Co nsid er the set o f N + 1 harmo nic o sc illato rs seen in c lass, where the 0 th o sc illato r ( that we c all the

d etec to r ) c o up les to all the o ther o sc illato rs with the H amilto nian:

H = 0 a0 a0 +

n=1

n=1

n an an + ( a0 + a0 )

1
( an + an )
2 n mn

W e saw in c lass ho w the lead ing o rd er c o ntrib utio n to the p ro b ab ility fo r the d etec to r to g et ex c ited
o ut o f vac uum fluc tuatio ns fro m a time t 0 to a time t was c o mp uted using first o rd er p erturb atio n
theo ry:
N

P00

10

..whic h is o f o rd er

= 10 ,1 j ,0 n j U(t,0)
0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

j=1

O ( 2 )

= 10 ,1 j ,0 n j U (1) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

j=1

+O ( 3 )

and is g iven b y the ex p ressio n:

(
(

P00

10

)
)

sin 2 21 0 + j t
3
= 2
2 +O ( )
j=1 j m j 0 + j
N

N o w, we wish to d etermine the p ro b ab ility that the d etec to r remains unex c ited when c o up led to the
vac uum state o f all the o ther o sc illato rs. W e will c o mp ute this ( to the lead ing o rd er) using sec o nd
o rd er p erturb atio n theo ry ( ie; It will b e med iated b y

U (2) (t,0) ) .

T his will b e d o ne, g iven that:

th

( 1) T he 0 o rd er c o ntrib utio n, altho ug h p resent in this c ase, is o f c o urse no t eno ug h to g et a

satisfac to ry result
( 2) W e need to ac t twic e with the c reatio n and annihilatio n o p erato rs in o rd er to ex c ite the
vac uum o nc e and g et it b ac k to the vac uum ag ain, o r in o ther wo rd s, fo r the first o rd er c o rrec tio n to
the time evo lutio n o p erato r, we g et that:
0 0 ,out U (1) (t,0) 0 0 ,in = 0
where

in

and

out

rep resent arb itrary states fo r the set o f

harmo nic o sc illato rs.

QU E S T ION 1 Befo re c o mp uting the ex p lic it final value o f the p ro b ab ility o f the d etec to r remaining
in the g ro und state in the p resenc e o f the vac uum ( P0 0 ) , find first what wo uld b e the p o wer o f
0

o f the lead ing o rd er c o ntrib utio n to

P00

00

. J ustify yo ur answer, and sho w it mathematic ally with the

minimum numb er o f c alc ulatio ns p o ssib le.

We have:

H 0 = 0 a0 a0 +

V = ( a0 + a0 )

an an

n=1

n=1

Recall the Dyson Series, where we set

1
( an + an )
2 n mn

t0 = 0 :

U D (t,0) = I + U D(1) (t,0) + U D(2) (t,0) + U D(3) (t,0) + .....

Where we have:
t

U D(1) (t,0) = i dt1VD (t1 )

0

t1

U D(2) (t,0) = 2 dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 )

0

t1

t2

U D(3) (t,0) = i 3 dt1 dt 2 dt 3VD (t1 )VD (t 2 )VD (t 3 )

iH 0t
VD is the Potential in the Dirac picture, such that: VD = eiH 0tVe
In the calculation of P0 0 , we wish to truncate the Dyson Series after the second order. Such that:
0
0

Where

U D (t,0) I + U D(1) (t,0) + U D(2) (t,0)

Then in the calculation of

P00
P00

00

00

we have:

= 0 0 ,out U(t,0)
0 0 ,in
out

= 0 0 ,out U(t,0)
0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N
out

th

This is the probability that the detector (the 0 oscillator) remains in the ground state when coupled to the
vacuum state of all the other oscillators. This means that the input state 0 0 ,in , is the vacuum state, such
that all oscillators are in their respective ground states:
P00

00

= 0 0 ,out U(t,0)
0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

We note that this probability is equivalent to:

P00

We note that

00

0 0 ,out U(t,0)
0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

= 0 0 ,out U D (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

= 0 0 ,out U D (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

in consideration will always be eigenstates of the free Hamiltonian,

, because the bras and kets

H 0 .

