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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents some theories and references to help analyze the
problems of the research: Sociolinguistics, bilingualism, code switching, code
mixing, form of code mixing, types of code mixing, and some factors of occuring
code mixing.

2.1 Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the study between language and society (Holmes,
1992:1). According to Rahardjo (2002), sociolinguistics is the field that studies
the relationship between language and society, between the user of language and
the social structures in which the users of language live. Sociolinguistics assumes
(1) every language has its own variations, (2) every dialect is also varied, (3)
human speech is also varied depending on whom he speaks to, (4) language is
closely related to social system and social structure, (5) language is a system
which is not separated from the characteristics of its speakers, and the
sociocultural values applied by its speakers. It means that when there is a group of
people or society in a place, there will be a language or some in the group or the
society.
In addition, sociolinguistics concerns with investigating the relationship
between language and society with the goal a better understanding of

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the structure of language and how language function in communication
(Wardhaugh, 2002:12), it means that sociolinguistics studies how language is used
in society, how language can give important role in society. According to
Cameron (in Wardhaugh, 2002), sociolinguistics is more social engagement, it
means that it would deal with such matters as the production and reproduction of
linguistic norms by institution and socializing practice. Dittmar (in Chaer and
Agustina, 2004) has another opinion, he argues that Sociolinguistics has some
case studies, they are; 1) the social identity from the speaker, 2) the social identity
of the listener who is joining the conversation, 3) the social environment of the
place in which a conversation occurs, 4) sinkronik and diakronik analysis from
social dialects, 5) different social assesment by the speaker of the form of
utterance, 6) standard of variation and linguistic variation, 7) practical application
from the sociolinguistics research. However, Tagliamonte (2006) states that
sociolinguistics argues that language exists in context, dependent on the speaker
who is using, and dependent on where it is being used and why.
In addition, In sociolinguistics, there are some cases that we can learn,
such as multilingualism, bilingualism, diglossia, code choice, code switching,
code mixing, etc. Those cases are usually used by people, when society are
multilingual or bilingual, there will be diglossia, code choice, code switching or
perhaps code mixing phenomena.

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2.2 Bilingualism
According to Chaika (1982), the term of bilingualism is the study of a
community or speakers who speak two or more languages, and the effect of one
language to another. In real society, almost in every place there will be some
speakers use more than one language in their communication. Some linguists have
different opinion about what bilingualism and who bilingual is. As our
understanding, bilingualism is a capability to undesrtand more than one languages
including the native language and can use them fluently. In addition, a bilingual is
someone who has a very good control more than one language (Thiery, 1978), this
is similar to Hamers and Blancs opinion, they said a bilingual is a person who is
able to speak two different codes or languages. Another said that a bilingual
speaker is someone who is able to speak two or more languages (Kangas,
1984:90), it is the same as what Chomsky has said that bilingual is a speaker of
one language who can speak anoher language, it means a person who speaks two
languages equally and fleuntly. There is a different opinion on the term bilingual,
bilingualis used in order to describe a person who has been exposed to both
languages from birth (Meisel, 1989:20).While Macnamara defines bilingual as a
speaker who has a minimal competence in one of the four skills such as listening,
speaking, reading and writing in a language other than his/her native language.
People who have good ability in speaking more than two languages have more
desirability to practice it.
However, another linguist says that a bilingual does not need to have good
capability on the other languages as the mother language, but the speakers can use

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the second language well. A speaker who can use the second language as good as
the mother language is called ambilingual (Halliday in Fishman, 1968:141).
People can be a bilingual speaker or speak more than one language because of
some reasons, these are political, social, economic, educational and cultural
reasons (Grosjean, 1982:30). Inbilingual society usually involves code switching,
code mixing, borrowing, interference, pidgin, and creole phenomena.

2.3 Code Switching
In sociolinguistics there are many language phenomena, one of them is
code switching, it is a phenomena which almost occurs in every place in which
there are bilingual society. There are many socilinguists have their own definition
and opinion about code switching, some of them are explained below. People
usually prefer to select a particular code whenever they choose to speak , and they
may also switch from one code to another or to mix codes even sometimes in very
short utterances and then make a new code (Wardhaugh, 2002:100). Gal (in
Wardhaugh, 2002) says that code switching is a conversational strategy used to
establish, cross or destroy group boundaries. Appel (in Chaer and Agustina, 2004)
says that code switching is shift of language using because of the change of
situation. Hoffman (1991) explains that code switching can occur quite frequently
in an informal conversation among people who are familiar and have a shared
educational, ethnic, and socio-economic background. According to Wardhaugh,
there are two kinds of code switching, they are situational and methaporical code
switching. Situational code switching occurs when a language which is being used

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by a speaker changes according to the situations in which the speakers speak one
language in one situation and another language in another situation. While
methaporical code switching occurs when the speaker changes the topic of their
conversation.

