Contents

Articles
Plasma gasification Syngas Internal combustion engine Soot Fly ash Controlled low strength material 1 4 6 21 22 32

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 34 36

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Plasma gasification

Plasma gasification
Plasma gasification
Process type Industrial sector(s) Chemical Waste management Energy

Main technologies or sub-processes Plasma arc Plasma electrolysis Feedstock Municipal and industrial waste Biomass Solid hydrocarbons Syngas

Product(s)

Plasma gasification is a process to convert organic matter into syngas by using plasma processing. Plasma gasification technologies use an electric arc gasifier (plasma torch) to create a high-temperature ionized gas which breaks organic matter primarily into syngas and solid waste (slag) in a controlled vessel (plasma convertereither furnace or reactor).[1] Its main use is as a waste treatment technology as it allows full decomposition and disintegration of organic components; however, it is also tested for the biomass and solid hydrocarbons, such as coal, oil sands, and oil shale, gasification.[2][3] The process is intended to be a net generator of electricity, depending upon the composition of input wastes, and to reduce the volumes of waste being sent to landfill sites.

Principle of operation
A plasma torch uses inert gases (steam) and metal electrodes (copper, tungsten, hafnium, zirconium, etc.) Relatively high voltage, high current electricity is passed between two electrodes, spaced apart, creating an electrical arc. Pressurized inert gas is ionized when passing through the arc creating plasma. The temperature of the plasma torch can be in the range 400025000 F (220413871C)[4]; at these temperatures molecular bonds break down into basic elemental components in a gaseous form, and complex molecules are separated into individual atoms. This process is called molecular dissociation and molecular dissociation using plasma is called plasma pyrolysis. The reactor operates at a slightly negative pressure, meaning that the feed system is complemented by a gaseous removal system, and later a solid removal system. Depending on the input waste (plastics tend to be high in hydrogen and carbon), gas from the plasma containment can be removed as syngas, and may be refined into various fuels at a later stage or fired on site to provide power. The process produces pure high-calorific syngas (CO, H2, CH, etc.). Syngas produced from organic materials by using plasma gasification, has a conversion rate of greater than 99%.[5] A correctly selected temperature of plasma reaction and structure plasma of forming gas allow to achieve the minimal content ballast products of oxidation (CO2, N, H2O, etc.). Other non-flammable inorganic components in the waste stream that are not broken down but only go through a phase change (solid to liquid) add to the volume of slag (including various metals) with minimal energy recovery and increased cost for refining. The metals obtained through plasma pyrolysis can be recovered from slag and used as commodity products in various applications. Inert slag could be granulated and subsequently used in construction. For efficient operation of the plant, a portion of the syngas may be used to run on site turbines to power the plasma torches and feed system.[5] The latest independent review of plasma technology providers was undertaken by Juniper Consulting in 2008,[6] as well as a separate independent review on Alter NRG /Westinghouse technology.[7]

Plasma gasification

Commercialization
Plasma gasification is in commercial use for waste disposal. Municipal-scale waste disposal plasma arc facilities have been constructed in numerous worldwide locations, including for landfill mining that will return landfills to their original state. Plasma arc is favored as a means to destroy medical and hazardous waste. Plasma processing of waste is an ecologically clean process. The lack of oxygen and high temperature in a reactor prevent the main elements of gas from forming toxic compounds, such as furans, dioxins, NOX, or sulfur dioxide. Extensive filtration removes inorganic residue (ash) and gaseous pollutants (NO, HCl, H2S, etc.) and allows the production of ecologically clean synthetic gas. The gaseous compounds do not contain any phenols or complex hydrocarbons. The circulating water in these filtering systems has removed the hazardous substances and must be cleaned.[8] The main advantages of plasma technologies for waste treatment are: Clean destruction of hazardous waste streams; Prevents hazardous waste from reaching landfills; No harmful emissions or toxic waste; Production of clean alloyed slag which could be used as construction material;

Processing of organic waste allows production of combustible syngas which can be used in various applications, e.g. electric power and thermal energy generation; Production of value-added products (metals) from slag.

Concerns
A minor issue regarding plasma systems that rely on high temperatures for processing is in the life of their liners. The refractory brick liner is an important aspect of separating the high interior temperatures of the plasma system from the [metal] shell of the plasma container. Liners are highly susceptible to both chlorine attack and to local variabilities in [high] temperatures, both of which would be found with typical municipal waste systems, and are not likely to last more than a year in service (but they are quickly refitted). One way to address this concern is by using the method demonstrated at the Trail Road Plant in Ottawa, Canada, which requires lower temperatures and a more robust material (fire brick) for a liner instead of the expensive and fragile metal. The content and the consistency of the waste has a direct impact on performance of a plasma facility. Pre-sorting and recycling useful material before gasification provides a more consistent waste stream. A waste stream that is high in inorganic (metals and construction waste) materials increase slag production and decrease the more valuable syngas production. Secondly, shredding the waste before entering the main chamber creates an efficient transfer of energy ensuring all materials are broken down. Main disadvantages of plasma technologies for waste treatment are: Waste gasification and combustion ultimately releases carbon dioxide to the atmosphere instead of sequestering a large fraction of the carbon in a landfill; Large capital costs relative to current landfills; Requires large electrical energy input if the waste stream does not contains a large fraction of unoxidized hydrocarbons; The highly corrosive plasma flame may lead to frequent maintenance and component replacement with associated facility down time; The filters and gas treatment systems are themselves sources of toxic waste, some of which (e.g. acidified water) are poor candidates for plasma processing.

Plasma gasification

References
[1] Moustakasa, K.; Fattab, D.; Malamisa, S.; Haralambousa, K.; Loizidoua, M. (2005-08-31). "Demonstration plasma gasification/vitrification system for effective hazardous waste treatment" (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ S0304389405001585). Journal of Hazardous Materials 123 (13): 120126. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2005.03.038. (subscription required). . Retrieved 2012-03-08. [2] Kalinenko, R. A.; Kuznetsov, A. P.; Levitsky, A. A.; Messerle, V. E.; Mirokhin, Z. B.; Polak; Sakipov, L. S.; Ustimenko, A. B. (1993). "Pulverized coal plasma gasification" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ qx506h01079341l5/ ). Plasma Chemistry and Plasma Processing 13 (1): 141167. doi:10.1007/BF01447176. (subscription required). . Retrieved 2012-03-08. [3] Messerle, V. E.; Ustimenko, A. B. (2007). "Solid Fuel Plasma Gasification" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ n0u2236g59w08236/ ). In Syred, Nick; Khalatov, Artem. Advanced Combustion and Aerothermal Technologies. Environmental Protection and Pollution Reductions. Springer Netherlands. pp.141156. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6515-6. ISBN978-1-4020-6515-6. (subscription required). . Retrieved 2012-03-08. [4] "The Recovered Energy System: Discussion on Plasma Gassification" (http:/ / www. recoveredenergy. com/ d_plasma. html). . Retrieved 2008-10-20. [5] "Plasma Gasification" (http:/ / www. netl. doe. gov/ technologies/ coalpower/ gasification/ gasifipedia/ 4-gasifiers/ 4-1-4-1a_westinghouse. html). United States Department of Energy. . Retrieved 2010-08-07. [6] "Plasma" (http:/ / www. juniper. co. uk/ services/ Our_services/ plasma. html). Juniper Consultancy Services Limited. . [7] Alter Nrg / Westinghouse Process Review (http:/ / www. juniper. co. uk/ Publications/ alternrg. html). Juniper Consultancy Services Limited. November 2008. . [8] HTT Canada Plasma Treatment (http:/ / httcanada. com/ media/ HTT Tech Brochure. pdf).Corporate Brochure. 2009-27-07. Retrieved on 2009-08-13.

External links
PEAT International (http://www.peat.com) - Plasma Thermal Destruction & Recovery Technology (PTDR) (http://www.peat.com/process_overview.html) Advanced Plasma Power (http://www.advancedplasmapower.com/index. php?action=PublicContactUsDisplay) Department of Trade and Industry - Using thermal plasma technology to create a valuable product from hazardous waste (http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file33251.pdf) PyroGenesis Canada Inc. (http://www.pyrogenesis.com)

Syngas

Syngas
Syngas (Synthesis gas) is the name given to a gas mixture that contains varying amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Examples of production methods include steam reforming of natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons to produce hydrogen, the gasification of coal,[1] biomass, and in some types of waste-to-energy gasification facilities. The name comes from their use as intermediates in creating synthetic natural gas (SNG)[2] and for producing ammonia or methanol. Syngas is also used as an intermediate in producing synthetic petroleum for use as a fuel or lubricant via the FischerTropsch process and previously the Mobil methanol to gasoline process. Syngas consists primarily of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and very often some carbon dioxide, and has less than half the energy density of natural gas. The main reaction that produces syngas, steam reforming, is endothermic with 206 kJ/mol methane needed for conversion. Syngas is combustible and often used as a fuel of internal combustion engines[3][4][5] or as an intermediate for the production of other chemicals. The first reaction, between incandescent coke and steam, is strongly endothermic, producing carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrogen H2 (water gas in older terminology). When the coke bed has cooled to a temperature at which the endothermic reaction can no longer proceed, the steam is then replaced by a blast of air. The second and third reactions then take place, producing an exothermic reaction - forming initially carbon dioxide raising the temperature of the coke bed - followed by the second endothermic reaction, in which the latter is converted to carbon monoxide, CO. The overall reaction is exothermic, forming "producer gas" (older terminology). Steam can then be re-injected, then air etc., to give an endless series of cycles until the coke is finally consumed. Producer gas has a much lower energy value, relative to water gas, due primarily to dilution with atmospheric nitrogen. Pure oxygen can be substituted for air to avoid the dilution effect, producing gas of much higher calorific value. When used as an intermediate in the large-scale, industrial synthesis of hydrogen (principally used in the production of ammonia), it is also produced from natural gas (via the steam reforming reaction) as follows: CH4 + H2O CO + 3 H2 In order to produce more hydrogen from this mixture, more steam is added and the water gas shift reaction is carried out: CO + H2O CO2 + H2 The hydrogen must be separated from the CO2 to be able to use it. This is primarily done by pressure swing adsorption (PSA), amine scrubbing, and membrane reactors.