0 0 ,out U(t,0)
0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N and 0 0 ,out U D (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N differ by only a

It is because of this fact that

complex phase factor, which of course becomes irrelevant due to the presence of the complex modulus
inherent to every probability calculation.

Therefore, we have that:

P00

00

= 0 0 ,out U D (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

0 0 ,out I + U D(1) (t,0) + U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

= 0 0 ,out I 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N + 0 0 ,out U D(1) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N + 0 0 ,out U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

0 0 ,out U D(1) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N = 0 , for all states 0 0 ,out . Therefore:

Note that we have been given

P00

00

= 0 0 ,out I 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

+ 0 0 ,out U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

= 0 0 ,out 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

t1
t

+ 0 0 ,out 2 dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

0
0

t t1

= out, 01 ,..., 0 N + 2 0 0 ,out dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out
0 0

Where we have noticed that

0 0 ,out 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N = out, 01 ,..., 0 N . To simplify calculations, let:

t t1

out, 01 ,..., 0 N = 0 0 ,out dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

0 0

Where
P00

00

out, 01 ,..., 0 N

is a complex scalar, specific to each state

= out, 01 ,..., 0 N + 2 out, 01 ,..., 0 N

out

(
= (

= out, 01 ,..., 0 N + 2 out,

01 ,..., 0 N
out

out

out, 01 ,..., 0 N

)(

out, 01 ,..., 0 N

0 0 ,out . We get:
+ 2 out, 01 ,..., 0 N

out, 01 ,..., 0 N + out, 01 ,..., 0 N 2 out, 01 ,..., 0 N + out, 01 ,..., 0 N 2 out,

+ 4 out, 01 ,..., 0 N out,
01 ,..., 0 N
01 ,..., 0 N

= out, 01 ,..., 0 N out, 01 ,..., 0 N + out, 01 ,..., 0 N 2 out, 01 ,..., 0 N + out,

+ 4 out, 01 ,..., 0 N
01 ,..., 0 N

out

+ 4
= out, 01 ,..., 0 N out, 01 ,..., 0 N + out, 01 ,..., 0 N 2 out, 01 ,..., 0 N + out,
01 ,..., 0 N
out, 01 ,..., 0 N

out
out
out

Note that while summing over all states, we can exploit the use of the kroenecker delta, so as to simplify the
expression:
P00

00

+ 4
= out, 01 ,..., 0 N out, 01 ,..., 0 N + out, 01 ,..., 0 N 2 out, 01 ,..., 0 N + out,
01 ,..., 0 N
out, 01 ,..., 0 N

out

out
out

= 1+ 2 01 ,..., 0 N

, 01 ,..., 0 N

= 1+ 2 2 Re 01 ,..., 0 N

+ 01 ,..., 0 N

, 01 ,..., 0 N

, 01 ,..., 0 N

+ 4
out, 01 ,..., 0 N

out

+ 4
out, 01 ,..., 0 N

out

+ = 2 Re ( ) , for any complex scalar .

Therefore, we see that in terms of

U D(2) (t,0) we have the probability:

00

= 1+ 2 2 Re 01 ,..., 0 N

, 01 ,..., 0 N

+ 4
out, 01 ,..., 0 N

out

Where we have used the fact that

P00

t1

= 1+ 2 2 Re 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

0 0

t1

4
+ 0 0 ,out dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N
out

0 0

= 1+ 2Re 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N + 0 0 ,out U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

In this question, we are only interested in the leading order of , and so we can also more simply write this
as:
P00 00 = 1+ 2 2 Re 01 ,..., 0 N , 01 ,..., 0 N + O 3

( )

And so, we see that the leading order term is in this probability is
which we omit ! We take the first non-trivial power of , which is
Therefore, in the leading order contribution to

P00

00

1 . However, this is the t r iv ia l order of ,

2.

, the power of

is 2 .

