LEBE0004-00 UPS Doble Conversion PDF

A P P L I C AT I O N A N D I N S TA L L AT I O N G U I D E
Double Conversion UPS
Contents
Key factors in UPS installations .....................................................1 Introduction................................................................................1 Growing needs for high-quality and high-availability power..........................................1 Using this guide.........................................................................1 Structure of this document...........................................1 UPS in electrical installations ...................................................2 Component functions and parameters........................2 Sources of information in setting up installation specifications........................................3 Basic notions on installations with UPS ..................................5 Supply systems with UPS...................................................5 Purpose of UPS .............................................................5 Types of UPS..................................................................5 Double-conversion static UPS......................................5 The Operating Principle (Figure 2) ...............................5 Power quality of UPS ..........................................................6 Power quality of double-conversion UPS ...................6 Voltage quality for linear loads ....................................6 Voltage quality for non-linear loads ............................7 UPS power availability ......................................................10 What is meant by availability? ...................................10 How can availability be improved? ............................11 Key factors to the availability of installations with UPS .......................................................................11 Selection of the configuration ..........................................13 Prerequisite step in establishing installation specifications ...............................................................13
Power calculations...................................................................14 Elements required for power calculations ......................14 Installation considerations..........................................14 Power of a UPS............................................................14 UPS percent load.........................................................16 UPS efficiency..............................................................16 Ratings of single-UPS configurations ..............................17 Single-UPS configurations .........................................17 Power levels under steady-state conditions .............17 Power levels under transient conditions ...................18 Ratings of parallel-UPS configurations ...........................21 Parallel-UPS configurations........................................21 Power levels in redundant parallel configurations..............................................................22 Control of upstream harmonics .............................................24 UPS and upstream harmonics .........................................24 Role of the input rectifier ............................................24 Standard rectifiers.......................................................24 PFC-type transitor-based controlled active rectifiers ............................................................24 Filtering of upstream harmonics for UPS with Graetz bridge rectifiers ...............................25 Goals of harmonic filtering.........................................25 Types of harmonics filters ..........................................26 Filtering and parallel connection ...............................26 Combination of LC filters and generator...................26 Selection of a filter ............................................................28 Selection parameters for a filter ................................28 Comparison table of solutions ...................................28
System earthing arrangements ..............................................31 Background information on system earthing arrangements.....................................................................31 Protection of persons against electrical contact.......31 Types of system earthing arrangements (SEA) ........32 System earthing arrangements (SEA) .......................33 Comparison of system earthing arrangements (SEA).............................................................................35 Applications in UPS installations .....................................36 Specific aspects in systems with UPS .......................36 Protection against direct contact................................36 Protection against indirect contact ............................36 Types of systems for UPS...........................................37 Protection .................................................................................39 Protection using circuit breakers......................................39 Trip units ......................................................................39 Discrimination, cascading, current limiting ..............41 Selection of circuit breakers .............................................42 Rating ...........................................................................42 Breaking capacity ........................................................42 Ir and Im thresholds ....................................................42 Special case of generator short-circuits ....................43 Example .......................................................................43 Calculation of CB1 and CB2 ratings and breaking capacities ..............................................44 Characteristics of the most power circuit breaker CB3 possible ..................................................47 Cables .......................................................................................49 Selection of cable sizes .....................................................49 Cable temperature rise and voltage drops................49
Temperature rise .........................................................49 Voltage drops...............................................................49 Special case for neutral conductors ..........................51 Calculation example....................................................51 Example of an installation ................................................51 Energy storage.........................................................................52 Storage technologies ........................................................52 Energy storage in UPS................................................52 Available technologies ................................................52 Comparison of technologies ......................................52 Selection of a battery ........................................................54 Types of batteries ........................................................54 Backup time .................................................................54 Service life....................................................................54 Comparison between types of batteries ...................55 Battery monitoring ............................................................55 Battery monitoring on UPS ........................................55 Detection and prevention of battery failure for UPSs ...........................................................55 Human-machine interface and communication....................56 Human-machine interface (HMI) ......................................56 General characteristics................................................56 Example .......................................................................56 Communication .................................................................56 High availability for critical applications requires communicating protection equipment.......56 Solutions ......................................................................57 Preliminary work......................................................................58 Installation considerations................................................58
Dimensions ..................................................................58 Ventilation, air-conditioning .......................................58 IP degree of protection and noise level.....................59 Battery room ......................................................................59 Battery installation method ........................................59 Battery room features .................................................59 Selection of possible configurations ...........................................62 Types of possible configurations............................................62 Basic diagrams ..................................................................62 Single source ...............................................................62 Multi-source.................................................................62 UPS configurations ...........................................................62 Single UPS ...................................................................62 Parallel UPS .................................................................62 Parallel connection with redundancy ........................64 Redundant distribution with an STS..........................65 Selection table and corresponding ranges............................66 Criteria for comparison .....................................................66 Availability ...................................................................66 Maintainability.............................................................66 Upgradeability .............................................................66 Discrimination and non-propagation of faults..........66 Installation operation and management ...................66 Diagram no. 1. Single UPS......................................................68 Diagram no. 2. Active redundancy with two integrated parallel UPS units ..................................69 Diagram no. 3. Active redundancy with integrated parallel UPS units and external maintenance bypass ..........70 Diagram no. 4. Isolated redundancy with two UPS units ....71
Diagram no. 5. Active redundancy with parallel units and centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC)..................72 Diagram no. 6. Active redundancy with parallel UPS units and total isolation, single busbar .........................73 Diagram no. 7. Active redundancy with parallel UPS units and total isolation, double busbar........................74 Diagram no. 8. Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, single busbar............75 Diagram no. 9. Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, double busbar ..........77 Diagram no. 10. Isolated redundancy N + 1 ..........................79 Diagram no. 11. Redundant distribution with STS ................81 Diagram no. 12 . Active redundancy with parallel UPS and a common battery....................................................83 Elimination of harmonics in installations....................................85 Harmonics ................................................................................85 Definition, origin and types of harmonics.......................85 Harmonics....................................................................85 Non-linear loads are the cause ..................................85 Linear and non-linear loads........................................86 Types of harmonics and specific aspects of zerosequence harmonics ...................................................87 Characteristic harmonic values ........................................89 Rms value of harmonics .............................................89 Total rms current .........................................................89 Individual harmonics ..................................................89 Voltage and current harmonic distortion ..................90 Crest factor...................................................................90 Spectrum of the harmonic current ............................91 Power factor.................................................................91