Alternative technologies
Biomass catalytic partial oxidation[6] Conversion of biomass to syngas is typically low-yield. The University of Minnesota developed a metal catalyst that reduces the biomass reaction time by up to a factor of 100. The catalyst can be operated at atmospheric pressure and reduces char. The entire process is autothermic and therefore heating is not required. Using carbon dioxide and hydrogen CO2 can be split into CO and then combined with hydrogen (H) to form syngas. This method is being examined by the solar fuels-project of the Dutch Institute For Fundamental Energy Research[7]. The project envisions to produce CO from CO2, by treating this latter gas with microwave radiation. This appearantly was a popular method during the Cold war in Russian nuclear submarines as they needed to get rid of the CO2 gas without leaving a bubble trail.[8].

Syngas Using solar energy Besides using coal to generate the heat, the power of the sun can also be used.[9][10] The syngas produced in waste-to-energy gasification facilities can be used to generate electricity. Coal gasification processes were used for many years to manufacture illuminating gas (coal gas) for gas lighting, cooking and to some extent, heating, before electric lighting and the natural gas infrastructure became widely available.

Post-treatment
Syngas can be used in the FischerTropsch process to produce diesel, or converted into e.g. methane, methanol, and dimethyl ether in catalytic processes. If the syngas is post-treated by cryogenic processing, it should be taken into account that this technology has great difficulty in recovering pure carbon monoxide if relatively large volumes of nitrogen are present due to carbon monoxide and nitrogen having very similar boiling points which are -191.5 C and -195.79 C respectively. Certain process technology selectively removes carbon monoxide by complexation/decomplexation of carbon monoxide with cuprous aluminum chloride (CuAlCl4), dissolved in an organic liquid, such as toluene. The purified carbon monoxide can have a purity greater than 99%, which makes it a good feedstock for the chemical industry. The reject gas from the system can contain carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, ethane, and hydrogen. The reject gas can be further processed on a pressure swing adsorption system to remove hydrogen, and the hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be recombined in the proper ratio for catalytic methanol production, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, etc. Cryogenic purification, being very energy intensive, is not well suited to simply making fuel, because of the greatly reduced net energy gain.

Energy capacity
Syngas that is not methanized typically has a specific heat capacity of 120 BTU/scf.[11] Untreated syngas can be run in hybrid turbines that allow for greater efficiency because of their lower operating temperatures, and extended part lifetime.[11]

References
[1] Beychok, M.R., Coal gasification and the Phenosolvan process, American Chemical Society 168th National Meeting, Atlantic City, September 1974 [2] Beychok, M.R., Process and environmental technology for producing SNG and liquid fuels, U.S. EPA report EPA-660/2-75-011, May 1975 [3] Syngas in Gas Engines (http:/ / www. clarke-energy. com/ gas-type/ synthesis-gas-syngas/ ), www.clarke-energy.com, accessed 15.11.11 [4] Syngas used in IC engines (http:/ / www. dailytech. com/ Why+ Let+ it+ go+ to+ Waste+ + Enerkem+ Leaps+ Ahead+ With+ TrashtoGas+ Plans/ article17817. htm) [5] Syngas used in IC engines 2 (http:/ / www. tandfonline. com/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1080/ 00102200801963417) [6] "Syngas using metal catalyst" (http:/ / www. license. umn. edu/ Products/ Syngas-from-Renewable-Hydrogen-and-Carbon-Monoxide-Gases-Using-a-Biomass-Gasification-Process__Z07080. aspx). University of Minnesota. . Retrieved 25 August 2011. [7] DIFFER (http:/ / www. differ. nl/ en) [8] NWT magazine 6/2012 [9] Syngas production with solar energy (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ 0741983X89900180) [10] No use of fossil fuels with production of syngas using solar power (http:/ / www1. umn. edu/ news/ features/ 2011/ UR_CONTENT_290042. html) [11] "FUNDAMENTAL IMPACT OF FIRING SYNGAS IN GAS TURBINES" (http:/ / www. clemson. edu/ scies/ UTSR/ fellowoluyedesum. pdf). Clemson/EPRI. . Retrieved 2010-08-07.

Syngas

External links
Fischer Tropsch archive (http://www.fischer-tropsch.org/)

Internal combustion engine

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (normally a fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine. This force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by tienne Lenoir.[1] The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six-stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described.[1]

Animation of two-stroke engine in operation, with a tuned pipe exhaust

An automobile engine partly opened and colored to show components.

The internal combustion engine (or ICE) is quite different from external combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, heated in some kind of boiler. A large number of different designs for ICEs have been developed and built, with a variety of different strengths and weaknesses. Powered by an energy-dense fuel (which is very frequently gasoline, a liquid derived from fossil fuels). While there have been and still are many stationary applications, the real strength of internal combustion engines is in mobile applications and they dominate as a power supply for cars, aircraft, and boats.

Internal combustion engine

Applications
Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. In mobile equipment, internal combustion is advantageous since it can provide high power-to-weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy density. Generally using fossil fuel (mainly petroleum), these engines have appeared in transport in almost all vehicles (automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives). Where very high power-to-weight ratios are required, internal combustion engines appear in the form of gas turbines. These applications include jet aircraft, helicopters, large ships and electric generators.

Nomenclature
At one time, the word, "Engine" (from Latin, via Old French, ingenium, "ability") meant any piece of machinerya sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A "motor" (from Latin motor, "mover") is any machine that produces mechanical power. Traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as "Engines"; however, combustion engines are often referred to as "motors." (An electric engine refers to a locomotive operated by electricity.)

A 1906 gasoline engine

Types of internal combustion engine

Engines can be classified in many different ways: By the engine cycle used, the layout of the engine, source of energy, the use of the engine, or by the cooling system employed.

Engine configurations
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their configuration. Common layouts of engines are: Reciprocating: Two-stroke engine Four-stroke engine (Otto cycle) Six-stroke engine Diesel engine Atkinson cycle Miller cycle

Rotary: Wankel engine Continuous combustion: Gas turbine Jet engine (including turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, Rocket, etc.)

Internal combustion engine Operation As their name implies, four-stroke internal combustion engines have four basic steps that repeat with every two revolutions of the engine: (1) Intake stroke (2) Compression stroke (3) Power stroke and (4) Exhaust stroke 1. Intake stroke: The first stroke of the internal combustion engine is also known as the suction stroke because the piston moves to the maximum volume position (downward direction in the cylinder). The inlet valve opens as a result of the cam lobe pressing down on the valve stem, and the vaporized fuel mixture enters the combustion chamber. The inlet valve closes at the end of this stroke. 2. Compression stroke: In this stroke, both valves are closed and the piston starts its movement to the minimum volume position (upward direction in the cylinder) and compresses the fuel mixture. During the compression process, pressure, temperature and the density of the fuel mixture increases. 3. A Power stroke: When the piston reaches a point just before top dead center, the spark plug ignites the fuel mixture. The point at which the fuel ignites varies by engine; typically it is about 10 degrees before top dead center. This expansion of gases caused by ignition of the fuel produces the power that is transmitted to the crank shaft mechanism.
Four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle) 1. Intake 2. Compression 3. Power 4. Exhaust

4. Exhaust stroke: In the end of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens. During this stroke, the piston starts its movement in the maximum volume position. The open exhaust valve allows the exhaust gases to escape the cylinder. At the end of this stroke, the exhaust valve closes, the inlet valve opens, and the sequence repeats in the next cycle. Four-stroke engines require two revolutions. Many engines overlap these steps in time; turbine engines do all steps simultaneously at different parts of the engines. Combustion All internal combustion engines depend on combustion of a chemical fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry), as well as by the compression and other factors. The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas, wood gas, or charcoal gas, as well as from so-called producer gas made from other convenient biomass. Recently, experiments have been made with using powdered solid fuels, such as the magnesium

Internal combustion engine injection cycle. Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used. Experimental engines with laser ignition have been built.[2] Gasoline Ignition Process Gasoline engine ignition systems generally rely on a combination of a leadacid battery and an induction coil to provide a high-voltage electric spark to ignite the air-fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. This battery is recharged during operation using an electricity-generating device such as an alternator or generator driven by the engine. Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it to not more than 12.8 bar (1.28 MPa), then use a spark plug to ignite the mixture when it is compressed by the piston head in each cylinder. While gasoline internal combustion engines are much easier to start in cold weather than diesel engines, they can still have cold weather starting problems under extreme conditions. For years the solution was to park the car in heated areas. In some parts of the world the oil was actually drained and heated over night and returned to the engine for cold starts. In the early 1950s the gasoline Gasifier unit was developed, where part on cold weather starts raw gasoline was diverted to the unit where part of the gas was burned causing the other part to become a hot vapor sent directly to the intake valve manifold. This unit was quite popular till electric engine block heaters became standard on gasoline engines sold in cold climates. [3] Diesel Ignition Process Diesel engines and HCCI (Homogeneous charge compression ignition) engines, rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its compression process for ignition. The compression level that occurs is usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines take in air only, and shortly before peak compression, spray a small quantity of diesel fuel into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines take in both air and fuel, but continue to rely on an unaided auto-combustion process, due to higher pressures and heat. This is also why diesel and HCCI engines are more susceptible to cold-starting issues, although they run just as well in cold weather once started. Light duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and light trucks employ glowplugs that pre-heat the combustion chamber just before starting to reduce no-start conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is secondary and is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning fuel on and off (which can also be done via a switch or mechanical apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and accessories. Most new engines rely on electrical and electronic engine control units (ECU) that also adjust the combustion process to increase efficiency and reduce emissions. Two-stroke configuration Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes (one up, one down) for every power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes, alternative methods must be used to scavenge the cylinders. The most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the downward motion of the piston to pressurize fresh charge in the crankcase, which is then blown through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls. Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light for their power output and mechanically very simple; however, they are also generally less efficient and more polluting than their four-stroke counterparts. In terms of power per cm, a two-stroke engine produces comparable power to an equivalent four-stroke engine. The advantage of having one power stroke for every 360 of crankshaft rotation (compared to 720 in a 4-stroke motor) is balanced by the less complete intake and exhaust and the shorter effective compression and power strokes. It may be possible for a two-stroke to produce more power than an equivalent four-stroke, over a narrow range of engine speeds, at the expense of less power at other speeds. Small displacement, crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engines have been less fuel-efficient than other types of engines when the fuel is mixed with the air prior to scavenging allowing some of it to escape out of the exhaust port.