QU E S T ION 2 Co mp ute the p ro b ab ility that the d etec to r remains in the g ro und state in the p resenc e
o f vac uum fluc tuatio ns as a func tio n o f time, up to the lead ing o rd er in the c o up ling streng th ,
using sec o nd o rd r time-d ep end ent p erturb atio n theo ry and assuming that the vac uum state was
p rep ared at t 0 = 0 .

From Question 1, we found that the probability

P00

P00

00

is given by:

t1
t1

= 1+ 2 Re 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N + 4 0 0 ,out dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N
out

0 0

0 0

00

t1

= 1+ 2 2 Re 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

0 0

(2)
1+ 2Re 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N U D (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

Where we have omitted all terms of order

3
+ O ( )

O ( 3 ) for this calculation.

IN order to calculate this probability, we must find

U D(2) (t,0) , which is given by the formula:

t

t1

U D(2) (t,0) = 2 dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 )

.from our knowledge of the Dyson Series.
Following the calculation given in the lecture notes, we know that

VD (the potential in the Dirac picture) is

given by:
N

iH 0t = ( a ei 0t + a ei 0t )
VD = eiH 0tVe
0
0
n=1

1
( anei nt + an ei nt )
2 n mn

(2)
Which allows us to calculate U D (t,0) :
t1

U D(2) (t,0) = 2 dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 )

0

N
N

1
1
= 2 dt1 dt 2
a0 ei 0t1 + a0ei 0t1 ) ( an ei nt1 + an ei nt1 ) ( a0 ei 0t2 + a0ei 0t2 )
a k ei kt2 + a k ei kt2 )
(
(
2 k mk
k=1
0
0
n=1 2 n mn

t1

1
1
dt1 dt 2 ( a0 ei 0t1 + a0ei 0t1 ) ( an ei nt1 + an ei nt1 ) ( a0 ei 0t2 + a0ei 0t2 ) ( a k ei kt2 + a k ei kt2 )

n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk 0
0

= 2

)(

1
1
dt1 dt 2 a0 an ei( 0 + n )t1 + a0 an ei( 0 n )t1 + a0 an ei( 0 n )t1 + a0an ei( 0 + n )t1 a0 a k ei( 0 + k )t2 + .....

m
n=1 k=1
n n k k 0
0

= 2

.....+ a0 a k ei( 0 k )t2 + a0 a k ei( 0 k )t2 + a0a k ei( 0 + k )t2

N

= 2
n=1 k=1

1
dt1 a0 an ei( 0 + n )t1 + a0 an ei( 0 n )t1 + a0 an ei( 0 n )t1 + .....
2 n mn k mk 0
.......+ a0an ei( 0 + n )t1

) dt ( a a e (
t1

i 0 + k )t 2

0 k

+ a0 a k ei( 0 k )t2 + a0 a k ei( 0 k )t2 + a0a k ei( 0 + k )t2

1
i( + )t
i( )t
i( )t

dt1 a0ane 0 n 1 + a0an e 0 n 1 + a0 ane 0 n 1 + .....

n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk 0

= 2

t1
t1
t1
t1

.......+ a0an ei( 0 + n )t1 a0 a k ei( 0 + k )t2 dt 2 + a0 a k ei( 0 k )t2 dt 2 + a0a k ei( 0 k )t2 dt 2 + a0a k ei( 0 + k )t2 dt 2
0
0
0
0

1
i( + )t
i( )t
i( )t

dt1 a0ane 0 n 1 + a0an e 0 n 1 + a0 ane 0 n 1 + .....

n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk 0

= 2

t1
t1
t1
t1

i
i
i
i
.....+ a0an ei( 0 + n )t1 a0 a k
ei( 0 + k )t2 + a0 a k
ei( 0 k )t2 + a0a k
ei( 0 k )t2 + a0a k
ei( 0 + k )t2

( 0 + k )
0
( 0 k )
0
( 0 k )
0
( 0 + k )
0

1
i( + )t
i( )t
i( )t

dt1 a0ane 0 n 1 + a0an e 0 n 1 + a0 ane 0 n 1 + .....

n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk 0

= i 2

t1
t1
t1
t1
a0 a k
a0 a k
a0a k
a0a k
ei( 0 + k )t2 +
ei( 0 k )t2 +
ei( 0 k )t2 +
ei( 0 + k )t2
.....+ a0an ei( 0 + n )t1

0
0
0
0
( 0 k )
( 0 k )
( 0 + k )
( 0 + k )

.....Calculation Continued On The Next Page.....