2.4 Code Mixing
Code switching and code mixing are almost the same, however they are
different. Fasold (1984) gives a grammatical type to differenciate code mixing and
code switching, code mixing happens when a speaker uses one word or phrase
from one language, while code switching happens when a speaker uses one clause
into grammatical structure of one language and the following clause used
according to the grammatical structure of other languages. Code mixing is a
mixing of two codes or languages, usually without a change of topic. Code mixing
often occurs within one sentence, one element is spoken in language A and the
rest in language B. In addition, Nababan (1993) said that code mixing is found
often in informal interactions. In formal situation, the speaker tries to mix it
because there is no suitable idiom in that language, so it is necessary to use words
or idioms from other language.
In addition, Redlinger and Park (in Hoffman, 1991) say that code mixing is
the combining of elements from two languages in a single utterance. Furthermore,
Wardhaugh (1986) states that code mixing is two languages used together by the
speaker. They do not change fromone language to the other in a single utterance.
It means that thespeaker inserts some pieces or elements of another language

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when he isusing a certain language. Fasold (1984) states that code mixing is a
kind of language choice where pieces of one language are used while a speaker is
using another language. According to Subyakto-Nababan (1992), code mixing is
the use oftwo or more languages or dialects in non-formal situation among the
intimate people. In this situation, people can mix the codes freely, especially if
there are terms that cannot be expressed in their language. Code mixing occurs
either inbilingual or multilingual societies. It happened because the speaker tends
touse more than one language. Some factors that make the speaker mixes from
one code to the other are because of their closeness with the listener, choice of
topic and perceived social and cultural distance (Wardhaugh, 1986:102), while
according to Fasold (1984) if a speaker of English, for example, uses a foreign
word or phrase in the utterance they are speaking, it might be said that hehas
mixed a word from the other language with English.
According to Harding and Riley (in Komsiyah, 2002), there are some
reasons in using code mixing:
1. The bilingual probably forget to the term for something in the language
she or he is currently speaking.
2. The language being spoken may not have term for a particular concept of the
bilingual wants to refer to
3. A word which is similar in both languages and name may trigger a switch.
4. Language mixing can also be used to express emotion of close personal
relationship.

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In addition, Suwito (1983) explains that there are three reasons why code
mixing occurs in conversation:
1. Role identification such as social, educational and register role.
2. Variant identification refers to the kinds of language used by the user.
3. Social status identity that refers to the sense for people to be supposed
aseducated people when they use certain language.
From the statements above, Suwito (1983) offered five kinds of form of
codemixing, they are:
1. Code mixing in the form of word insertion.
The speakers mix theirconversation only in the form of word. such as
monggo diminum tehnya mas! . in this case the speakers use indonesian
language but he puts a word of javanese, it is monggo which is used instead of
please in English and silahkan in Indonesian.
2. Code mixing in the form of phrase insertion.
The speakers mix their conversation in the form of phrase, such as
kemaren bik sapah ke rumah saya kamu dek? In this case, the speakers use
indonesian but he puts the phrase bik sapah, it is madurese phrase which means
with whom in English and dengan siapa in Indonesian language.
3. Code mixing in the form of hybrid.
The speakers mix their utterence in ahybrid or mix of word such as
banyak klap sepak bolayang berjuang mempertahankan peringkat di
pertandingan musim ini . The word klap sepak bola is ahybrid of Indonesian and
English language, klap sepak bola is kelompok sepak bola.

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4. Code mixing in the form of repetition word.
The speakers use code mixing inthe form of repetition word such as
jangan pernah kamu bermasalah dengan arek-arek Banyuwangi, bisa panjang
urusannya!. In this case the speaker puts the word arek-arek, it is a repetition of
javanese language, the meaning is people in English.
5. Code mixing in the form of utterance or idiom.
It is used by speakers who mix from utterance to utterance or from
sentences to idiom such as, Ayo kerjakan tugasnya secepatnya, time is money.
Time is money is English idiom, the sentence above means Ayo kerjakan
tugasnya secepatnya, waktu adalah uang
According to Suwito (1983) there are two kinds of code mixing, they are:
1. Inner code mixing, it is when speakers speak using his national language and
then insert his regional language, or he speaks regional language tends to insert
national language. E.g. mas sini ngakan bareng!. The speaker of the example
speaks using indonesian language but he inserts his regional language ngakan,
it is madurese word, the meaning is eat in English.
2. Outer code mixing, it is when a speaker speaks using his national or regional
language and tends to insert foreign language. E.g. Sorry ya saya tidak bisa hadir
ke acara di rumah kamu besok!. The speaker of the example speaks using
Indonesian language, then he puts English word sorry, which the indonesian
word is maaf.