Internal combustion engine Modern designs (Sarich and Paggio) use air-assisted fuel injection, which avoids this loss and provides more efficiency than comparably sized four-stroke engines. Fuel injection is essential for a modern two-stroke engine for it to meet stringent emission standards. The problem of total loss oil consumption, however, remains a cause of high hydrocarbon emissions. The low-pressure direct gasoline injection developed by R Sarich was tested by Ford in an automobile size 2-stroke engine, and in 2012, Orbital won a contract by the Australia government for a two-stroke, direct injection engine for airborne drones. Research continues into improving many aspects of two-stroke motors including direct fuel injection, amongst other things. The initial results have produced motors that are much cleaner burning than their traditional counterparts. Two-stroke engines are widely used in snowmobiles, lawnmowers, string trimmers, chain saws, jet skis, mopeds, outboard motors, and many motorcycles. Two-stroke engines have the advantage of an increased specific power ratio (i.e. power to volume ratio), typically around 1.5 times that of a typical four-stroke engine. The largest internal combustion engines in the world are two-stroke diesels, used in some locomotives and large ships. They use forced induction (similar to super-charging, or turbocharging) to scavenge the cylinders; an example of this type of motor is the Wrtsil-Sulzer turbocharged two-stroke diesel as used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful internal combustion engine in the world with over 50% thermal efficiency.[4][5][6][7] For comparison, the most efficient small four-stroke motors are around 43% thermal efficiency (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area. Common cylinder configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the more compact V configuration, and the wider but smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as the H, U, X, and W have also been used. Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all because they can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder called an opposed piston design. Because here gas in- and outlets are positioned at opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow scavenging, which, as in the four-stroke engine, is efficient over a wide range of engine speeds. Also the thermal efficiency is improved because of lack of cylinder heads. This design was used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts at either end of a single bank of cylinders, and most remarkably in the Napier Deltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and is still used for marine propulsion engines and marine auxiliary generators.

10

Internal combustion engine Wankel The Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not have piston strokes. It operates with the same separation of phases as the four-stroke engine with the phases taking place in separate locations in the engine. In thermodynamic terms it follows the Otto engine cycle, so may be thought of as a "four-phase" engine. While it is true that three power strokes typically occur per rotor revolution due to the 3:1 revolution ratio of the rotor to the eccentric shaft, only one power stroke per shaft revolution actually occurs; this engine provides three power 'strokes' per revolution per rotor giving it a greater power-to-weight ratio than piston engines. This type of engine was most notably used in the Mazda RX-8, the earlier RX-7, and other models. Gas turbines A gas turbine is a rotary machine similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air, after being compressed in the compressor, is heated by burning fuel in it. About of the heated air, combined with the products of combustion, expands in a turbine, producing work output that drives the compressor. The rest (about ) is available as useful work output. Jet engine Jet engines take a large volume of hot gas from a combustion process (typically a gas turbine, but rocket forms of jet propulsion often use solid or liquid propellants, and ramjet forms also lack the gas turbine) and feed it through a nozzle that accelerates the jet to high speed. As the jet accelerates through the nozzle, this creates thrust and in turn does useful work.

11

The Wankel cycle. The shaft turns three times for each rotation of the rotor around the lobe and once for each orbital revolution around the eccentric shaft.

Engine cycle
Two-stroke This system manages to pack one power stroke into every two strokes of the piston (up-down). This is achieved by exhausting and recharging the cylinder simultaneously. The steps involved here are: 1. Intake and exhaust occur at bottom dead center. Some form of pressure is needed, either crankcase compression or super-charging. 2. Compression stroke: Fuel-air mix is compressed and ignited. In case of diesel: Air is compressed, fuel is injected and self-ignited. 3. Power stroke: Piston is pushed downward by the hot exhaust gases. Two Stroke Spark Ignition (SI) engine: In a two-stroke SI engine a cycle is completed in two strokes of a piston or one complete revolution (360) of a crankshaft. In this engine the intake and exhaust strokes are eliminated and ports are used instead of valves. In this cycle, the gasoline is mixed with lubricant oil, resulting in a simpler, but more environmentally damaging system, as the excess oils do not burn and are left as a residue. As the piston proceeds downward another port is opened, the

Idealised P/V diagram for two-stroke Otto cycle

Internal combustion engine fuel/air intake port. Air/fuel/oil mixtures come from the carburetor, where it was mixed, to rest in an adjacent fuel chamber. When the piston moves further down and the cylinder doesn't have anymore gases, fuel mixture starts to flow to the combustion chamber and the second process of fuel compression starts. The design carefully considers the point that the fuel-air mixture should not mix with the exhaust, therefore the processes of fuel injection and exhausting are synchronized to avoid that concern. It should be noted that the piston has three functions in its operation: The piston acts as the combustion chamber with the cylinder and compresses the air/fuel mixture, receives back the liberated energy, and transfers it to the crankshaft. The piston motion creates a vacuum that sucks the fuel/air mixture from the carburetor and pushes it from the crankcase (adjacent chamber) to the combustion chamber. The sides of the piston act like the valves, covering and uncovering the intake and exhaust ports drilled into the side of the cylinder wall. The major components of a two-stroke spark ignition engine are the: Cylinder: A cylindrical vessel in which a piston makes an up and down motion. Piston: A cylindrical component making an up and down movement in the cylinder Combustion chamber: A portion above the cylinder in which the combustion of the fuel-air mixture takes place Intake and exhaust ports: Ports that carry fresh fuel-air mixture into the combustion chamber and products of combustion away Crankshaft: A shaft that converts reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion Connecting rod: A rod that connects the piston to the crankshaft Spark plug: An ignition-source in the cylinder head that initiates the combustion process Operation: When the piston moves from bottom dead center (BDC) to top dead center (TDC) the fresh air and fuel mixture enters the crank chamber through the intake port. The mixture enters due to the pressure difference between the crank chamber and the outer atmosphere while simultaneously the fuel-air mixture above the piston is compressed. Ignition: With the help of a spark plug, ignition takes place at the top of the stroke. Due to the expansion of the gases the piston moves downwards covering the intake port and compressing the fuel-air mixture inside the crank chamber. When the piston is at bottom dead center, the burnt gases escape from the exhaust port. At the time the transfer port is uncovered the compressed charge from the crank chamber enters into the combustion chamber through the transfer port. The fresh charge is deflected upwards by a hump provided on the top of the piston and removes the exhaust gases from the combustion chamber. Again the piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead center and the fuel-air mixture is compressed when the both the exhaust port and transfer ports are covered. The cycle is repeated. Advantages: It has no valves or camshaft mechanism, hence simplifying its mechanism and construction For one complete revolution of the crankshaft, the engine executes one cyclethe 4-stroke executes one cycle per two crankshafts revolutions. Less weight and easier to manufacture. High power-to-weight ratio Disadvantages: The lack of lubrication system that protects the engine parts from wear. Accordingly, the 2-stroke engines have a shorter life. 2-stroke engines do not consume fuel efficiently. 2-stroke engines produce lots of pollution. Sometimes part of the fuel leaks to the exhaust with the exhaust gases. In conclusion, based on the above advantages and disadvantages, two-stroke engines are supposed to operate in vehicles where the weight of the engine must be small, and it is not used continuously for long periods.

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Internal combustion engine Four-stroke Engines based on the four-stroke ("Otto cycle") have one power stroke for every four strokes (up-down-up-down) and employ spark plug ignition. Combustion occurs rapidly, and during combustion the volume varies little ("constant volume").[8] They are used in cars, larger boats, some motorcycles, and many light aircraft. They are generally quieter, more efficient, and larger than their two-stroke counterparts. The steps involved here are: 1. Intake stroke: Air and vaporized fuel are drawn in. Idealised Pressure/volume diagram of the Otto cycle showing combustion heat input Qp and 2. Compression stroke: Fuel vapor and air are compressed and ignited. waste exhaust output Qo, the power stroke is the 3. Combustion stroke: Fuel combusts and piston is pushed top curved line, the bottom is the compression downwards. stroke 4. Exhaust stroke: Exhaust is driven out. During the 1st, 2nd, and 4th stroke the piston is relying on power and the momentum generated by the other pistons. In that case, a four-cylinder engine would be less powerful than a six- or eight-cylinder engine. There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the Atkinson and Miller cycles. The diesel cycle is somewhat different. Split-cycle engines separate the four strokes of intake, compression, combustion and exhaust into two separate but paired cylinders. The first cylinder is used for intake and compression. The compressed air is then transferred through a crossover passage from the compression cylinder into the second cylinder, where combustion and exhaust occur. A split-cycle engine is really an air compressor on one side with a combustion chamber on the other. Previous split-cycle engines have had two major problems - poor breathing (volumetric efficiency) and low thermal efficiency. However, new designs are being introduced that seek to address these problems. The Scuderi Engine addresses the breathing problem by reducing the clearance between the piston and the cylinder head through various turbo charging techniques. The Scuderi design requires the use of outwardly opening valves that enable the piston to move very close to the cylinder head without the interference of the valves. Scuderi addresses the low thermal efficiency via firing ATDC. Firing ATDC can be accomplished by using high-pressure air in the transfer passage to create sonic flow and high turbulence in the power cylinder.

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Internal combustion engine Diesel cycle Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four-stroke cycle, but with a compression heating ignition system, rather than needing a separate ignition system. This variation is called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure, as the piston moves. Otto cycle: Otto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the cars internal combustion engines, that work using gasoline as a fuel. Otto cycle is exactly the same one that was described for the four-stroke engine. It consists of the same four major steps: Intake, compression, ignition and exhaust. PV diagram for Otto cycle On the PV-diagram, 1-2: Intake: suction follows the numbers 1-4 in clockwise direction. stroke 2-3: Isentropic Compression stroke 3-4: Heat addition stroke 4-5: Exhaust stroke (Isentropic expansion) 5-2: Heat rejection The distance between points 1-2 is the stroke of the engine. By dividing V2/V1, we get: r where r is called the compression ratio of the engine. ________________________________________ Six-stroke First invented in 1883, the six-stroke engine has seen renewed interest over the last 20 or so years. Four kinds of six-stroke use a regular piston in a regular cylinder (Griffin six-stroke, Bajulaz six-stroke, Velozeta six-stroke and Crower six-stroke), firing every three crankshaft revolutions. The systems capture the wasted heat of the four-stroke Otto cycle with an injection of air or water. The Beare Head and "piston charger" engines operate as opposed-piston engines, two pistons in a single cylinder, firing every two revolutions rather more like a regular four-stroke. Brayton cycle A gas turbine is a rotary machine somewhat similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air after being compressed in the compressor is heated by burning fuel in it, this heats and expands the air, and this extra energy is tapped by the turbine, which in turn powers the compressor closing the cycle and powering the shaft.
P-v Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle

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Brayton cycle

Gas turbine cycle engines employ a continuous combustion system where compression, combustion, and expansion occur simultaneously at different places in the enginegiving continuous power. Notably, the combustion takes place at constant pressure, rather than with the Otto cycle, constant volume.