.....Calculation of U D(2) (t,0) Continued.....

N

1
dt1 a0 an ei( 0 + n )t1 + a0 an ei( 0 n )t1 + a0 an ei( 0 n )t1 + a0an ei( 0 + n )t1 i .....

m
n=1 k=1
n n k k 0

= i 2

a0 a k

ei( 0 + k )t1 1 + a0 ak ei( 0 k )t1 1 + a0 ak 1 ei( 0 k )t1 + a0 ak 1 ei( 0 + k )t1
i .....

( 0 k)
( 0 k)
( 0 k)
k)
( 0

t
1
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
dt1 0 n 0 k ei( 2 0 + n + k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1 + 0 n 0 k ei( 2 0 + n k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1 + 0 n 0 k ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( k + n )t1 + .....

( 0 k )
( 0 k )
( 0 + k )
n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk 0

a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
.....+ 0 n 0 k ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( n k )t1 + 0 n 0 k ei( 2 0 n + k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1 + 0 n 0 k ei( 2 0 n k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1 + .....
( 0 + k )
( 0 + k )
( 0 k )
N

= i 2

.....+

.....+

a0 ana0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( n k )t1 a0 ana0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( n + k )t1 a0 an a0 a k i( n + k )t1 i( 0 n )t1

e
e
e
e
+ ( + ) e
+ ( + ) e
+ .....
( 0 k )
0
k
0
k

.....+

a0 an a0 a k i( n k )t1 i( 0 n )t1 a0 an a0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( 2 0 n k )t1 a0 an a0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( 2 0 n + k )t1

e
e
e
e
+ ( ) e
+ ( + ) e
+ .....
( 0 k )
0
k
0
k

a0ana0 a k i( n k )t1 i( 0 + n )t1 a0ana0 a k i( n + k )t1 i( 0 + n )t1 a0ana0a k i( 0 + n )t1 i( 2 0 + n k )t1 a0an a0a k i( 0 + n )t1 i( 2 0 + n + k )t1
e
e
e
e
e
+ ( ) e
+ ( ) e
+ ( + ) e

( 0 + k )
0
k
0
k
0
k

a0 an a0 a k t i( 2 0 + n + k )t1 i( 0 + n )t1
t
1
e
dt1 + a0 an a0 ak ei( 2 0 + n k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1 dt1 + .....

( 0 k ) 0
( 0 + k ) 0
n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk
N

= i 2

.....+

t
t
t
a0 an a0a k
a0 an a0a k
a0 ana0 a k
i( 0 + n )t1
i( k + n )t1
i( 0 + n )t1
i( n k )t1

i( 2 0 n + k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1 dt1 + .....

e

e
dt
+
e

e
dt
+
1 ( + )
1 ( + ) e

( 0 k ) 0
0
k 0
0
k 0

.....+

t
t
t
a0 ana0 a k i( 2 0 n k )t1 i( 0 n )t1
a0 ana0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( n k )t1
a0 ana0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( n + k )t1
e

e
dt
+
e

e
dt
+
e
1 ( )
1 ( + ) e
dt1 + .....
( 0 k ) 0
0
k 0
0
k 0

.....+

t
t
t
a0 an a0 a k i( n + k )t1 i( 0 n )t1
a0 an a0 a k i( n k )t1 i( 0 n )t1
a0 an a0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( 2 0 n k )t1
e

e
dt
+
e

e
dt
+
e
1 ( )
1 ( ) e
dt1 + .....
( 0 + k ) 0
0
k 0
0
k 0

.....+

t
t
t
a0 an a0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( 2 0 n + k )t1
a a a a
a a a a
e
e
dt1 + 0 n 0 k ei( n k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1 dt1 + 0 n 0 k ei( n + k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1 dt1 + .....