Power............................................................................91 Non-linear load............................................................92 Effects of harmonics..........................................................92 Loss of apparent power ..............................................92 Temperature rise in cables .........................................92 Current in the neutral ..................................................93 Self-polluting loads .....................................................93 Risk of capacitor breakdown ......................................94 Derating of transformers ............................................95 Risk of disturbing generators .....................................96 Losses in asynchronous motors ................................96 Effects on other equipment ........................................96 Effect on recent UPS systems ....................................96 Conclusion ...................................................................96 Elimination of harmonics........................................................97 Strategies against harmonics...........................................97 Living with harmonics.......................................................97 Oversizing of equipment ............................................97 Solutions to eliminate harmonics ....................................98 Passive filters...............................................................98 Active filters / active harmonic conditioners ............98 Active harmonic conditioners ..............................................100 Active harmonic conditioners ........................................100 Characteristics ...........................................................100 Advantages of active harmonic conditioning .........100 Operating principle....................................................101 Operating modes .......................................................101 Installation modes .....................................................102 Position in the installation ........................................104
Position of current transformers upstream or downstream ..........................................................105 Advantages ................................................................107 Procedure for implementing active conditioning .........108 Conclusion on active conditioning...........................108 New installations .......................................................108 Existing installations .................................................108 Methodology..............................................................109 1. Site audit.................................................................109 2. Determination of the most suitable solution......110 3. System installation and checks ............................110 Theoretical review ........................................................................111 Supplying sensitive loads ......................................................111 Types of electrical disturbances ......................................111 Origins of disturbances..............................................111 Types of disturbances................................................112 UPS..........................................................................................114 UPS....................................................................................114 Components of a UPS ...............................................114 UPS applications ..............................................................116 Types of UPS ..........................................................................118 Static or rotary UPS .........................................................118 Static or rotary UPS solutions ..................................118 Comparison ................................................................119 Static solution.............................................................119 Types of static UPS..........................................................120 Standards ...................................................................120 UPS operating in passive-standby mode................121 UPS operating in line-interactive mode ..................122
Double-conversion UPS............................................123 Conclusion .................................................................125 UPS components and operation ..........................................126 Components of a UPS.....................................................126 General diagram of a UPS........................................126 Power sources and UPS inputs ................................127 Components of a UPS...............................................127 Main characteristics of UPS components......................130 AC input power..........................................................130 Rectifier/charger.........................................................130 Battery (* energy storage means)............................131 Inverter .......................................................................133 Output voltage Un .....................................................134 Summary diagram for main characteristics..................136 Normal AC input: .......................................................136 Bypass AC input:........................................................136 Rectifier/charger:........................................................136 Battery: .......................................................................136 Inverter: ......................................................................136 UPS operating modes .....................................................137 Normal mode (on utility power, see figure 76) .......137 Backup mode (on battery power, see figure 76) .............................................................137 Bypass mode (on static-bypass line, see figure 77) .............................................................138 Maintenance mode (on maintenance bypass, see figure 77) ...............................................139 UPS configurations..........................................................140 Parallel UPS with redundancy..................................140
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) ..................................142 Electromagnetic disturbances ........................................142 Electromagnetic disturbances ..................................142 Examples....................................................................142 EMC standards and recommendations .........................143 Disturbances ..............................................................143 Measured values .......................................................143 UPS standards........................................................................145 Scope and observance of standards..............................145 Scope of standards....................................................145 Observance of standards and certification..............145 CE marking.................................................................145 Main standards governing UPS .....................................146 Safety................................................................................146 Electrical environment, harmonics and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) ......................146 Quality ........................................................................146 Ecological environment ............................................146 Acoustic noise............................................................146 Tables on harmonic-compatibility levels.................147 Energy storage .......................................................................148 Possible technologies......................................................148 Energy storage in UPS ..............................................148 Batteries............................................................................148 The battery solution ..................................................148 Types of industrial batteries .....................................149 Installation modes .....................................................149 Constraints on batteries ..................................................150 Atmospheric constraints...........................................150
Access ........................................................................150 Main battery parameters ..........................................150 Recharge mode..........................................................151 Battery management.................................................151 UPS / generator-set combination .........................................153 Use of a generator...........................................................153 Long backup times ....................................................153 UPS / generator-set compatibility ............................154 Review of inrush currents.........................................155 Motors ........................................................................155 LV/LV transformers ....................................................155 Computer loads ...............................................................156 Harmonics ..............................................................................157 Harmonics ........................................................................157 Origin of harmonics ..................................................157 Consequences of harmonics ....................................157 Precautions ................................................................158 Characteristic harmonic values ......................................159 Current values............................................................159 Example .....................................................................161 Voltage values............................................................161 Power values..............................................................162 Non-linear loads and PWM technology ...............................164 Non-linear load performance of UPS using PWM technology ...................................................164 Importance of the UPS output impedance..............164 UPS operating principle............................................165 PWM inverters ...........................................................167 Comparison of different sources....................................169
Output impedance of various sources ....................169 Conclusion .................................................................169 Free-frequency chopping ................................................170 Free-frequency chopping ..........................................170 PFC Rectifiers .........................................................................172 Standard and PFC rectifiers ............................................172 Standard rectifiers.....................................................172 Clean PFC (Power Factor Correction) rectifier.....172 PFC rectifiers..............................................................172 Implementation .........................................................173 Glossary and bibliography ..........................................................176 Glossary..................................................................................176 Bibliography ...........................................................................186 Standards ...................................................................186
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes Caterpillar Double Conversion UPS. Additional engine systems, components and dynamics are addressed in other Application and Installation Guides. Engine-specific information and data are available from a variety of sources. Refer to LEBW4950 and the Introduction section (LEBW4951) for additional references.
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential. Discretion is recommended when distributing. Materials and specifications are subject to change without notice. CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, Caterpillar Yellow, the Power Edge trade dress as well as corporate and product identity used herein, are trademarks of Caterpillar and may not be used without permission.
Battery UPS
Application and Installation Guide
Key factors in UPS installations Introduction