Internal combustion engine Obsolete The very first internal combustion engines did not compress the mixture. The first part of the piston downstroke drew in a fuel-air mixture, then the inlet valve closed and, in the remainder of the down-stroke, the fuel-air mixture fired. The exhaust valve opened for the piston upstroke. These attempts at imitating the principle of a steam engine were very inefficient.

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Fuels and oxidizers

Engines are often classified by the fuel (or propellant) used. Fuels Nowadays, fuels used include: Petroleum: Petroleum spirit (North American term: gasoline, British term: petrol) Petroleum diesel. Autogas (liquified petroleum gas). Compressed natural gas.

Jet fuel (aviation fuel) Residual fuel Coal: Most methanol is made from coal. Gasoline can be made from carbon (coal) using the Fischer-Tropsch process Diesel fuel can be made from carbon using the Fischer-Tropsch process Biofuels and vegoils: Peanut oil and other vegoils. Biofuels: Biobutanol (replaces gasoline). Biodiesel (replaces petrodiesel). Dimethyl Ether (replaces petrodiesel). Bioethanol and Biomethanol (wood alcohol) and other biofuels (see Flexible-fuel vehicle). Biogas Hydrogen (mainly spacecraft rocket engines) Even fluidized metal powders and explosives have seen some use. Engines that use gases for fuel are called gas engines and those that use liquid hydrocarbons are called oil engines; however, gasoline engines are also often colloquially referred to as, "gas engines" ("petrol engines" in the UK). The main limitations on fuels are that it must be easily transportable through the fuel system to the combustion chamber, and that the fuel releases sufficient energy in the form of heat upon combustion to make practical use of the engine. Diesel engines are generally heavier, noisier, and more powerful at lower speeds than gasoline engines. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly so for their increased fuel efficiency over gasoline engines), ships, railway locomotives, and light aircraft. Gasoline engines are used in most other road vehicles including most cars, motorcycles, and mopeds. Note that in Europe, sophisticated diesel-engined cars have taken over about 40% of the market since the 1990s. There are also engines that run on hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biodiesel, wood gas, & charcoal gas. Paraffin and tractor vaporizing oil (TVO) engines are no longer seen.

Internal combustion engine Hydrogen Hydrogen could eventually replace conventional fossil fuels in traditional internal combustion engines. Alternatively fuel cell technology may come to deliver its promise and the use of the internal combustion engines could even be phased out. Although there are multiple ways of producing free hydrogen, those methods require converting combustible molecules into hydrogen or consuming electric energy. Unless that electricity is produced from a renewable sourceand is not required for other purposes hydrogen does not solve any energy crisis. In many situations the disadvantage of hydrogen, relative to carbon fuels, is its storage. Liquid hydrogen has extremely low density (14 times lower than water) and requires extensive insulationwhilst gaseous hydrogen requires heavy tankage. Even when liquefied, hydrogen has a higher specific energy but the volumetric energetic storage is still roughly five times lower than gasoline. However, the energy density of hydrogen is considerably higher than that of electric batteries, making it a serious contender as an energy carrier to replace fossil fuels. The 'Hydrogen on Demand' process (see direct borohydride fuel cell) creates hydrogen as needed, but has other issues, such as the high price of the sodium borohydride that is the raw material. Oxidizers Since air is plentiful at the surface of the earth, the oxidizer is typically atmospheric oxygen, which has the advantage of not being stored within the vehicle. This increases the power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios. Other materials are used for special purposes, often to increase power output or to allow operation under water or in space. Compressed air has been commonly used in torpedoes. Compressed oxygen, as well as some compressed air, was used in the Japanese Type 93 torpedo. Some submarines carry pure oxygen. Rockets very often use liquid oxygen. Nitromethane is added to some racing and model fuels to increase power and control combustion. Nitrous oxide has been usedwith extra gasolinein tactical aircraft, and in specially equipped cars to allow short bursts of added power from engines that otherwise run on gasoline and air. It is also used in the Burt Rutan rocket spacecraft.
One-cylinder gasoline engine (ca. 1910)

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Hydrogen peroxide power was under development for German World War II submarines. It may have been used in some non-nuclear submarines, and was used on some rocket engines (notably the Black Arrow and the Me-163 rocket plane). Other chemicals such as chlorine or fluorine have been used experimentally, but have not been found practical.

Internal combustion engine

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Engine cooling
Two most common forms of engine cooling are air-cooled and water cooled most modern engines are water cooled. Some engines (air or water cooled) also have an oil cooler. Cooling is required to remove excessive heat over heating can cause engine failure, usually from wear, cracking or warping.

Engine starting
An internal combustion engine is not usually self-starting so an auxiliary machine is required to start it. Many different systems have been used in the past but modern engines are usually started by an electric motor in the small and medium sizes or by compressed air in the large sizes.

Measures of engine performance

Engine types vary greatly in a number of different ways: energy efficiency fuel/propellant consumption (brake specific fuel consumption for shaft engines, thrust specific fuel consumption for jet engines) power-to-weight ratio thrust to weight ratio Torque curves (for shaft engines) thrust lapse (jet engines) Compression ratio for piston engines, overall pressure ratio for jet engines and gas turbines

Energy efficiency
Once ignited and burnt, the combustion productshot gaseshave more available thermal energy than the original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons. Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any heat that isn't translated into work is normally considered a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system. Internal combustion engines are primarily heat engines, and as such their theoretical efficiency can be calculated by idealized thermodynamic cycles. The efficiency of a theoretical cycle cannot exceed that of the Carnot cycle, whose efficiency is determined by the difference between the lower and upper operating temperatures of the engine. The upper operating temperature of a terrestrial engine is limited by the thermal stability of the materials used to construct it. All metals and alloys eventually melt or decompose, and there is significant researching into ceramic materials that can be made with greater thermal stability and desirable structural properties. Higher thermal stability allows for greater temperature difference between the lower and upper operating temperatures, hence greater thermodynamic efficiency. The thermodynamic limits assume that the engine is operating under ideal conditions: a frictionless world, ideal gases, perfect insulators, and operation for infinite time. Real world applications introduce complexities that reduce efficiency. For example, a real engine runs best at a specific load, termed its power band. The engine in a car cruising on a highway is usually operating significantly below its ideal load, because it is designed for the higher loads required for rapid acceleration. In addition, factors such as wind resistance reduce overall system efficiency. Engine fuel economy is usually measured in the units of miles per gallon (or fuel consumption in liters per 100 kilometers) for automobiles. The volume of hydrocarbon assumes a standard energy content.

Internal combustion engine Most steel engines have a thermodynamic limit of 37%. Even when aided with turbochargers and stock efficiency aids, most engines retain an average efficiency of about 18%-20%.[9] Rocket engine efficiencies are better still, up to 70%, because they operate at very high temperatures and pressures and can have very high expansion ratios.[10] There are many inventions aimed at increasing the efficiency of IC engines. In general, practical engines are always compromised by trade-offs between different properties such as efficiency, weight, power, heat, response, exhaust emissions, or noise. Sometimes economy also plays a role in not only the cost of manufacturing the engine itself, but also manufacturing and distributing the fuel. Increasing the engine's efficiency brings better fuel economy but only if the fuel cost per energy content is the same.

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Measures of fuel efficiency and propellant efficiency

For stationary and shaft engines including propeller engines, fuel consumption is measured by calculating the brake specific fuel consumption, which measures the mass flow rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced. For internal combustion engines in the form of jet engines, the power output varies drastically with airspeed and a less variable measure is used: thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC), which is the number of pounds of propellant needed to generate impulses that measure a pound force-hour. In metric units, the number of grams of propellant needed to generate an impulse that measures one kilonewton-second. For rockets, TSFC can be used, but typically other equivalent measures are traditionally used, such as specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity.

Air and noise pollution

Air pollution
Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines produce air pollution emissions, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel. The main derivatives of the process are carbon dioxide CO2, water and some soot also called particulate matter (PM). The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There are, however, some additional products of the combustion process that include nitrogen oxides and sulfur and some uncombusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating conditions and the fuel-air ratio. Not all of the fuel is completely consumed by the combustion process; a small amount of fuel is present after combustion, and some of it reacts to form oxygenates, such as formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, or hydrocarbons not originally present in the input fuel mixture. Incomplete combustion usually results from insufficient oxygen to achieve the perfect stoichiometric ratio. The flame is "quenched" by the relatively cool cylinder walls, leaving behind unreacted fuel that is expelled with the exhaust. When running at lower speeds, quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that run on natural gas. Quenching reduces efficiency and increases knocking, sometimes causing the engine to stall. Incomplete combustion also leads to the production of carbon monoxide (CO). Further chemicals released are benzene and 1,3-butadiene that are also hazardous air pollutants. Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete combustion products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the air to produce nitrogen oxides (NOx). NOx is hazardous to both plant and animal health, and leads to the production of ozone (O3). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere by the reaction of NO"x" and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the same chemical substance, ground-level ozone should not be confused with stratospheric ozone, or the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.

Internal combustion engine Carbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that eventually produce sulfur monoxides (SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust, which promotes acid rain. In the United States, nitrogen oxides, PM, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and ozone, are regulated as criteria air pollutants under the Clean Air Act to levels at which human health and welfare are protected. Other pollutants, such as benzene and 1,3-butadiene, are regulated as hazardous air pollutants whose emissions must be lowered as much as possible depending on technological and practical considerations.

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Noise pollution
Significant contributions to noise pollution are made by internal combustion engines. Automobile and truck traffic operating on highways and street systems produce noise, as do aircraft flights due to jet noise, particularly supersonic-capable aircraft. Rocket engines create the most intense noise.