( 0 + k ) 0
( 0 + k ) 0
( 0 k ) 0

.....+

t
t

a0ana0a k i( 0 + n )t1 i( 2 0 + n k )t1

a a a a
e
e
dt1 + 0 n 0 k ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( 2 0 + n + k )t1 dt1

( 0 k ) 0
( 0 + k ) 0

U D(2) (t,0) , involving sixteen integrals. We dont yet evaluate these

integrals, because most of the terms seen above vanish when calculating the probability P0 0 .
0
0
We have arrived at an expression for

Recall the probability formula from earlier:

P00
Let us examine the

00

1+ 2Re 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N term first:

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N =

t
N N

a0 an a0 a k t i( 2 0 + n + k )t1 i( 0 + n )t1
1
a0 an a0 a k

ei( 2 0 + n k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1 dt1 + .....

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N i 2
e

e
dt
+

( 0 k ) 0
( 0 + k ) 0
n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk

t
t
t
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
.....+ 0 n 0 k ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( k + n )t1 dt1 + 0 n 0 k ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( n k )t1 dt1 + 0 n 0 k ei( 2 0 n + k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1 dt1 + .....
( 0 k ) 0
( 0 + k ) 0
( 0 + k ) 0

.....+

t
t
t
a0 ana0 a k i( 2 0 n k )t1 i( 0 n )t1
a0 ana0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( n k )t1
a0 ana0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( n + k )t1
e

e
dt
+
e

e
dt
+
e
e
1
1

dt1 + .....
( 0 k ) 0
( 0 k ) 0
( 0 + k ) 0

.....+

t
t
t
a0 an a0 a k
a a a a
a a a a
ei( n + k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1 dt1 + 0 n 0 k ei( n k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1 dt1 + 0 n 0 k ei( 0 n )t1 ei( 2 0 n k )t1 dt1 + .....

( 0 + k ) 0
( 0 k ) 0
( 0 k ) 0

.....+

t
t
t
a0 an a0a k i( 0 n )t1 i( 2 0 n + k )t1
a0ana0 a k i( n k )t1 i( 0 + n )t1
a0ana0 a k i( n + k )t1 i( 0 + n )t1
e

e
dt
+
e

e
dt
+
e
e
1
1

dt1 + .....
( 0 + k ) 0
( 0 + k ) 0
( 0 k ) 0

.....+

t
t
a0ana0a k i( 0 + n )t1 i( 2 0 + n k )t1
a0an a0a k i( 0 + n )t1 i( 2 0 + n + k )t1
e

e
dt
+
e
e
1

dt1 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

( 0 k ) 0
( 0 + k ) 0

.....Calculation Continued On The Next Page.....

.....Calculation of 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

N

1
n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk

= i 2

Continued.....

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( 2 0 + n + k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1

dt1 + 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N
( 0 + k )

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a a a a 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( k + n )t1

dt1 + 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N
0
( 0 k )

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 ana0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( 2 0 n + k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1

dt1 + 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 ana0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N
( 0 + k )

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 ana0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( 0 n )t1 ei( n k )t1

0 ( 0 k ) dt1 + 0 0 ,01,....,0 N a0ana0ak 0 0 ,01,....,0 N

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( n + k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1

dt1 + 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N
( 0 + k )

ei( 0 n )t1 ei( 2 0 n k )t1

dt1 + 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N
0
( 0 k )

n 0 k

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a a a a 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a a a a 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( n k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1

0 ( 0 + k ) dt1 + 0 0 ,01,....,0 N a0ana0ak 0 0 ,01,....,0 N

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0ana0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

0 n 0 k

ei( 2 0 n k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1

dt1 + .....
( 0 k )

ei( 0 n )t1 ei( n + k )t1

0 ( 0 + k ) dt1 + .....

ei( 2 0 + n k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1

dt1 + .....
( 0 k )

ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( n k )t1

dt1 + .....
0
( 0 + k )

0 n 0 k

ei( n k )t1 ei( 0 n )t1

dt1 + .....
( 0 k )
t

ei( 0 n )t1 ei( 2 0 n + k )t1

dt1 + .....
( 0 + k )

ei( n + k )t1 ei( 0 + n )t1

0 ( 0 k ) dt1 + .....
t

ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( 2 0 + n k )t1

dt1 + 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0an a0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N
( 0 k )

ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( 2 0 + n + k )t1

dt1
( 0 + k )

Our aim now is to simplify the horrifically complicated expression seen above.