Growing needs for high-quality and high-availability power
Problems related to the quality and availability of electrical power have become vitally important due to the key role of computers and electronics in the development of many critical applications. Disturbances in distribution systems (micro-outages, outages, voltage sags, etc.) can result in major losses or safety hazards in a number of activities such as: Sensitive process industries where a malfunction in the control/monitoring systems can result in production losses. Airports and hospitals where faulty operation of equipment can represent a serious danger. Information and communication technologies where the necessary level of reliability and dependability is even higher. Data centers require high-quality, no-break power 24/365, year after year and without halts for maintenance. UPS protection systems are now an integral part of the value chain of many companies. Their level of availability and power quality have a direct effect on the service continuity of operations. Productivity, the quality of products and services, the competitiveness of the company and site security depend on the smooth operation of the UPS. Failure is not an option.
Using this guide

Structure of this document
Finding information Information may be located in the general contents at the start of the guide. Sections 1. Key factors in UPS installations presents the role of UPS in electrical installations and indicates the main parameters that must be taken into account. The remainder of the section guides you through the selection process for a solution by determining the main elements of an installation with a UPS. 2. Selection of the UPS configuration presents a number of practical examples in view of selecting a configuration, from a simple, singleUPS unit through to installations offering exceptionally high levels of availability. 3. Elimination of harmonics in installations presents solutions to eliminate harmonic currents in installations. 4. Theoretical review provides background technical information for devices and notions mentioned in other parts of the guide. Finally, to facilitate the preparation of projects: 5. Glossary and bibliography defines the main terms used in this guide and provides a list of standards and documents dealing with topics related to UPS.
2010 Caterpillar All rights reserved.
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UPS in electrical installations

Component functions and parameters
Figure 1: Functions of the components in installations with UPS..

Page 2 2010 Caterpillar All rights reserved.
Battery UPS
Sources of information in setting up installation specifications

The diagram on the previous page provides a general overview of the components and various parameters in installations with UPS.
Table 1 indicates: The order in which the subjects are presented in this section, The choices that must be made, The purpose of each decision with the indication of the pages concerning the relevant elements in this section, Where additional information on each subject may be found in the other sections of this design guide.
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Choices
Purpose Determine the installation architecture and UPS configuration best suited to your requirements in terms of energy availability, upgrades, operation and budget.
See
Mono or multisource architecture and configuration of UPS sources
Sec. 2
Additional information Examples and comparison of 12 typical installations, from single-UPS units to high-availability architectures. Supplying sensitive loads. UPS configurations. Engine generator sets.
See
Page 67
Page 111 Page 140 Page 153
Determine the rating of the UPS unit or parallel units (for redundancy or capacity) UPS power rating required, taking into account the distribution system and load characteristics. Control of upstream harmonics Reduce voltage distortion on the upstream busbars to acceptable levels, depending on the power sources likely to supply the UPS system. Ensure installation compliance with applicable standards for the protection of life and property and correct operation of devices. Which system earthing arrangements are required for which applications? Determine the breaking capacity and the ratings of the circuit breakers upstream and downstream of the UPS, solve any discrimination problems. Limit voltage drops and temperature rise in the cables, as well as harmonic distortion at the load inputs. Operation on battery power (backup time) must last long enough to meet user requirements. Define UPS communication with the electrical and computer environment. Construction work and ventilation must be planned, notably if there is a special battery room. Be aware of the main applicable UPS standards.
Pages 17-21
UPS make-up and operation.
Page 14
Elimination of harmonics in installations. Page 24 Harmonics.
Sec. 3 Page 157
System earthing arrangements
Page 31
Upstream and downstream protection using circuit breakers
Page 39
Connections
Page 49
Battery
Page 54
Energy-storage solutions and batteries.
Page 148
Communication
Page 56
Preliminary work (if any) Standards
Page 58 Electromagnetic compatibility.
Page 142
Table 1..
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Basic notions on installations with UPS

Supply systems with UPS
Purpose of UPS
First launched in the 1970s, UPS importance has grown in step with the development of digital technologies. UPS are electrical devices that are positioned between the distribution system and sensitive loads. They supply power that is much more reliable than the distribution system and corresponds to the needs of sensitive loads in terms of quality and availability. Rotary UPS (with rotating mechanical parts, e.g. flywheels) are not included in the standards and remain marginal on the market. Types of UPS, see page 118 Types of static UPS .
Double-conversion static UPS

This is the market leading technology used in high-power installations due to their unique advantages over the other technologies. Complete regeneration of the power supplied at the output, Total isolation of the load from the distribution system and its disturbances, No-break transfer (where applicable) to a bypass line.
Types of UPS
The term UPS covers products with apparent power ratings from a few hundred VA up to several MVA, implementing different technologies. That is why standard IEC 62040-3 and its European equivalent ENV 62040-3 define three standard types (topologies) of UPS. UPS technologies include: Passive standby, Line interactive, Double conversion. For the low power ratings (< 2 kVA), the three technologies coexist. For higher ratings, the industry leading technology is double conversion with line interactive being used primarily where efficiency is a concern for the customer.
The Operating Principle (Figure 2)

During normal operation, a rectifier/charger turns the ACinput power into DC power to supply an inverter and float charge the stored energy source, The inverter completely regenerates a sinusoidal signal, turning the DC power back into AC power that is free of all disturbances and within strict amplitude and frequency tolerances, If the AC-input power fails, the stored energy source supplies the power required by the inverter for a specified backup time A static bypass can transfer the load without a break in the supply of power to a bypass line to
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continue supplying the load if need be due to an internal fault, short circuit downstream, or maintenance. This fault-tolerant design makes it possible to continue supplying power to the load in downgraded mode (the power does not transit the inverter) during the time required to re-establish normal conditions. Double-conversion UPS, see page 126 Components and operation .
Figure 2: Double-conversion static UPS..
Power quality of UPS

Power quality of doubleconversion UPS
By design, double-conversion solidstate UPS supply to the connected loads a sinusoidal signal that is: High quality because it is continuously regenerated and regulated (amplitude 1%, frequency 0.5%), Free of all disturbances from the distribution system (due to the double conversion) and in particular from micro-outages and outages (due to the battery). This level of quality must be ensured, whatever the type of load.
Voltage quality for linear loads

What is a linear load? A linear load supplied with a sinusoidal voltage draws a sinusoidal current having the same frequency as the voltage. The current may be displaced (angle ) with respect to the voltage (figure 3). Examples of linear loads Many loads are linear, including standard light bulbs, heating units, resistive loads, motors, transformers, etc. They do not contain any active electronic components, only resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C). UPS and linear loads For this type of load, the UPS output signal is very high quality, i.e. the voltage and current are perfectly sinusoidal, 50 or 60 Hz.
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Figure 3: Voltage and current for linear loads..
Voltage quality for non-linear loads