Idling
Internal combustion engines continue to consume fuel and emit pollutants when idling so it is desirable to keep periods of idling to a minimum. Many bus companies now instruct drivers to switch off the engine when the bus is waiting at a terminus. In the UK (but applying only to England), the Road Traffic (Vehicle Emissions) (Fixed Penalty) Regulations 2002 (Statutory Instrument 2002 No. 1808)[11] introduced the concept of a "stationary idling offence". This means that a driver can be ordered "by an authorised person ... upon production of evidence of his authorisation, require him to stop the running of the engine of that vehicle" and a "person who fails to comply ... shall be guilty of an offence and be liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding level 3 on the standard scale". Only a few local authorities have implemented the regulations, one of them being Oxford City Council.[12]

References
[1] "History of Technology: Internal Combustion engines" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 1350805/ history-of-technology/ 10451/ Internal-combustion-engine). Encyclopdia Britannica. Britannica.com. . Retrieved 2012-03-20. [2] Laser sparks revolution in internal combustion engines (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news/ 2011-04-laser-revolution-internal-combustion. html) Physorg.com, April 20, 2011. Accessed April 2011 [3] Gasifier Aids Motor Starting Under Arctic Conditions (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=zdwDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA149). January 1953. pp.149. . [4] Low Speed Engines (http:/ / www. manbw. com/ engines/ TwoStrokeLowSpeedPropMEEngines. asp?model=S80ME-C7. html), MAN Diesel. [5] "CFX aids design of worlds most efficient steam turbine" (http:/ / www. ansys. com/ assets/ testimonials/ siemens. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-08-28. [6] "New Benchmarks for Steam Turbine Efficiency - Power Engineering" (http:/ / pepei. pennnet. com/ display_article/ 152601/ 6/ ARTCL/ none/ none/ 1/ New-Benchmarks-for-Steam-Turbine-Efficiency/ ). Pepei.pennnet.com. 2010-08-24. . Retrieved 2010-08-28. [7] Takaishi, Tatsuo; Numata, Akira; Nakano, Ryouji; Sakaguchi, Katsuhiko (March 2008). "Approach to High Efficiency Diesel and Gas Engines" (https:/ / www. mhi. co. jp/ technology/ review/ pdf/ e451/ e451021. pdf) (PDF). Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Technical Review 45 (1). . Retrieved 2011-02-04. [8] "Ideal Otto Cycle" (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ K-12/ airplane/ otto. html). Grc.nasa.gov. 2008-07-11. . Retrieved 2010-08-28. [9] "Improving IC Engine Efficiency" (http:/ / courses. washington. edu/ me341/ oct22v2. htm). Courses.washington.edu. . Retrieved 2010-08-28. [10] Rocket propulsion elements 7th edition-George Sutton, Oscar Biblarz pg 37-38 [11] "The Road Traffic (Vehicle Emissions) (Fixed Penalty) (England) Regulations 2002" (http:/ / 195. 99. 1. 70/ si/ si2002/ 20021808. htm#13). 195.99.1.70. 2010-07-16. . Retrieved 2010-08-28. [12] "CITY DEVELOPMENT - Fees & Charges 2010-11" (http:/ / www. oxford. gov. uk/ Direct/ 2_Item 5. 6. pdf). Oxford City Council. 2010-11. . Retrieved 2011-02-04.

Internal combustion engine

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Further reading
Singer, Charles Joseph; Raper, Richard, A History of Technology: The Internal Combustion Engine (http:// proxy.bib.uottawa.ca:2398/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls&cc=acls&idno=heb02191.0005.001& q1=bicycle&frm=frameset&seq=5), edited by Charles Singer ... [et al.], Clarendon Press, 1954-1978. pp.157176 Setright, LJK. "Some unusual engines", 1975 The Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London. ISBN 0 85298 208 9 Suzuki, Takashi, PhD. "The Romance of Engines", 1997 SAE, ISBN 1-56091-911-6 Horst O. Hardenberg, The Middle Ages of the Internal Combustion Engine, 1999, Society of Automotive Engineers (http://www.automotiveengine.net/) (SAE). Gunston, Bill. "Development of Piston Aero Engines", 1999 PSL, ISBN 978 1 85260 619 0

External links
Animated Engines (http://www.animatedengines.com) - explains a variety of types Intro to Car Engines (http://www.autoeducation.com/rm_preview/engine_intro.htm) - Cut-away images and a good overview of the internal combustion engine Walter E. Lay Auto Lab (http://me.engin.umich.edu/autolab/Projects/index.html) - Research at The University of Michigan youtube (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2eILCrW53M&NR) - Animation of the components and built-up of a 4-cylinder engine youtube (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2QB7XPMeLnA) - Animation of the internal moving parts of a 4-cylinder engine Next generation engine technologies (http://www.popularmechanics.com/automotive/new_cars/4261289. html?series=19) retrieved May 9, 2009 MIT Overview (http://web.mit.edu/professional/short-programs/courses/internal_combustion_engines.html) - Present & Future Internal Combustion Engines: Performance, Efficiency, Emissions, and Fuels Engine Combustion Network (http://www.sandia.gov/ecn) - Open forum for international collaboration among experimental and computational researchers in engine combustion. Automakers Show Interest in an Unusual Engine Design (http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/27124/ page1/?a=f) How Car Engines Work (http://www.howstuffworks.com/engine1.htm) A file on unusual engines (http://www.douglas-self.com/MUSEUM/POWER/unusualICeng/unusualICeng. htm) Aircraft Engine Historical Society -AEHS (http://www.enginehistory.org)

Soot

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Soot
Soot ( /st/) is a general term that refers to impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon. It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolyzed fuel particles such as coal, cenospheres, charred wood, petroleum coke, and so on, that may become airborne during pyrolysis and that are more properly identified as cokes or chars. The gas-phase soots contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).[1] The PAHs in soot are known mutagens[2] and are classified as a "known human carcinogen" by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).[3] Soot, as an airborne contaminant in the environment has many different sources but they are all the result of some form of pyrolysis. They include soot from coal burning, internal combustion engines, power plant boilers, hog-fuel Emission of soot from a large diesel truck, without particle boilers, ship boilers, central steam heat boilers, waste filters incineration, local field burning, house fires, forest fires, fireplaces, furnaces, etc. These exterior sources also contribute to the indoor environment sources such as smoking of plant matter, cooking, oil lamps, candles, quartz/halogen bulbs with settled dust, fireplaces, defective furnaces, etc. Soot in very low concentrations is capable of darkening surfaces or making particle agglomerates, such as those from ventilation systems, appear black. Soot is the primary cause of "ghosting", the discoloration of walls and ceilings or walls and flooring where they meet. It is generally responsible for the discoloration of the walls above baseboard electric heating units and can be known as a gas. The formation of soot depends strongly on the fuel composition.[4] The rank ordering of sooting tendency of fuel components is: naphthalenes benzenes aliphatics. However, the order of sooting tendencies of the aliphatics (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes) varies dramatically depending on the flame type. The difference between the sooting tendencies of aliphatics and aromatics is thought to result mainly from the different routes of formation. Aliphatics appear to first form acetylene and polyacetylenes, which is a slow process; aromatics can form soot both by this route and also by a more direct pathway involving ring condensation or polymerization reactions building on the existing aromatic structure.[5][6]

Description
Soot is a powder-like form of amorphous carbon.

Hazards
Long-term exposure to urban air pollution containing soot increases the risk of coronary heart disease, according to a major study published in New England Journal of Medicine in 2007.[7] diesel exhaust (DE) gas is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies using a well-validated exposure chamber setup DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[8][9] This serves as a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulate matter

Soot air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

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References
[1] Rundel, Ruthann, "Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Phthalates, and Phenols", in Indoor Air Quality Handbook, John Spengleer, Jonathan M. Samet, John F. McCarthy (eds), pp. 34.1-34.2, 2001 [2] Rundel, Ruthann, "Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Phthalates, and Phenols", in Indoor Air Quality Handbook, John Spengleer, Jonathan M. Samet, John F. McCarthy (eds), pp. 34.18-34.21, 2001 [3] Soots (IARC Summary & Evaluation, Volume 35, 1985) (http:/ / www. inchem. org/ documents/ iarc/ vol35/ soots. html) [4] Seinfeld, John H. ; Pandis, Spyros N. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics - From Air Pollution to Climate Change (2nd Edition).. John Wiley & Sons. [5] Graham, S. C, Homer, J. B., and Rosenfeld, J. L. J. (1975) " The formation and coagulation of soot aerosols generated in pyrolysis of aromatic hydrocarbons (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 78961)", Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. A344, 259-285. [6] Flagan, R. C., and Seinfeld, J. H. (1988) Fundamentals of Air Pollution Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. [7] "Long-Term Exposure to Air Pollution and Incidence of Cardiovascular Events in Women" (http:/ / content. nejm. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 356/ 5/ 447) Kristin A. Miller, David S. Siscovick, Lianne Sheppard, Kristen Shepherd, Jeffrey H. Sullivan, Garnet L. Anderson, and Joel D. Kaufman, in New England Journal of Medicine February 1, 2007 [8] "Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man", Andrew J. Lucking, Magnus Lundback, Nicholas L. Mills, Dana Faratian, Stefan L. Barath, Jamshid Pourazar, Flemming R. Cassee, Kenneth Donaldson, Nicholas A. Boon, Juan J. Badimon, Thomas Sandstrm, Anders Blomberg, and David E. Newby1 [9] "Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans after Diesel Exhaust Inhalation", Hkan Trnqvist, Nicholas L. Mills, Manuel Gonzalez, Mark R. Miller, Simon D. Robinson, Ian L. Megson, William MacNee, Ken Donaldson, Stefan Sderberg, David E. Newby, Thomas Sandstrm, and Anders Blomberg

External links
"Blacks". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.

Fly ash
Fly ash is one of the residues generated in combustion, and comprises the fine particles that rise with the flue gases. Ash which does not rise is termed bottom ash. In an industrial context, fly ash usually refers to ash produced during combustion of coal. Fly ash is generally captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys of coal-fired power plants, and together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the furnace is in this case jointly known as coal ash. Depending upon the source and makeup of the coal being burned, the components of fly ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline) and calcium oxide (CaO), both being endemic ingredients in many coal-bearing rock strata.