Recall the behavior of the annihilation ( a j ) and creation ( a j ) operators upon an eigenstate

n j of the j th

simple harmonic oscillator:

a j n j = n (n 1) j
In particular, we know that applying

a j n j = n + 1 (n + 1) j

a j to the ground state will give:

a j 0 j = O

.where

O is the zero vector in the Hilbert space we are working in.

It is for this reason that we know that any combination of

a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N and a0 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N will give the

zero vector as a result, since the vacuum state cannot possibly be lowered any further than the ground
state. Because of this we know that the following expressions reduce to zero:
0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0
0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0
0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 ana0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0ana0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 ana0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0ana0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 ana0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0ana0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0

By considering the above, we have simplified the form of

N

1
n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = i 2

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N greatly:

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( 0 n )t1 ei( n + k )t1

0 ( 0 + k ) dt1 + 0 0 ,01,....,0 N a0 ana0ak 0 0 ,01,....,0 N
t

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 ana0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0an a0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( n k )t1

dt1 + .....
0
( 0 + k )
t

i( 0 + n )t1

i( 2 0 + n + k )t1

( 0 + k )

ei( 0 n )t1 ei( 2 0 n + k )t1

dt1 + .....
( 0 + k )

dt1

Note that the following terms evaluate to zero as well;

2 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N 2 0 ,01 ,....,1k ,....,1n ,....0 N = 0 ,
0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0an a0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0 0 ,out a0an 10 ,01 ,....,1k ,....,0 N =
2 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N 2 0 ,01 ,....,2 n ,....0 N = 0 ,

if k n

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N O = 0 ,
0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0 0 ,out a0 an 10 ,01 ,....,1k ,....,0 N =
2 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N 2 0 ,01 ,....,0 n ,....0 N = 0 ,

if k n

if k = n
if k = n

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N even further:

And so we have simplified the form of

N

1
n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = i 2

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0 a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( n k )t1

dt1 + .....
0
( 0 + k )
t

.....+ 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 ana0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N

ei( 0 n )t1 ei( n + k )t1

dt1
( 0 + k )

Finally, we see that:

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an a0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an 10 ,01 ,....,1k ,....,0 N = n, k

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N 0 0 ,01 ,....,1k ,....,1n ,...,0 N = 0 ,

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 ana0a k 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N a0 an 10 ,01 ,....,1k ,....,0 N =
2 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N 0 0 ,01 ,....,2 n ,....,0 N = 0 ,

if k n
if k = n

Which gives us:

t i( 0 + n )t1
t i( 0 n )t1
1
e
ei( n k )t1
e
ei( n + k )t1

dt1 + ( 0 )
dt1
n, k
( 0 + k )
( 0 + k )
n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk

0
0

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N = i 2

ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( n k )t1

dt1

( 0 + k )
n=1 k=1 2 n mn k mk 0
N

= i 2

n, k

1
n=1 2 n mn n mn

= i 2

ei( 0 + n )t1 ei( n n )t1

dt1
0
( 0 + n )
t

1
i( + )t
e 0 n 1 1 dt1
n=1 2 n mn ( 0 + n ) 0

= i 2

1
1
ei( 0 + n )t1 t

n=1 2 n mn ( 0 + n ) i( 0 + n )
0
N

= i 2
N

= i 2
n=1

1
i
i
ei( 0 + n )t t
2 n mn ( 0 + n ) ( 0 + n )
( 0 + n )

ei( 0 + n )t 1

1
+ it

( 0 + n )

n=1 2 n mn ( 0 + n )