What is a non-linear load? A non-linear (or distorting) load supplied with a sinusoidal voltage draws periodic current that has the same frequency as the voltage but is not sinusoidal. The current drawn by the load is, in fact, the combination (figure 4) of: A sinusoidal current called the fundamental, at the 50 or 60 Hz frequency, Harmonics, which are sinusoidal currents with an amplitude less than that of the fundamental, but
a frequency that is a multiple of the fundamental and which defines the harmonic order (e.g. the third order harmonic has a frequency 3 x 50 Hz [or 60 Hz] and the fifth order harmonic has a frequency 5 x 50 Hz [or 60 Hz]). The harmonic currents are caused by the presence of power-electronic components (e.g. diodes, SCRs, IGBTs) which switch the input current. Examples of non-linear loads Non-linear loads include all those that have a switch-mode power supply at their input to supply the electronics (e.g. computers, variable-speed drives, etc.).
Figure 4: The current drawn by non-linear loads is distorted by the harmonics..
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Harmonic spectrum of the current drawn by a non-linear load The harmonic analysis of a non-linear current consists in determining (figure 5): the harmonic orders present in the current, the relative importance of each order, measured as the percentage of the order. Hk% = distortion of harmonic k = rms value of harmonic k rms value of the fundamental
Voltage and current harmonic distortion Non-linear loads cause both current and voltage harmonics. This is because for each current harmonic, there is a voltage harmonic with the same frequency. The 50 Hz (or 60 Hz) sinusoidal voltage of the UPS is therefore distorted by the harmonics. The distortion of a sine wave is presented as a percentage: THD* % = total distortion = rms value of all the harmonic k rms value of the fundamental
* Total Harmonic Distortion. The following values are defined: TDHU % for the voltage, based on the voltage harmonics, TDHI % for the current, based on the current harmonics (figure 5). The higher the harmonic content, the greater the distortion. Practically speaking, the distortion in the current drawn by the load is much higher (THDI approximately 30%) than that of the voltage at the input (THDU approximately 5%).
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.Figure 5: Example of the harmonic spectrum of the current drawn by a non-linear load..
Non-linear loads, see the section Elimination of harmonics in installations and page 85 Harmonics . UPS and non-linear loads Harmonics affect the sinusoidal voltage at the UPS output. Excessive distortion can disturb the linear loads connected in parallel on the output, notably by increasing the current they draw (temperature rise). To maintain the quality of the UPS output voltage, it is necessary to limit its distortion (THDU), i.e. limit the current harmonics that produce voltage distortion. In particular, it is necessary that the impedance (at the UPS output and in the cables supplying the load) remain low. Limiting the distortion of the output voltage Due to the free-frequency chopping technique employed, the impedance at the output of a double conversion UPS is very low, whatever the frequency (i.e. whatever the harmonic order). This technique virtually eliminates all distortion in the output voltage when supplying non-linear loads. The quality of the output voltage is thus constant, even for non-linear loads. Practically speaking, installation designers must: check UPS output values for nonlinear loads and, in particular, make sure that the announced level of distortion, measured for standardised non-linear loads as per standard IEC 62040-3, is very low (THDU < 2 to 3%), limit the length (impedance) of the output cables supplying the loads. UPS performance for non-linear loads, see page 164.
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UPS power availability

What is meant by availability?
Availability of an electrical installation Availability is the probability that the installation will be capable of supplying energy with the level of quality required by the supplied loads. It is expressed as a percentage. Availability (%) = (1MTTR ) x 100 MTBF
The availability of the energy supplied by an electrical installation corresponds to a statistical measurement (in the form of a percentage) of its operating time. The MTBF and MTTR values are calculated or measured (on the basis of sufficiently long observations) for the components. They can then be used to determine the availability of the installation over the period. What are the factors contributing to availability? Availability depends on the MTBF and the MTTR. Availability would be equal to 100% if the MTTR is equal to zero (instantaneous repair) or if the MTBF is infinite (operation with no breakdowns). This is statistically impossible; Practically speaking, the lower the MTTR and the higher the MTBF , the greater the availability. From 3 nines to 6 nines The critical nature of many applications has created the need for much higher levels of availability for electrical power. The traditional economy uses power from the public utility. An average-quality distribution system with HV backup offers 99.9% availability (3 nines), which corresponds to eight hours of non-availability per year. Sensitive loads require an electrical supply capable of providing 99.99% availability (4 nines), which corresponds to 50 minutes of non-availability per year.
The MTTR is the mean time to repair the supply system following a failure (including the time to detect the cause of the failure, repair it and start the system up again). The MTBF is the mean time between failures, i.e. the time the supply system is capable of ensuring correct operation of the loads. Example An availability of 99.9% (called thee nines) corresponds to a 99.9% chance that the system will effectively carry out the required functions at any given time. The difference between this probability and 1 (i.e. 1 - 0.999 = 0.001) indicates the level of non-availability (i.e. one chance out of 1000 that the system will not carry out the required functions at any given time). What is the practical signification of availability? Down-time costs for critical applications are very high. These applications must obviously remain in operation as long as possible. The same is true for their electrical supply.
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The computer and communication equipment in data centres requires 99.9999% availability (6 nines), which corresponds to 30 seconds of non-availability per year. This level is the means to ensure, without risk of major financial loss, operation of infrastructures 24/365, without shutdown for maintenance. It is a step toward a continuous supply.
.Figure 6: Evolution in the level of availability required by applications...
How can availability be improved?

To improve availability, it is necessary to reduce the MTTR and increase the MTBF. Reduce the MTTR Real-time fault detection, analysis by experts to ensure a precise diagnosis and rapid repair all contribute to reducing the MTTR. These efforts depend on the key factors listed next.
Key factors to the availability of installations with UPS

A few years ago, most installations were made up of single-UPS units, and the number of parallel systems was small. The applications requiring this type of installation still exist. However, the shift toward high availability requires use of configurations offering redundancy at a number of levels in the installation (see figure 7).
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Figure 7: The required levels of availability have resulted in the. use of redundancy on a number of levels in the installation.
This trend has led designers, depending on the criticality of the loads and the operating requirements, to take into account some or all of the key factors listed below. Reliability and availability Propose a configuration corresponding to the level of availability required by the load, comprising components with proven levels of reliability and backed up by a suitable level of service quality. Maintainability Ensure easy maintenance of the equipment under safe conditions for personnel and without interrupting operation. Upgradeability It must be possible to upgrade the installation over time, taking into account both the need to expand the installation gradually and operating requirements. Discrimination and non-propagation of faults It must be possible to limit faults to as small a part of the installation as possible, while enabling servicing without stopping operations. Installation operation and management Make operations easier by providing the means to anticipate events via installation supervision and management systems.
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Selection of the configuration