Photomicrograph made with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): Fly ash particles at 2,000x magnification

Toxic constituents depend upon the specific coal bed makeup, but may include one or more of the following

Fly ash

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elements or substances in quantities from trace amounts to several percent: arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, along with dioxins and PAH compounds.[1][2] In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but pollution control equipment mandated in recent decades now require that it be captured prior to release. In the US, fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is recycled,[3] often used to supplement Portland cement in concrete production. Some have expressed health concerns about this.[4] In some cases, such as the burning of solid waste to and Back-Scatter Detector: Cross section of fly ash particles at 750x create electricity ("resource recovery" facilities a.k.a. magnification waste-to-energy facilities), the fly ash may contain higher levels of contaminants than the bottom ash and mixing the fly and bottom ash together brings the proportional levels of contaminants within the range to qualify as nonhazardous waste in a given state, whereas, unmixed, the fly ash would be within the range to qualify as hazardous waste.
Photomicrograph made with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Chemical composition and classification

Component Bituminous Subbituminous Lignite SiO2 (%) Al2O3 (%) Fe2O3 (%) CaO (%) LOI (%) 20-60 5-35 10-40 1-12 0-15 40-60 20-30 4-10 5-30 0-3 15-45 20-25 4-15 15-40 0-5

Fly ash material solidifies while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected by electrostatic precipitators or filter bags. Since the particles solidify rapidly while suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and range in size from 0.5 m to 300m. The major consequence of the rapid cooling is that only few minerals will have time to crystallize and that mainly amorphous, quenched glass remains. Nevertheless, some refractory phases in the pulverized coal will not melt (entirely) and remain crystalline. In consequence, fly ash is a heterogeneous material. SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and occasionally CaO are the main chemical components present in fly ashes. The mineralogy of fla ashes is very diverse. The main phases encountered are a glass phase, together with quartz, mullite and the iron oxides hematite, magnetite and/or maghemite. Other phases often identified are cristobalite, anhydrite, free lime, periclase, calcite, sylvite, halite, portlandite, rutile and anatase. The Ca-bearing minerals anorthite, gehlenite, akermanite and various calcium silicates and calcium aluminates identical to those found in Portland cement can be identified in Ca-rich fly ashes[5] . The above concentrations of trace elements vary according to the kind of coal combusted to form it. In fact, in the case of bituminous coal, with the notable exception of boron, trace element concentrations are generally similar to trace element concentrations in unpolluted soils.[6]

Fly ash Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618: Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash. The chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the chemical content of the coal burned (i.e., anthracite, bituminous, and lignite).[7] Not all fly ashes meet ASTM C618 requirements, although depending on the application, this may not be necessary. Ash used as a cement replacement must meet strict construction standards, but no standard environmental regulations have been established in the United States. 75% of the ash must have a fineness of 45m or less, and have a carbon content, measured by the loss on ignition (LOI), of less than 4%. In the U.S., LOI needs to be under 6%. The particle size distribution of raw fly ash is very often fluctuating constantly, due to changing performance of the coal mills and the boiler performance. This makes it necessary that, if fly ash is used in an optimal way to replace cement in concrete production, it needs to be processed using beneficiation methods like mechanical air classification. But if fly ash is used also as a filler to replace sand in concrete production, unbeneficiated fly ash with higher LOI can be also used. Especially important is the ongoing quality verification. This is mainly expressed by quality control seals like the Bureau of Indian Standards mark or the DCL mark of the Dubai Municipality.

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Class F fly ash

The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 20% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime, with the presence of water in order to react and produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively, the addition of a chemical activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class F ash can lead to the formation of a geopolymer.

Class C fly ash

Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or subbituminous coal, in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly ash will harden and gain strength over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and sulfate (SO4) contents are generally higher in Class C fly ashes. At least one US manufacturer has announced a fly ash brick containing up to 50% Class C fly ash. Testing shows the bricks meet or exceed the performance standards listed in ASTM C 216 for conventional clay brick; it is also within the allowable shrinkage limits for concrete brick in ASTM C 55, Standard Specification for Concrete Building Brick. It is estimated that the production method used in fly ash bricks will reduce the embodied energy of masonry construction by up to 90%.[8] Bricks and pavers were expected to be available in commercial quantities before the end of 2009.[9]

Disposal and market sources

In the past, fly ash produced from coal combustion was simply entrained in flue gases and dispersed into the atmosphere. This created environmental and health concerns that prompted laws which have reduced fly ash emissions to less than 1% of ash produced. Worldwide, more than 65% of fly ash produced from coal power stations is disposed of in landfills and ash ponds. The recycling of fly ash has become an increasing concern in recent years due to increasing landfill costs and current interest in sustainable development. As of 2005, U.S. coal-fired power plants reported producing 71.1 million tons of fly ash, of which 29.1 million tons were reused in various applications.[10] If the nearly 42 million tons of unused fly ash had been recycled, it would have reduced the need for approximately 27500acreft (unknown operator: u'strong' m3) of landfill space.[10][11] Other environmental benefits to recycling fly ash includes reducing the demand for virgin materials that would need quarrying and substituting for materials that may be energy-intensive to create such as Portland cement.

Fly ash As of 2006, about 125 million tons of coal-combustion byproducts, including fly ash, were produced in the U.S. each year, with about 43% of that amount used in commercial applications, according to the American Coal Ash Association Web site. As of early 2008, the United States Environmental Protection Agency hoped that figure would increase to 50% as of 2011.[12]

25

Fly ash reuse

There is no U.S. governmental registration or labelling of fly ash utilization in the different sectors of the economy industry, infrastructures and agriculture. Fly ash utilization survey data, acknowledged as incomplete, are published annually by the American Coal Ash Association.[13] The ways of fly ash utilization include (approximately in order of decreasing importance): Concrete production, as a substitute material for Portland cement and sand Embankments and other structural fills (usually for road construction) Grout and Flowable fill production Waste stabilization and solidification Cement clinkers production - (as a substitute material for clay) Mine reclamation

Stabilization of soft soils Road subbase construction As Aggregate substitute material (e.g. for brick production) Mineral filler in asphaltic concrete Agricultural uses: soil amendment, fertilizer, cattle feeders, soil stabilization in stock feed yards, and agricultural stakes Loose application on rivers to melt ice[14] Loose application on roads and parking lots for ice control[15] Other applications include cosmetics, toothpaste, kitchen counter tops, floor and ceiling tiles, bowling balls, flotation devices, stucco, utensils, tool handles, picture frames, auto bodies and boat hulls, cellular concrete, geopolymers, roofing tiles, roofing granules, decking, fireplace mantles, cinder block, PVC pipe, Structural Insulated Panels, house siding and trim, running tracks, blasting grit, recycled plastic lumber, utility poles and crossarms, railway sleepers, highway sound barriers, marine pilings, doors, window frames, scaffolding, sign posts, crypts, columns, railroad ties, vinyl flooring, paving stones, shower stalls, garage doors, park benches, landscape timbers, planters, pallet blocks, molding, mail boxes, artificial reef, binding agent, paints and undercoatings, metal castings, and filler in wood and plastic products.[11][16][17]

Portland cement
Owing to its pozzolanic properties, fly ash is used as a replacement for some of the Portland cement content of concrete.[18] The use of fly ash as a pozzolanic ingredient was recognized as early as 1914, although the earliest noteworthy study of its use was in 1937.[19] Before its use was lost to the Dark Ages, Roman structures such as aqueducts or the Pantheon in Rome used volcanic ash or pozzolana (which possesses similar properties to fly ash) as pozzolan in their concrete.[20] As pozzolan greatly improves the strength and durability of concrete, the use of ash is a key factor in their preservation. Use of fly ash as a partial replacement for Portland cement is generally limited to Class F fly ashes. It can replace up to 30% by mass of Portland cement, and can add to the concretes final strength and increase its chemical resistance and durability. Recently concrete mix design for partial cement replacement with High Volume Fly Ash (50 % cement replacement) has been developed. For Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC)[used in dam construction] replacement values of 70% have been achieved with processed fly ash at the Ghatghar Dam project in Maharashtra, India. Due to the spherical shape of fly ash particles, it can also increase workability of cement while reducing water

Fly ash demand.[21] The replacement of Portland cement with fly ash is considered by its promoters to reduce the greenhouse gas "footprint" of concrete, as the production of one ton of Portland cement produces approximately one ton of CO2 as compared to zero CO2 being produced using existing fly ash. New fly ash production, i.e., the burning of coal, produces approximately twenty to thirty tons of CO2 per ton of fly ash. Since the worldwide production of Portland cement is expected to reach nearly 2 billion tons by 2010, replacement of any large portion of this cement by fly ash could significantly reduce carbon emissions associated with construction, as long as the comparison takes the production of fly ash as a given.

26

Embankment
Fly ash properties are unusual among engineering materials. Unlike soils typically used for embankment construction, fly ash has a large uniformity coefficient and it consists of clay-sized particles. Engineering properties that affect the use of fly ash in embankments include grain size distribution, compaction characteristics, shear strength, compressibility, permeability, and frost susceptibility.[21] Nearly all the types of fly ash used in embankments are Class F.

Soil stabilization
Soil stabilization is the permanent physical and chemical alteration of soils to enhance their physical properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of a soil and/or control the shrink-swell properties of a soil, thus improving the load-bearing capacity of a sub-grade to support pavements and foundations. Stabilization can be used to treat a wide range of sub-grade materials from expansive clays to granular materials. Stabilization can be achieved with a variety of chemical additives including lime, fly ash, and Portland cement, as well as by-products such as lime-kiln dust (LKD) and cement-kiln dust (CKD). Proper design and testing is an important component of any stabilization project. This allows for the establishment of design criteria as well as the determination of the proper chemical additive and admixture rate to be used to achieve the desired engineering properties. Benefits of the stabilization process can include: Higher resistance (R) values, Reduction in plasticity, Lower permeability, Reduction of pavement thickness, Elimination of excavation - material hauling/handling - and base importation, Aids compaction, Provides all-weather access onto and within projects sites. Another form of soil treatment closely related to soil stabilization is soil modification, sometimes referred to as mud drying or soil conditioning. Although some stabilization inherently occurs in soil modification, the distinction is that soil modification is merely a means to reduce the moisture content of a soil to expedite construction, whereas stabilization can substantially increase the shear strength of a material such that it can be incorporated into the projects structural design. The determining factors associated with soil modification vs soil stabilization may be the existing moisture content, the end use of the soil structure and ultimately the cost benefit provided. Equipment for the stabilization and modification processes include: chemical additive spreaders, soil mixers (reclaimers), portable pneumatic storage containers, water trucks, deep lift compactors, motor graders.