= i 2 2

i( 0 + n )t

N e
1
it

= 2
+
2
2 n mn ( 0 + n )
n=1 2 n mn ( 0 + n )

Having found

0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,....,0 N , we now explicitly calculate the probability:
P00

00

= 1+ 2Re 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

} + O ( )
3

N ei( 0 + n )t 1

it

3
= 1+ 2Re 2
+
+ O ( )
2
2

m
(

)
2

m
(

)
n
n n
0
n
n=1 n n 0

N cos ( ( 0 + n )t ) i sin ( ( 0 + n )t ) 1

it

3
= 1+ 2 2 Re
+
+ O ( )
2
2

m
(

)
2

m
(

)
n=1

n n
0
n
n n
0
n

sin ( ( 0 + n )t )
t
N cos ( ( 0 + n )t ) 1

= 1+ 2 2 Re
+ i

+ O ( 3 )
2
2
2

m
(

)
2

m
(

)
2

m
(

n=1
n n
0
n
n n
0
n
n n
0
n

sin ( ( 0 + n )t )
t
N cos ( ( 0 + n )t ) 1

= 1+ 2 2 Re
+ i

+ O ( 3 )
2
2
2

m
(

)
2

m
(

)
2

m
(

n=1
n=1

n
n
0
n
n
n
0
n
n
n
0
n

N
cos ( ( 0 + n )t ) 1
2
3
= 1+ 2
+ O ( )
2
n=1 2 n mn ( 0 + n )
N

= 1+ 2 2
n=1

{2sin (
2

1
2

( 0 + n )t )}

2 n mn ( 0 + n )2

+ O ( 3 )

sin 2 ( 12 ( 0 + n )t )
+ O ( 3 )
2

m
(

)
n=1
n n
0
n
N

= 1 2 2

th

Therefore, the probability that the detector (the 0 oscillator) remains in the ground state in the presence of
vacuum fluctuations, up to order 2 in (the leading order), is given by:

sin 2 ( 12 ( 0 + n )t )
= 1 2
+ O ( 3 )
2
n=1 n mn ( 0 + n )
N

P00

00

QU E S T ION 3 Co mp are and c o mment o n the result o b tained with the p ro b ab ility

P10

00

, c o mp uted

in c lass.
th

As computed in Question 2, the probability that the detector (the 0 oscillator) remains in the ground state
in the presence of vacuum fluctuations is given by:

sin 2 ( 12 ( 0 + n )t )
= 1 2
+ O ( 3 )
2
n=1 n mn ( 0 + n )
N

P00

00

sin 2 ( 12 ( 0 + n )t )
2
n=1 n mn ( 0 + n )
N

1 2 2

th

As computed in class, the probability that the detector (the 0 oscillator) will transition into the first excited
state is given by:

sin 2 ( 12 ( 0 + n )t )
+ O ( 3 )
2

m
(

)
n=1
n n
0
n
N

P10

00

= 2 2

sin 2 ( 12 ( 0 + n )t )
2
n=1 n mn ( 0 + n )
N

2 2
..where we are omitting the terms of order

O ( 3 ) and higher.

We right away see that:

P00

00

1 P10

P00

00

+ P10

Rearranging this expression, we find that:

00

Which means that (if we are omitting all the terms of order
to

00

O ( 3 ) and higher) that these probabilities sum

1.

In other words, from the above we gather that there are only two possible outcomes for state of the 0
oscillator; one in which it is in the ground state, and the other in which it is in the first excited state.
Note that if we take P0

00

+ P10

00

th

th
= 1 as fact, then there is zero probability that the 0 oscillator

becomes excited into the second, third, and higher excited states.

We know that

P10

00

is a small real constant, and so the probability P00

. (This is because the 1 in

P00

00

00

is in general, much larger than

dominates the behavior)

th

This makes sense logically. It means that the 0 oscillator is far more likely to remain in the ground state,
than it is to become excited and transition into the first excited state (even though this probability is nonzero in general).