Prerequisite step in establishing installation specifications
The selection of a configuration determines the level of availability that will be created for the load. It also determines the possible solutions for most of the factors listed previously. The configuration may be single or multi-source, with single or parallel UPS units and with or without redundancy. Selection of the configuration is the initial step in establishing installation specifications. To assist in making the right decision, section 2 is entirely devoted to this subject. It compares the various configurations in terms of availability, protection of the loads, maintainability, upgradeability and cost. Configuration selection based on typical installations corresponding to different levels of availability.
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Power calculations
Elements required for power calculations
Installation considerations
Type of load supplied Linear loads (cos ) or non-linear loads (power factor). These characteristics determine the power factor at the UPS output. Maximum power drawn by the load under steady-state conditions For a load, this is the power rating. If a number of loads are connected in parallel on the UPS output, it is necessary to calculate the total load when all the loads operate at the same time. Otherwise, it is necessary to use diversity to calculate the most unfavourable operation in terms of the power drawn. In-rush currents under transient conditions or for a short-circuit downstream The overload capacity of a UPS system depends on the time the overload lasts. If this time limit is exceeded, the UPS transfers the load to the Bypass AC input, if its voltage characteristics are within tolerances. In this case, the load is no longer protected against disturbances on the distribution system. Depending on the quality of the Bypass AC power, it is possible to: Use the Bypass AC input to handle current spikes due to switching of devices or downstream short-circuits. This avoids oversizing the system; Disable automatic transfer (except for internal faults), while maintaining the possibility of manual transfers (e.g. for maintenance).
Power of a UPS
Rated power of a UPS This rating, indicated in the catalogues, is in the output power. It is indicated as an apparent power Sn in kVA, with the corresponding active power Pn in kW, for a: Linear load, Load with a cos = 0.8. However, last-generation UPS can supply loads with a cos = 0.9 leading. Calculation of the rated power Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA) rated active power This calculation depends on the output voltage of the UPS and the current drawn by the load, where: Sn (kVA) = UnIn 3 in three-phase systems Sn (kVA) = VnIn in single-phase systems For a three-phase UPS, U and I are rms line values, for a single-phase UPS, V is a phase-to-neutral voltage, where: Un = phase-to-phase voltage Vn = phase-to-neutral voltage Un = Vn 3 For example, if Un = 400 volts, Vn = 230 volts.
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Power and type of load Table 2 presents the equations linking the power, voltage and current, depending on the type of load (linear or non-linear). The following symbols are used: Instantaneous voltage u(t) and current i(t) values,
The corresponding rms values U and I, = angular frequency = 2 f where f is the frequency (50 or 60 Hz), = displacement between the voltage and the current under sinusoidal conditions. Linear loads
Three-phase Sinusoidal voltage Displaced sinusoidal current Apparent power Active power Reactive power u(t) = U 2 sin t
between phases
Single-phase v(t) = V 2 sin t

phase to neutral
U = V 3 i(t) = I 2 sin (t - ) S (kVA) = UI 3 cos P (kW) = UI 3 cos = S (kVA) cos Q (kvar) = UI 3 sin = S (kVA) sin
phase current
Current crest factor 2 S (kVA) = VI P (kW) = VI cos = S (kVA) cos Q (kvar) = VI sin = S (kVA) sin
S = P2 + Q2
Non-linear loads
Sinusoidal voltage
The regulated UPS voltage remains sinusoidal (low THDU), whatever the type of load.
u(t) = U 2 sin t
between phases
v(t) = V 2 sin t
phase to neutral
U = V 3 i(t) = i1(t) + ihk(t) total phase current i1(t) = I1 2 sin (t - 1) fundamental current ik(t) = Ihk 2 sin (kt - k) k-order harmonic I = I 12 + I22 + I32 + I42 + .... rms value of the total current Fc = peak current value / rms value THDI = I 12 + I22 + I32 + I42 + .... I1
Current crest factor
Current with harmonics
Current total harmonic distortion
Apparent power Active power Power factor
S (kVA) = UI 3 P (kW) = UI 3 = S (kVA) = P(kW) S(kVA)
S (kVA) = VI P (kW) = VI = S (kVA)
Table 2..
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UPS percent load

This is the percentage of the rated power that is effectively drawn by the load. Load (%) = Sload (kVA) Sn (kVA)
The installation designer must therefore pay attention to two aspects of efficiency. Recommendation 1: check the efficiency for non-linear loads The presence of non-linear loads tends to reduce the power factor to values below 0.8. It is therefore necessary to check the efficiency value for standardised non-linear loads. This check is recommended by standards IEC 62040-3 / EN 62040-3. Recommendation 2: check the efficiency at the planned percent load Manufacturers generally indicate the efficiency at full rated load. However, its value may drop if the percent load is lower (1). Attention must therefore be paid to UPS operating in an activeredundancy configuration, where the units share the total load and often operate at 50% of their full rated load, or less. (1) A UPS is optimised to operate at full rated load. Even though losses are at their maximum at full rated load, the efficiency is also at its maximum. In a standard UPS, losses are not proportional to the percent load and the efficiency drops sharply when the percent load drops. This is because a part of the losses is constant and the relative percentage of this part increases when the load decreases. To obtain high efficiency at low load levels, the constant losses must be very low. UPS efficiency, see page 133.
Recommendation: take into account growth in loads It is advised to leave a margin (excess power) when setting the rated power, particularly if a site expansion is planned. In this case, make sure the percent load on the UPS is still acceptable after the expansion.
UPS efficiency
This factor determines the power drawn by the UPS on the upstream distribution system, i.e. the consumption. It may be calculated as: (%) = PUPSoutput (kW) PUPSinput (kW)
For a given power rating, a high level of efficiency: Reduces power bills, Reduces heat losses and, consequently, ventilation requirements. It is possible to calculate the efficiency at full rated load, i.e. with a 100% load. n (%) = Pn (kW) PUPSinput (kW)
The rated active power of the UPS is obtained by multiplying the rated apparent power Sn (kVA) by 0.8 (if > 0.8) or by (if < 0.8). The efficiency can vary significantly depending on the percent load and the type of load.
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Battery UPS
Ratings of single-UPS configurations