Flowable fill
Fly ash is also used as a component in the production of flowable fill (also called controlled low strength material, or CLSM), which is used as self-leveling, self-compacting backfill material in lieu of compacted earth or granular fill. The strength of flowable fill mixes can range from 50 to 1,200 lbf/in (0.3 to 8.3 MPa), depending on the design requirements of the project in question. Flowable fill includes mixtures of Portland cement and filler material, and can contain mineral admixtures. Fly ash can replace either the Portland cement or fine aggregate (in most cases, river sand) as a filler material. High fly ash content mixes contain nearly all fly ash, with a small percentage of Portland cement and enough water to make the mix flowable. Low fly ash content mixes contain a high percentage of filler material, and a low percentage of fly ash, Portland cement, and water. Class F fly ash is best suited for high fly ash content mixes, whereas Class C fly ash is almost always used in low fly ash content mixes.[21][22]

Fly ash

27

Asphalt concrete
Asphalt concrete is a composite material consisting of an asphalt binder and mineral aggregate. Both Class F and Class C fly ash can typically be used as a mineral filler to fill the voids and provide contact points between larger aggregate particles in asphalt concrete mixes. This application is used in conjunction, or as a replacement for, other binders (such as Portland cement or hydrated lime). For use in asphalt pavement, the fly ash must meet mineral filler specifications outlined in ASTM D242 [23]. The hydrophobic nature of fly ash gives pavements better resistance to stripping. Fly ash has also been shown to increase the stiffness of the asphalt matrix, improving rutting resistance and increasing mix durability.[21][24]

Geopolymers
More recently, fly ash has been used as a component in geopolymers, where the reactivity of the fly ash glasses is used to generate a binder comparable to a hydrated Portland cement in appearance and properties, but with possibly reduced CO2 emissions.[25] It should be noted that when the total carbon footprint of the alkali required to form geopolymer cement is considered, including the calcining of limestone as an intermediate to the formation of alkali, the net reduction in total CO2 emissions may be negligible. Moreover, handling of alkali can be problematic and setting of geopolymer cements is very rapid (minutes versus hours) as compared to Portland cements, making widespread use of geopolymer cements impractical at the ready mix level.

Roller compacted concrete

Another application of using fly ash is in roller compacted concrete dams. Many dams in the US have been constructed with high fly ash contents. Fly ash lowers the heat of hydration allowing thicker placements to occur. Data for these can be found at the US Bureau of Reclamation. This has also been demonstrated in the Ghatghar Dam Project in India.

Bricks
There are several techniques for manufacturing construction bricks from fly ash, producing a wide variety of products. One type of fly ash brick is manufactured by mixing fly ash with an equal amount of clay, then firing in a kiln at about 1000 degrees C. This approach has the principal benefit of reducing the amount of clay required. Another type of fly ash brick is made by mixing soil, plaster of paris, fly ash and water, and allowing the mixture to dry. Because no heat is required, this technique reduces air pollution. More modern manufacturing processes use a greater proportion of fly ash, and a high pressure manufacturing technique, which produces high strength bricks with environmental benefits. In the United Kingdom, fly ash has been used for over fifty years to make concrete building blocks. They are widely used for the inner skin of cavity walls. They are naturally more thermally insulating than blocks made with other aggregates. Ash bricks have been used in house construction in Windhoek, Namibia since the 1970s. There is, however, a problem with the bricks in that they tend to fail or produce unsightly pop-outs. This happens when the bricks come into contact with moisture and a chemical reaction occurs causing the bricks to expand. In India, fly ash bricks are used for construction. Leading manufacturers use an industrial standard known as "Pulverized fuel ash for lime-Pozzolana mixture" using over 75% post-industrial recycled waste, and a compression process. This produces a strong product with good insulation properties and environmental benefits.[26][27] American civil engineer Henry Liu announced the invention of a new type of fly ash brick in 2007. Liu's brick is compressed at 4,000 psi and cured for 24 hours in a 150 F (66 C) steam bath, then toughened with an air entrainment agent, so that it lasts for more than 100 freeze-thaw cycles. Owing to the high concentration of calcium

Fly ash oxide in class C fly ash, the brick can be described as self-cementing. Since this method contains no clay and uses pressure instead of heat, it saves energy, reduces mercury pollution, and costs 20% less than traditional manufacturing techniques.[28][29] This type of brick is now manufactured under license in the USA.[30] Some varieties of fly ash brick gain strength as they age.

28

Metal matrix composites

Hollow fly ash can be infiltrated by molten metal to form solid, alumina encased spheres. Fly ash can also be mixed with molten metal and cast to reduce overall weight and density, due to the low density of fly ash. Research is underway to incorporate fly ash into lead acid batteries in a lead calcium tin fly ash composite in an effort to reduce weight of the battery.

Waste treatment and stabilization

Fly ash, in view of its alkalinity and water absorption capacity, may be used in combination with other alkaline materials to transform sewage sludge into organic fertilizer or biofuel.[31] In addition, fly ash, mainly class C, may be used in the stabilization/solidification process of hazardous wastes and contaminated soils.[32] For example, the Rhenipal process uses fly ash as an admixture to stabilize sewage sludge and other toxic sludges. This process has been used since 1996 to stabilize large amounts of chromium(VI) contaminated leather sludges in Alcanena, Portugal.[33][34]

Environmental problems
Present production rate of fly ash
In the United States about 131 million tons of fly ash are produced annually by 460 coal-fired power plants. A 2008 industry survey estimated that 43% of this ash is re-used.[35]

Groundwater contamination
Since coal contains trace levels of arsenic, barium, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, thallium, selenium, molybdenum and mercury, its ash will continue to contain these traces and therefore cannot be dumped or stored where rainwater can leach the metals and move them to aquifers.[36]

Fly ash

29

Spills of bulk storage

Where fly ash is stored in bulk, it is usually stored wet rather than dry so that fugitive dust is minimized. The resulting impoundments (ponds) are typically large and stable for long periods, but any breach of their dams or bunding will be rapid and on a massive scale. In December 2008 the collapse of an embankment at an impoundment for wet storage of fly ash at the Tennessee Valley Authority's Kingston Fossil Plant resulted in a major release of 5.4 millon cubic yards of coal fly ash, damaging 3 homes and flowing into the Emory River. Cleanup costs may exceed $1.2 billion. This spill was followed a few weeks later by a smaller TVA-plant spill in Alabama, which contaminated Widows Creek and the Tennessee River.[37]

Contaminants
Fly ash contains trace concentrations of heavy metals and other substances that are known to be detrimental Tennessee Valley Authority Fly Ash containment failure on 23 to health in sufficient quantities. Potentially toxic trace December 2008 in Kingston, Tennessee elements in coal include arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, barium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, radium, selenium, thorium, uranium, vanadium, and zinc. Approximately 10% of the mass of coals burned in the United States consists of unburnable mineral material that becomes ash, so the concentration of most trace elements in coal ash is approximately 10 times the concentration in the original coal.[38] A 1997 analysis by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) found that fly ash typically contained 10 to 30 ppm of uranium, comparable to the levels found in some granitic rocks, phosphate rock, and black shale.[38] In 2000, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) said that coal fly ash did not need to be regulated as a hazardous waste.[39] Studies by the U.S. Geological Survey and others of radioactive elements in coal ash have concluded that fly ash compares with common soils or rocks and should not be the source of alarm.[38] However, community and environmental organizations have documented numerous environmental contamination and damage concerns.[40][41][42] A revised risk assessment approach may change the way coal combustion wastes (CCW) are regulated, according to an August 2007 EPA notice in the Federal Register.[43] In June 2008, the U.S. House of Representatives held an oversight hearing on the Federal government's role in addressing health and environmental risks of fly ash.[44]

Exposure concerns
Crystalline silica and lime along with toxic chemicals are among the exposure concerns. Although industry has claimed that fly ash is "neither toxic nor poisonous," this is disputed. Exposure to fly ash through skin contact, inhalation of fine particle dust and drinking water may well present health risks. The National Academy of Sciences noted in 2007 that "the presence of high contaminant levels in many CCR (coal combustion residue) leachates may create human health and ecological concerns".[1] Fine crystalline silica present in fly ash has been linked with lung damage, in particular silicosis. OSHA allows 0.10mg/m3, (one ten-thousandth of a gram per cubic meter of air).

Fly ash Another fly ash component of some concern is lime (CaO). This chemical reacts with water (H2O) to form calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], giving fly ash a pH somewhere between 10 and 12, a medium to strong base. This can also cause lung damage if present in sufficient quantities. In a study by NIOSH at a cement company [45], crystalline silica exposures from fly ash were determined to be of no concern. For maintaining a safe workplace emphasis must be placed on maintaining low nuisance dust levels and to use the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE). The conclusion of this NIOSH study is supported by other studies devoted to the effects of fly ash on the health of workers in power plants. According to these studies, fly ash dust should not be considered as "silicotic dust", because most of the crystalline silica is coated by amorphic alumino-silicates (glass), the main constituent of fly ash particles. This was shown particularly on the basis of scanning electron microscopy observations, by a research work performed in the Netherlands,[46] but similar findings were obtained also in other countries.

30

External links
Evaluation of Dust Exposures at Lehigh Portland Cement Company, Union Bridge, MD, a NIOSH Report, HETA 2000-0309-2857 [45] Determination of Airborne Crystalline Silica Treatise by NIOSH [47] "Coal Ash: 130 Million Tons of Waste" [48] 60 Minutes (Oct. 4, 2009) American Coal Ash Association [49] Fly Ash Information Center [50] : Site explaining the history and uses of fly ash. United States Geological Survey - Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash [51] (document) Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility: Coal Combustion Waste [52] UK Quality Ash Association [53] : A site promoting the many uses of fly ash in the UK Coal Ash Is More Radioactive than Nuclear Waste [54], Scientific American (13 December 2007)

References
[1] Managing Coal Combustion Residues in Mines, Committee on Mine Placement of Coal Combustion Wastes, National Research Council of the National Academies, 2006 [2] Human and Ecological Risk Assessment of Coal Combustion Wastes, RTI, Research Triangle Park, August 6, 2007, prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [3] American Coal Ash Association www.acaa-usa.org [4] "Is fly ash an inferior building and structural material". Science in Dispute. 2003. [5] Snellings, R.; Mertens G., Elsen J. (2012). "Supplementary cementitious materials". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 74: 211-278. [6] EPRI (Project Manager K. Ladwig) 2010, Comparison of coal combustion products to other common materials - Chemical Characteristics, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA [7] "ASTM C618 - 08 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete" (http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/ SoftCart. exe/ DATABASE. CART/ REDLINE_PAGES/ C618. htm?L+ mystore+ lsft6707). ASTM International. . Retrieved 2008-09-18. [8] " The Building Brick of Sustainability (http:/ / calstarproducts. com/ the-building-brick-of-sustainability-construction-specifications-institute-magazine/ )". Chusid, Michael; Miller, Steve; & Rapoport, Julie. The Construction Specifier May 2009. [9] " Coal by-product to be used to make bricks in Caledonia (http:/ / calstarproducts. com/ wp-content/ themes/ default/ pdf/ JournalTimes_040109. pdf)". Burke, Michael. The Journal Times April 1, 2009. [10] American Coal Ash Association. "CCP Production and Use Survey" (http:/ / www. acaa-usa. org/ PDF/ 2005_CCP_Production_and_Use_Figures_Released_by_ACAA. pdf) (PDF). . [11] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. "Using Coal Ash in Highway Construction - A Guide to Benefits and Impacts" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ epaoswer/ osw/ conserve/ c2p2/ pubs/ greenbk508. pdf). . [12] Robert McCabe (March 30, 2008). "Above ground, a golf course. Just beneath it, potential health risks" (http:/ / hamptonroads. com/ 2008/ 03/ above-ground-golf-course-just-beneath-it-potential-health-risks). The Virginian-Pilot. . [13] American Coal Ash Association. "Coal Combustion Products Production & Use Statistics" (http:/ / acaa. affiniscape. com/ displaycommon. cfm?an=1& subarticlenbr=3). .