QU E S T ION 4 T he d etec to r c o uld ind eed g et ex c ited to a hig her level. Let us c o nsid er, fo r instanc e,
the transitio n

00 20

. T his transitio n is also med iated b y

U D(2) (t,0) .

W hat wo uld b e the p o wer o f

the lead ing o rd er c o ntrib utio n ( in ) to the p ro b ab ility o f this transitio n?

Is there a no n-z ero p ro b ab ility o f transitio n fro m the g ro und to the sec o nd ex c itatio n fo r the
d etec to r in the p resenc e o f the vac uum? ( D o no t c alc ulate the p ro b ab ility)
H o w d o yo u rec o nc ile the so lutio n o f this q uestio n with the so lutio n o f the p revio us o ne?

In the calculation of

P00 20 we have:

P00 20 = 2 0 ,out U(t,0)

0 0 ,in

out

= 2 0 ,out U(t,0)
0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

Since the state vectors being used are eigenstates of the Hamiltonian we may say once again that:
P00 20 = 2 0 ,out U D (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

We truncate that Dyson series after second order such that:

U D (t,0) I + U D(1) (t,0) + U D(2) (t,0)

..since we only wish to illustrate power of the leading order contribution. Then:
P00 20 = 2 0 ,out I + U D(1) (t,0) + U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

= 2 0 ,out I 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N + 2 0 ,out U D(1) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N + 2 0 ,out U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

= 2 0 ,out 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N + 2 0 ,out U D(1) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N + 2 0 ,out U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

2 0 ,out 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N will evaluate such that:

We know that the inner product

2 0 ,out 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N = 0

In addition to this, in the calculation of
we see that

2 0 ,out U D(1) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N , we refer back to Question 2, where

U D(1) (t,0) will contain elements of the form a0 an , a0 an , a0an , and a0an . Note that none of these

elements can act upon

0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N such that we can lift 0 0 2 0 . This means that we get:
2 0 ,out U D(1) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N = 0

Therefore, we get that:

P00 20 = 2 0 ,out U D(2) (t,0) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out

Note the formula:

t

t1

U D(2) (t,0) = 2 dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 )

Which we can plug into the expression for

P00 20 :

t1
t

P00 20 = 2 0 ,out 2 dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out
0
0

t1
t

= 4 2 0 ,out dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

out
0 0

Note that we truncated the Dyson Series earlier. In general, we rather have something of the form:

P00 20 =

out

t1
t

2 0 ,out dt1 dt 2VD (t1 )VD (t 2 ) 0 0 ,01 ,.....,0 N

0 0

Therefore, we see that in the leading order contribution to

+ O ( 5 )

P00 20 , the power of is 4 .

We note that this probability

order

P00 20 is certainly non-zero. The fact that the leading order contribution is of

O ( 4 ) means that this probability is very small, but definitely non-zero.

The conclusion that

P00 20 is a non-zero probability may at first seem to contradict the discussion of

Question 3.

Recall from earlier that we found:

P00
Where we have:

00

+ P10

sin 2 ( 12 ( 0 + n )t )
+ O ( 3 )
2

m
(

)
n=1
n n
0
n

00

P00

00

At first, it seems that the statement P0

However, we just showed that

+ P10

00

00

sin 2 ( 12 ( 0 + n )t )
+ O ( 3 )
2

m
(

)
n=1
n n
0
n
N

= 1 2 2

P10

00

= 2 2

1 implies that P00 20 = 0 .

P00 20 0 !

The way to resolve the above paradox is to realize that the statement P0

00

+ P10

00

true. It is only an approximation that has been made, after dropping the terms of order
(in

P00

00

and

P10

00

1 is not actually

O ( 3 ) and higher

).

This means that we actually have:

P00
The higher order terms in

P00

00

( )

and

P10

00

00

+ P10

00

+ O ( 3 ) = 1

give a gap in the probabilities such that P0

That means that the terms O 3 encompass the probability

and all other probabilities.

P00

20

00

, as well as the probability

+ P10

00

P00

30

1.
,