Single-UPS configurations
These configurations comprise a single, double-conversion UPS unit (see figure 8). The overload capacity at the UPS output is indicated by a diagram. In the event of an internal fault or an overload exceeding UPS capacity, the system automatically transfers to the
Bypass AC input. If transfer is not possible, many UPS current limit for overloads greater than the maximum value (e.g. 2.33 In peak for one second, which corresponds to a maximum sine wave with an rms value of 2.33 / 2 = 1.65 In). Beyond one second, the UPS shuts down. A set of disconnection switches is available to isolate the UPS for maintenance in complete safety.
Figure 8: Single double conversion static UPS unit and example of an overload curve...
Power levels under steady-state conditions

A UPS is sized using the apparent rated output power Sn (kVA) and an output power factor of 0.8. These conditions correspond to an active rated power of Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA). In real-life situations, a UPS supplies a number of loads with an overall power factor that is often not 0.8 due to the presence of non-linear loads and means to improve the power factor; If 0.8, the UPS is still limited to Pn (kW), If < 0.8, the UPS is limited to Sn (kW) < Pn (kW).
Consequently, selection of the power rating in kVA must take into account the active power supplied to the loads. The active power is determined by following the following four steps. 1. Apparent and active power drawn by the loads The first step is to evaluate the power requirements of the load. Table 3 must be drawn up for the k loads to be supplied.
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Battery UPS
Load Load 1 Load 2 Load i Load k Total
Apparent rated power (kVA) S1 S2 Si Sk S (1) S is not the sum of Si
Input power factor (or cos ) 1 2 i k (2) must be measured or calculated
Active rated power (kW) P1 = 1 S1 P2 = 2 S2 Pi = i Si Pk = k Sk P=S (3) P = S = i Si
(1) S is not the sum of Si because: it would be necessary to calculate the vectoral sum if all loads were linear, using the angles of the different cos , some of the loads are not linear. (2) must be measured on site or evaluated on the basis of past experience. (3) P = S = i Si because the active power is added (no displacement).
Table 3..
2. Rated apparent power of the UPS (Sn) The second step is to select a UPS with an apparent-power rating sufficient to cover the load requirements (in kVA). Under the given conditions, the suitable rated apparent power for the UPS is: Sn (kVA) > S. where S = P / . In the UPS range, select the UPS with a rated power Sn (kVA) just above S. If reserve power is required and the selected rating is too close to S, select the next highest rating. 3. Check on the active power The third step is a check to ensure that the selected power rating can cover the load requirements in kW under the stipulated operating conditions. For the selected rating, the UPS will supply the rated active power: Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA) If 0.8, make sure that Pn (kW) > P , i.e. that the UPS can supply the additional
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power required, otherwise select the next highest rating. If < 0.8, the power supplied by the UPS is sufficient because Pn (kW) > Sn (kVA), i.e. the selection is correct. 4. Percent load The fourth step is a check to ensure that the percent load is acceptable now and in the future, given the desired operating conditions. The percent load is: Load = S / Sn(kVA). It must be sufficient to cover any increases in the load or if there are plans to expand the system to become redundant.
Power levels under transient conditions

Load in-rush currents It is necessary to know the in-rush current of each load and the duration of the transient conditions. If a number of loads risk being turned on at the same time, it is necessary to sum the in-rush currents.
Battery UPS
Necessary checks It is then necessary to check that the planned UPS power rating can handle the in-rush currents. Note that the UPS can operate for a few periods in current-limiting mode (e.g. 2.33 In for one second for some manufactures. If the UPS cannot handle the in-rush currents, it is necessary to decide whether it is acceptable to transfer to the Bypass AC input when the transient conditions occur. If transfer is not acceptable, it is necessary to increase the power rating. Review of in-rush currents, see page 159.
Example The following example is simply to illustrate the point and does not correspond to a real situation. The purpose is to indicate the required steps. The installation is made up of three 400 V three-phase loads connected in parallel: Computer system - S1 = 4 x 10 kVA (4 identical 10 kVA loads), = 0.6 for all the loads, in-rush current 8 In over four periods 50 Hz (80 ms) for each load, Variable-speed drive - S2 = 20 kVA, = 0.7, in-rush current 4 In over five periods (100 ms), Isolation transformer - S3 = 20 kVA, = cos = 0.8, in-rush current 10 In over six periods (120 ms).
Figure 9: Example of an installation...
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Battery UPS
Power levels under steady-state conditions 1. Apparent and active power drawn by the loads Table 4 should be drawn up.
Load Computer system Variable-speed drive LV/LV transformer Total Rated apparent power (kVA) 40 20 20 S Input power factor 0.8* 0.7 0.8 = 0.68 measured or estimated Rated active power (kW) 32* 14 16 P = 54 kW
* average of new top of the range systems with power factor 0.9 and older equipment with power factor between 0.7 and 0.8.
Table 4..
2. Rated apparent power of the UPS S = 54 / 0.68 = 79.4 kVA An 80 kVA rating would not be sufficient, i.e. a 100 kVA rating should be selected or higher if a site extension is planned. 3. Check on the active power The UPS can supply the loads 100 x 0.68 = 68 kW > 54 kW. 4 . Check on the percent load and rated current The percent load is, therefore, 79.4 / 100 = 79.4%. Rated current of the UPS Sn (kVA) = UI 3 , i.e. I = 100 / (400 x 1.732) = 144 A. In-rush currents under transient conditions The loads should be started up one after the other to avoid combining the in-rush currents. It is necessary to check that the UPS can handle the in-rush currents. The rated currents are calculated as S (kVA) = UI 3 , i.e.: Computer system - In = 10 / (400 x 1.732) = 14.4 A, i.e. 8 In 115 A for 80 ms, Variable-speed drive - In = 20 / (400 x 1.732) = 28.8 A, i.e. 4 In 115 A for 100 ms, Transformer - In = 20 / (400 x 1.732) = 28.8 A, i.e. 10 In = 288 A for 120 ms, A 100 kVA UPS with an overload capacity of 120%, i.e. 151 A x 1.2 = 173 A for 1 minute and 150%, i.e. 151 A x 1.5 = 216 A for 1 minute, Operation in current-limiting mode at 2.33 In, i.e. 335 A for one second. If the four computer loads (10 kVA each) are started one after the other, the 20% overload capacity of the UPS is sufficient (173 A -1mn > 115 A 80 ms).
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Battery UPS
If the four loads are started simultaneously, the in-rush current would be 4 x 115 = 460 A > 335 A. The system would current limit for 80 ms. For the variable-speed drive, the overload capacity is sufficient. For the isolation transformer (288 A for 120 ms), the overload capacity is again sufficient.
comprises an automatic bypass and a maintenance bypass that are common for a number of parallel units without bypasses (see figure 10). True modular parallel systems are also available, made up of dedicated and redundant modules-power, intelligence, battery and bypass, all engineered into a design that is easily and efficiently serviceable. Power modules can be easily added as demand grows or as higher levels of availability are required. There are two types of parallel configurations: Without redundancy: all the UPS units are required to supply the load. Failure of one unit means the entire system shuts down (not recommended); With redundancy N + 1, N + 2, etc.: the number of UPS units required for the load is equal to N. All the UPS units (N + 1, N + 2, etc.) share the load. If one UPS unit shuts down, the remaining units (at least equal in number to N) continue to share the load. Typical configurations and characteristics, see section 2.
Ratings of parallel-UPS configurations

