Robust Design

! 2

! L 2L

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 16.1 A simple example of robust design. (a) Location of two mounting holes on a sheet-metal bracket, where the deviation of the top and bottom surfaces of the bracket from being perfectly horizontal is . (b) New location of holes in a robust design, whereby the deviation is reduced to /2.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Demings 14 Points
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service. Adopt the new philosophy. Cease dependence on mass inspection to achieve quality. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease cost. Institute training for the requirements of a particular task, and document it for future training. Institute leadership, as opposed to supervision. Drive out fear so that everyone can work eectively. Break down barriers between departments. Eliminate slogans, exhortations and targets for zero defects and new levels of productivity. Eliminate quotas and management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute leadership. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of pride of workmanship. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation.

TABLE 16.2 Demings fourteen points.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Available Shapes of Materials

Material Available as Aluminum B, F, I, P, S, T, W Ceramics B, p, s, T Copper and brass B, f, I, P, s, T, W Elastomers b, P, T Glass B, P, s, T, W Graphite B, P, s, T, W Magnesium B, I, P, S, T, w Plastics B, f, P, T, w Precious metals B, F, I, P, t, W Steels and stainless steels B, I, P, S, T, W Zinc F, I, P, W Note: B=bar and rod; F=foil; I=ingots; P=plate and sheet; S = structural shapes; T=tubing; W=wire. Lowercase letters indicate limited availability. Most of the metals are also available in powder form, including prealloyed powders.

TABLE 16.3 Commercially available forms of materials.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Materials Selection Considerations

Gold 60,000 Carbon steel 1 Silver 600 Magnesium alloys 2-4 Molybdenum alloys 200-250 Aluminum alloys 2-3 Nickel 35 Gray cast iron 1.2 Titanium alloys 20-40 Nylons, acetals, and silicon 1.1-2 Copper alloys 5-6 Rubber 0.2-1 Stainless steels 2-9 Other plastics and elastomers 0.2-2 High-strength low-alloy steels 1.4 As molding compounds. Note: Costs vary signicantly with the quantity of purchase, supply and demand, size and shape, and various other factors.

TABLE 16.4 Approximate cost per unit volume for wrought metals and plastics relative to the cost of carbon steel.

Process Machining Closed-die forging, hot Sheet-metal forming Extrusion, hot

Scrap (%) 10-60 20-25 10-25 15

Process Permanent-mold casting Powder metallurgy Rolling and ring rolling

Scrap (%) 10 <5 <1

TABLE 16.5 Typical scrap produced in various manufacturing processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Material Replacement
FRP structure FRPaluminum honeycomb Aluminum honeycomb Metal-to-metal Titanium-faced honeycomb

FIGURE 16.2 Advanced materials used on the Lockheed C-5A transport aircraft. (FRP is ber-reinforced plastic.)

Item Wing panels Main frame forgings Machined frames Frame straps Fuselage skin Fuselage under-oor end ttings Wing/pylon attach tting Aft ramps lock hooks Hydraulic lines Fuselage fail-safe straps

C-5A material 7075-T6511 7075-F 7075-T6 7075-T6 plate 7079-T6 7075-T6 forging 4340 alloy steel D6-AC AM350 stainless steel Ti-6Al-4V

C-5B material 7175-T73511 7049-01 7049-T73 7050-T7651 plate 7475-T61 7049-T73 forging PH13-8Mo PH13-8Mo 21-6-9 stainless steel 7475-T61 aluminum

Reason for change Durability Stress-corrosion resistance Material availability Stress-corrosion resistance Corrosion prevention Corrosion prevention Improved eld repair Titanium strap debonding

TABLE 16.6 Changes in materials from C-5A to C-5B military cargo aircraft.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Process Capability
0.4 50 100 mm 150 200
l) tee s ( g stin

250

300 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 11 12 mm

Minimum web thickness h (in.)

h 0.3 w

nd Sa

ca

Forging (steel)
stin a c ell Sh
tee g (s

l)

0.2

0.1

ting (Cu) eel), die cas t s ( t n e tm , inves d l o ing polymers Die casting (Al) t t e m s o r m e r t The Plas Die casting (Zn) Hot rolling

ing Forg

(Al,

) Al, cast iron ( g n i t s a Mg): c

Thermoplastic polymers 0 1 2 3

Cold rolling 10

4 5 6 7 8 9 Minimum dimension of web, w (in.)