Fly ash
[14] Gaarder, Nancy. "Coal ash will fight flooding" (http:/ / www. omaha. com/ article/ 20100217/ NEWS01/ 702179923), Omaha World-Herald, February 17, 2010. [15] Josephson, Joan. "Coal ash under fire from Portland resident" (http:/ / www. observertoday. com/ page/ content. detail/ id/ 535925. html?nav=5047), "ObserverToday", February 13, 2010. [16] U.S. Federal Highway Administration. "Fly Ash" (http:/ / www. fhwa. dot. gov/ infrastructure/ materialsgrp/ flyash. htm). . [17] Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility. "Coal Combustion Wastes in Our Lives" (http:/ / www. peer. org/ campaigns/ publichealth/ coalash/ everywhere. php). . [18] Scott, Allan N .; Thomas, Michael D. A. (January/February 2007). "Evaluation of Fly Ash From Co-Combustion of Coal and Petroleum Coke for Use in Concrete". ACI Materials Journal (American Concrete Institute) 104 (1): 6270. [19] Halstead, W. (October 1986). "Use of Fly Ash in Concrete". National Cooperative Highway Research Project 127. [20] Moore, David. The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete. [21] U.S. Federal Highway Administration. "Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers" (http:/ / www. fhwa. dot. gov/ pavement/ recycling/ fafacts. pdf) (PDF). . [22] Hennis, K. W.; Frishette, C. W. (1993). "A New Era in Control Density Fill". Proceedings of the Tenth International Ash Utilization Symposium [23] http:/ / www. astm. org/ cgi-bin/ SoftCart. exe/ DATABASE. CART/ REDLINE_PAGES/ D242. htm?L+ mystore+ ndfm2845 [24] Zimmer, F. V. (1970). "Fly Ash as a Bituminous Filler". Proceedings of the Second Ash Utilization Symposium [25] Duxson, P.; Provis, J.L.; Lukey, G.C.; van Deventer, J.S.J. (2007). "The role of inorganic polymer technology in the development of 'Green concrete'". Cement and Concrete Research 37 (12): 15901597. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.08.018 [26] "FAQs - Fly Ash Bricks - Puzzolana Green Fly-Ash bricks" (http:/ / www. flyashbricksdelhi. com/ faqs#A2). Fly Ash Bricks Delhi. . [27] "List of important IS Codes related to bricks" (http:/ / flyashbricksinfo. com/ construction/ list-of-important-is-codes-related-to-bricks. html). Fly Ash Bricks Info. . [28] Popular Science Magazine, INVENTION AWARDS : A Green Brick (http:/ / www. popsci. com/ popsci/ technology/ b987485a9f492110vgnvcm1000004eecbccdrcrd. html?s_prop16= RSS:technology), May 2007 [29] National Science Foundation, Press Release 07-058, "Follow the 'Green' Brick Road?" (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ news/ news_summ. jsp?cntn_id=109594& org=ENG), May 22, 2007 [30] "Bricks CalStar Products" (http:/ / calstarproducts. com/ products/ fly-ash-brick-fab). CalStar Products. . [31] N-Viro International (http:/ / www. nviro. com/ soil. html) [32] EPA, 2009. Technology performance review: selecting and using solidification/stabilization treatment for site remediation. NRMRL, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cinicinnati, OH [33] "Toxic Sludge stabilisation for INAG, Portugal" (http:/ / www. dirkgroup. com/ waterindustry/ mobilesolutions/ sludgestabilisationcase. html). DIRK group (http:/ / www. dirkgroup. com). . [34] DIRK group (http:/ / www. dirkgroup. com) (1996). "Pulverised fuel ash products solve the sewage sludge problems of the wastewater industry". Waste management 16 (1-3): 5157. doi:10.1016/S0956-053X(96)00060-8. [35] Chemical & Engineering News, 23 February 2009, "The Foul Side of 'Clean Coal'", p. 44 [36] A December 2008 Maryland court decision levied a $54 million penalty against Constellation Energy, which had performed a "restoration project" of filling an abandoned gravel quarry with fly ash; the ash contaminated area waterwells with heavy metals. C&EN/12 Feb. 2009, p. 45 [37] "TVA Widows Creek coal waste spill" (http:/ / www. sourcewatch. org/ index. php?title=TVA_Widows_Creek_coal_waste_spill). sourcewatch.org. . Retrieved 2010-12-11. [38] U.S. Geological Survey (October 1997). "Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Significance" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ 1997/ fs163-97/ FS-163-97. pdf) (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet FS-163-97. . [39] Environmental Protection Agency (May 22, 2000). "Notice of Regulatory Determination on Wastes From the Combustion of Fossil Fuels" (http:/ / frwebgate. access. gpo. gov/ cgi-bin/ getpage. cgi?dbname=2000_register& position=all& page=32214). Federal Register Vol. 65, No. 99. p.32214. . [40] McCabe, Robert; Mike Saewitz (2008-07-19). "Chesapeake takes steps toward Superfund designation of site." (http:/ / www. norfolk. com/ 2008/ 07/ chesapeake-takes-steps-toward-superfund-designation-site?page=1). The Virginian-Pilot. . [41] McCabe, Robert. "Above ground golf course, Just beneath if potential health risks" (http:/ / hamptonroads. com/ 2008/ 03/ above-ground-golf-course-just-beneath-it-potential-health-risks), The Virginian-Pilot, 2008-03-30 [42] Citizens Coal Council, Hoosier Environmental Council, Clean Air Task Force (March 2000), "Laid to Waste: The Dirty Secret of Combustion Waste from America's Power Plants" (http:/ / www. catf. us/ publications/ reports/ Laid_to_Waste. pdf) [43] Environmental Protection Agency (August 29, 2007). "Notice of Data Availability on the Disposal of Coal Combustion Wastes in Landfills and Surface Impoundments" (http:/ / edocket. access. gpo. gov/ 2007/ pdf/ E7-17138. pdf) (PDF). 72 Federal Register 49714. . [44] House Committee on Natural Resources, Subcommittee on Energy and Mineral Resources (June 10, 2008). "Oversight Hearing: How Should the Federal Government Address the Health and Environmental Risks of Coal Combustion Wastes?" (http:/ / resourcescommittee. house. gov/ index. php?option=com_jcalpro& Itemid=65& extmode=view& extid=184). . [45] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ hhe/ reports/ pdfs/ 2000-0309-2857. pdf [46] Meij R., 2003. Status report on the health issues associated with pulverized fuel ash and fly dust. Report 50131022-KPS/MEC 01-6032, KEMA Power Generation and Sustainables, Arnhem, NL)

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Fly ash
[47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ docs/ 2003-154/ pdfs/ chapter-r. pdf http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2009/ 10/ 01/ 60minutes/ main5356202. shtml http:/ / www. acaa-usa. org http:/ / www. fly-ash-information-center. org. in http:/ / greenwood. cr. usgs. gov/ energy/ factshts/ 163-97/ FS-163-97. html http:/ / www. peer. org/ campaigns/ publichealth/ coalash/ index. php http:/ / www. ukqaa. org. uk http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article. cfm?id=coal-ash-is-more-radioactive-than-nuclear-waste

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Controlled low strength material

Controlled low strength material, abbreviated CLSM, also known as flowable fill, is a type of concrete mix used in construction.

Description
CLSM consists of a mixture on cement, water, aggregate and fly ash. Unlike ordinary concrete, CLSM has much lower strength. The strength of CLSM is less that 1200 pounds per square inch (unknown operator: u'strong'MPa), while ordinary concrete has strengths exceeding 3000 pounds per square inch (unknown operator: u'strong'MPa). As a result, CLSM is not suitable for supporting buildings, bridges, or other structures. Instead, it is primarily used as structural fill or trench backfill. It also flows much better that ordinary concrete, having the consistency of a milkshake. The first known use of CLSM was in 1964.[1]

Transportation
CLSM as a highway construction material is becoming more widespread throughout the United States. Data received from questionnaires sent by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) in 1991 and the Transportation Research Board (TRB) in 1992 indicated that approximately 30 states had some experience with the use of flowable fill, and at least 24 states have a specification for flowable fill. Most state transportation agencies have used flowable fill mainly as a trench backfill for storm drainage and utility lines on street and highway projects. Flowable fill has also been used to backfill abutments and retaining walls, fill abandoned pipelines and utility vaults, cavities, and settled areas, and help to convert abandoned bridges into culverts. The most frequent use of flowable fill is reported in the states of Minnesota, Maryland, Michigan, Iowa, and Indiana. Although most states have somewhat limited experience to date with flowable fill, nearly all states that have used the material have thus far indicated satisfactory performance with little or no problems. Several states have noted that metal or plastic pipes tend to float unless anchored, and some states have reported some resistance to the use of the material by contractors or engineers. Since flowable fill is normally a comparatively low-strength material, there are no strict quality requirements for fly ash used in flowable fill or controlled low strength material mixtures. Fly ash is well suited for use in flowable fill mixtures. Its fine particle sizing (nonplastic silt) and spherical particle shape enhances mix flowability. Its relatively low dry unit weight (usually in the 890 to 1300 kg/m3 (55 to 80 lb/ft3) range) assists in producing a relatively lightweight fill, and its pozzolanic or cementitious properties provide for lower cement requirements than would normally be required to achieve equivalent strengths.

Controlled low strength material

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Fly ash flowable fill mixes

There are two basic types of flowable fill mixes that contain fly ash: high fly ash content mixes and low fly ash content mixes. There are no specific requirements for the types of fly ash that may be used in flowable fill mixtures. "Low lime" or Class F fly ash is well suited for use in high fly ash content mixes, but can also be used in low fly ash content mixes. "High lime" or Class C fly ash, because it is usually self-cementing, is almost always used only in low fly ash content flowable fill mixes. There is also a flowable fill product in which both Class F and Class C fly ash are used in varying mix proportions.

References
[1] "Controlled Low-Strength Material" (http:/ / www. cement. org/ basics/ concreteproducts_clsm. asp). Portland Cement Association. . Retrieved July 25, 2012.

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