Parallel-UPS configurations
Purpose of parallel connection Parallel connection of a number of identical units is the means to: Increase the power rating, Establish redundancy that increases the MTBF and availability: Types of parallel connection Two types of UPS units can be connected in parallel. Integrated parallel UPS units: each UPS unit includes an automatic bypass and a manual maintenance bypass. The manual bypass may be common to the entire system (in an external cubicle); Parallel UPS units with an SSC: the static-switch cubicle
Figure 10: UPS system with parallel-connected units and a static-switch cubicle (SSC)..
2010 Caterpillar All rights reserved. Page 21
Battery UPS
Power levels in redundant parallel configurations

In a redundant parallel configuration made up of identical units, the units share the load. The power rating of each unit does not depend on the level of redundancy, but must be calculated to continue supplying the load even if redundancy is completely lost. Active redundancy: Improves availability, Increases the overload capacity, Reduces the percent load on each UPS unit. The power level is determined by following the same four steps as for a single-UPS configuration. 1. Apparent and active power drawn by the loads The same type of table is used as that for a single UPS (see page 20). The result is the apparent power S that must be supplied to the load. 2. Rated apparent power of the UPS units (Sn) in the configuration Consider a level of redundancy N + K (e.g. 2 + 1), which means: - N units (e.g. 2) are required to supply the load, - K units (e.g. 1 extra unit) ensure redundancy. Each UPS unit must be sized to enable the system as a whole to operate without redundancy, i.e. with N operational units and K units shut down. In this case, the N units must each have an apparent power rating Sn (kVA) such that: Sn(kVA) > S / N.
Select in the UPS range the power rating Sn (kVA) just above S/N. If reserve power is required or the selected rating is too close to S, select the next highest rating. 3. Check on the active power For the selected rating, the UPS will supply the active rated power Pn (kW) = 0.8 Sn (kVA) If 0.8, make sure that Pn (kW) >P , i.e. that the UPS can supply the additional power required, otherwise select the next highest rating. If < 0.8, the power supplied by the UPS is sufficient because Pn (kW) > Sn (kVA), i.e. the selection is correct. 4. Percent load With redundancy, the UPS units share the load according to the equation S / (N+K). The percent load for each unit when there is redundancy is therefore: TL = S / (N + k) Sn (kVA). In a non-redundant system, it is calculated as: TL = S / N Sn (kVA). It must be sufficient to cover any increases in the load. Example This example will use the results from the last example, and we will suppose that the loads are critical, i.e. redundancy is required. The total load is 54 kW with an overall power factor for all the loads of 0.68, i.e. S = 54 / 0.68 = 79.4 kVA;
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Battery UPS
If 2+1 redundancy is used, two units must be capable of supplying the load. Each must will have to supply S / 2 = 79.4 / 2 = 39.7 kVA; A 40 kVA rating would not be sufficient, i.e. a 50 kVA rating should be selected or higher if a site extension is planned; If redundancy is not available, the two UPS units must be capable of supplying the load;
This is the case because 2 x 50 x 0.68 = 68 kW > 54 kW; During operation, the percent load will be: - with redundancy, i.e. with 3 UPS units sharing the load: 79.4 / 3 x 50 = 52.9%; - without redundancy, i.e. with only 2 UPS units sharing the load: 79.4 / 2 x 50 = 79.4%.
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Battery UPS
Control of upstream harmonics

UPS and upstream harmonics
Role of the input rectifier
UPS units draw power from the AC distribution system via a rectifier/ charger. With respect to the upstream system, the rectifier is a non-linear load that causes harmonics. In terms of harmonics, there are two types of rectifiers. Harmonics are controlled by using a filter (see figure 11).
PFC-type transitor-based controlled active rectifiers

These transistor-based active rectifiers have a regulation system that adjusts the input voltage and current to a reference sine wave. This technique ensures an input voltage and current that are: Perfectly sinusoidal, i.e. free of harmonics, In phase, i.e. with a power factor close to 1. With this type of rectifier, no filters are required. Clean transitor-based rectifiers.
Standard rectifiers
These are three-phase rectifiers incorporating SCRs and using a sixphase bridge (Graetz bridge) with standard chopping of the current. This type of bridge draws harmonic currents with orders of n = 6 k 1 (where k is a whole number), mainly H5 and H7, and to a lesser degree H11 and H13.
Figure 11: Input rectifier and harmonics..
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Battery UPS
Filtering of upstream harmonics for UPS with Graetz bridge rectifiers

Goals of harmonic filtering
This section concerns only a UPS with conventional Graetz bridge rectifiers. A clean upstream system The goal is to ensure a level of voltage distortion (THDU) on the busbars supplying the UPS that is compatible with the other connected loads. The UTE recommends limiting the THDU to: 5% when the source is a generator, 3% when the source is a transformer to take into account 1 to 2% of THDU which may already be present on the HV distribution system. This recommendation may differ for each country. Practically speaking, solutions for voltage distortion (THDU) must be implemented in a manner specific to the country where the installation is located. Easy combination with an engine generator set The goal is to make possible a UPS/engine generator set combination with no risk of increasing the level of harmonics when the load is transferred to the generator. This risk exists because the generator has a source impedance lower than that of a transformer, which increases the effects of harmonics.
High power factor at the rectifier input The goal is to increase the input power factor (generally to a level higher than 0.94). This reduces the consumption of kVA and avoids oversizing the sources. Installation complying with standards The goal is to comply with standards concerning harmonic disturbances and with the recommendations issued by power utilities. Standards on harmonic disturbances (see table 5): - IEC 61000-3-2 / EN 61000-3-2 for devices with an input current 16 A/ph, - IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-4 for devices with an input current > 16 A/ph. Standards and recommendations on the quality of distribution systems, notably: - IEC 61000-3-5 / EN 61000-3-5, - EN 50160 (Europe), - IEEE 519-2 (United States), - ASE 3600 (Switzerland), - G5/3 (U.K.), etc. Standards on harmonics, see UPS standards in page 145. Table 5. Example of harmonic-current limitations as per guide IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-4 for devices with an input current > 16 A/ph (stage 1, simplified connection).
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Battery UPS
Harmonic H3 H5 H7 H9 H11 H13 H15 H17 H19 H21 H23 H25 H27 H29 H31 H33 Even orders
% of H1 (fundamental) 21.6% 10.7% 7.2% 3.8% 3.1% 2.0% 0.7% 1.2% 1.1% 0.6% 0.9% 0.8% 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% or 8/n (n even order)
Filtering and parallel connection

