parallel to weld, but in weld, either transverse or longitudinal Blistering, HIC "stepwise cracking", SOHIC stacked arrays, SSC through thickness potentially
Surface breaking intergranular cracks "spider web"; Parallel to weld in adjacent base, but also in weld or HAZ; Predominantly intergranular
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Appearance Intergranular and adjacent to iron carbide areas in CS; Some blistering may be visible to the naked eye
N/A
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