FIGURE 16.3 Minimum part dimensions obtainable by various manufacturing processes. Source: After J.A. Schey.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Ashby Chart for Process Selection

10 Composite molding Polymer molding, composite forming 1 Deformation

nd a S

me Fila

indi w t n
ds o h t

ng
Ho ork tw

ing

w Blo
pr es sio n

me p y-u a L

Shell

ent m t s nve

Casting

10-1 Tolerance (mm)

In

n tio c je

Die casting

Co

Turning, milling

Cold working

Grinding 10-2 Lapping

Machining and finishing

Increasing cost

10-3 Microfabrication methods 10-4

FIGURE 16.4 A plot of achievable dimensional tolerance versus surface roughness for various manufacturing operations; the dashed lines indicate cost factors. An increase in precision corresponding to the separation of two neighboring lines corresponds to a two-fold increase in cost. Source: M.F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Design, 3d ed., ButterworthHeinemann, 2005.

10-3

1 10-1 RMS surface roughness (m) 5th ed. Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials,

10-2

10

100

Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Production Time vs. Surface Finish

1 24 22 20 Relative production time 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 Surface finish (m) Drilling 6.3 12.5 25 50 Turning Surface grinding End milling Reaming Peripheral milling Shaping and planing Cylindrical grinding 4 16 in. 32 125 500 2000

FIGURE 16.5 Relationship between relative manufacturing cost and dimensional tolerance. Note how rapidly cost increases as tolerance decreases.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Cost vs. Tolerance

mm 0 17 0.25 0.5 0.75

Relative cost

11

5 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Tolerance (in. x 10-3)

FIGURE 16.6 Relative production time as a function of surface nish obtained by various manufacturing processes. See also Fig. 9.41. Source: American Machinist.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Material Applications
Carbon steels Alloy steels Stainless steels Tool and die steels Aluminum alloys Magnesium alloys Copper alloys Nickel alloys Titanium alloys Refractory alloys Casting Sand A A A B A A A A B A Plaster A A A Ceramic A A A A B B A A B A Investment A A A A B A A A A Permanent B B A A A Die A A A Forging, hot A A A A A A A A A A Extrusion Hot A A A B A A A A A A Cold A B A A A B Impact A A A Rolling A A A A A A A A B Powder metals A A A A A A A A A A Sheet-metal A A A A A A A A B forming Machining A A A A A A A B A Chemical A B A B A A A B B B ECM A B A B A A A EDM B B A B B B B B Grinding A A A A A A A A A A Welding A A A A A A A A A Note: (A) Generally processed by this method; (B) can be processed by this method, but may present some diculties; (-) usually not processed by this method. Product quality and productivity depend greatly on the techniques and equipment used, operator skill, and proper control of processing variables.

TABLE 16.7 General applications of manufacturing processes for various metals and alloys.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Machinery Prices
Type of machinery Price range ($000) Type of machinery Price range ($000) Broaching 10-300 Machining center 50-1000 Drilling 10-100 Mechanical press 20-250 Electrical discharge 30-150 Milling 10-250 Electromagnetic 50-150 Ring rolling >500 Extruder 30-80 Robot 20-200 Fused deposition modeling 40-200 Roll forming 5-100 Gear shaping 100-200 Rubber forming 50-500 Grinding Stereolithography 80-500 Cylindrical 40-150 Stretch forming 400 - > 1000 Surface 20-100 Transfer line 100 - > 1000 Headers 100-150 Welding Injection molding 30-200 Electron beam 75-1000 Jig boring 50-150 Gas tungsten arc 1-5 Horizontal boring mill 100-400 Laser beam 60-1000 Flexible manufacturing system > 1000 Resistance, spot 20-50 Lathe 10-100 Ultrasonic 50-200 Automatic 30-250 Vertical turret 100-400 Note: Prices vary signicantly, depending on size, capacity, options, and level of automation and computer controls.

TABLE 16.8 Approximate ranges of machinery base prices.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7