When a number of UPS units are connected in parallel and depending on the type of filter used, it is possible to install: an individual filter on each UPS unit, a common filter for the entire parallel configuration. The goal is to achieve a balance between cost and effectiveness, taking into account the acceptable levels of harmonic distortion. The comparison tables for the various solutions (page 29) are helpful in making a selection.
Combination of LC filters and generator

The generator can supply only relatively low capacitive currents (10 to 30% of In). When an LC filter is installed, the main difficulty lies in the gradual start-up of the rectifier on generator power, when active power is equal to zero and the generator supplies only the capacitive current for the filter. Consequently, the use of LC filters must be correctly analysed to ensure that operation complies with manufacturer specifications. Below is a method for selection of LC filters, using as an example a generator derating curve, similar to those provided by manufacturers.
Table 5..
Types of harmonics filters

Harmonics filters eliminate certain orders or all orders, depending on their technology. The following types are available. Passive LC filters: Non-compensated, Compensated, Non-compensated with contactor. Double-bridge rectifier Phase-shift filter THM active filter (Active 12-pulse technology)
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Battery UPS
Figure 12: Derating curve for a generator, as a function of the installation power factor..
The curve in figure 12, provided as one example among many, shows the power derating as a function of the operating point, for a given generator. For a purely capacitive load = 0), the power available is equal to only 30% of the rated power (point A). If we assume an apparent power rating such that Pn generator = Pn rectifier, the meaning of points A, B, C, D, E and F is the following: A: reactive power corresponding to the capacitive current of a noncompensated filter, B: reactive power corresponding to the capacitive current of a compensated filter, C: operating point at start-up with a non-compensated filter with contactor, D: operating point at the rated load with a non-compensated filter, E: operating point at the rated load with a compensated filter, F: operating point at the rated load, without a filter or with a phase-shift filter. Example Consider a non-compensated filter with a 300 kVA generator and a 200 kVA UPS. The power rating of the rectifier, taking 87% as the efficiency value (1 / 0.87 = 1.15), is 1.15 times that of the inverter, i.e. 200 x 1.15 = 230 kVA. The capacitive current of the noncompensated filter is 230 x 30% (1) = 69 kVA. The reactive power that the generator can handle (point A) is 300 x 0.3 = 90 kVA. The filter is therefore compatible with the generator.
(1) The value of 30% has been determined experimentally.
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Battery UPS
Selection of a filter
Selection parameters for a filter
Overall effectiveness - reduction in distortion (THDI and THDU) The effectiveness depends on the harmonic orders filtered and the degree to which they are attenuated or eliminated. It is measured by the THDI at the rectifier input. The impact on the THDI determines the level of the THDU. It is necessary to check the performance at the planned percent load, given that many UPS systems operate at percent loads between 50 and 75%. Improvement in the power factor The filter improves the power factor (generally to a level higher than 0.92). Compatibility with an engine generator set It is also necessary to check the performance with the planned source(s), either a transformer or an engine generator set. This is because the generator has an output impedance lower than that of a transformer, which increases the effects of harmonics. Suitable for parallel-UPS configurations Depending on the type of filter, it is possible to install one on each UPS unit or set up a single filter for overall elimination of harmonics.
Efficiency Consumption of the filters can slightly modify the efficiency of the installation as a whole. Flexibility for set-up and upgrades Filters are generally specific to a UPS and may be factory-mounted or installed after installation. The conditioner provides overall elimination of harmonics and great flexibility in the configuration. Dimensions It is necessary to check whether the filter can be installed in the UPS cabinet or in a second cabinet. Cost It impacts on the effectiveness of the filter and must be weighed against the advantages obtained. Compliance with standards It is necessary to determine compliance with standards, in particular IEC 61000-3-4, in terms of the individual harmonic levels indicated in the texts.
Comparison table of solutions

The following tables list the elements for comparison, with a general comment on use of each type of solution. Table 6 presents individual solutions for single-UPS configurations. These solutions may also be used in parallel configurations. Table 7 presents overall solutions for entire configurations.
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Battery UPS
Type of filter Criterion
LC noncompensated
AC input
LC compensated
AC input
LC with contactor
AC input
Double ridge
AC input
Built-in THM
AC input THM
L Rectifier Rectifier UPS
Diagram
UPS Load UPS Load UPS Load
Inverter Load Load
Figure A Reduction in distortion THDI at 100% load THDI at 50% load Harmonics eliminated Power factor at 100% load at 50% load Compatibility with generator Efficiency of filter Flexibility, upgradeability Cost Dimensions
Figure B
Figure C
Figure D
Figure E
7 to 8% 10% H5, H7 0.95 1 * *** * *** *** *
7 to 8% 10% H5, H7 0.95 1 ** *** * *** *** *
7 to 8% 10% H5, H7 0.95 1 ** *** * *** *** *
10% 15% H5, H7, H17, H19 0.85 0.8 ** * * * * *
4% 5% H2 to H25 0.94 0.94 *** ** *** ** *** **
Connection in parallel with UPS
Rectifier Rectifier Rectifier Rectifier

UPS UPS UPS
UPS
UPS
UPS
UPS
Inverter
Inverter
Figure F Compliance with guide IEC 61000-3-4 no

Solution suitable for installations without an engine generator set.
Figure G no
Solution suitable for installations with an engine generator set. The added inductor load reduces the capacitive power that must be supplied by the engine-generator set.
Figure H no
Solution suitable for installations comprising an engine generator set with a power rating lower than that of the UPS. The LC line is switched in by the contactor at a preset value corresponding to an inverter percent load that is acceptable for the engine generator set.
Figure I no
Solution suitable for installations with gensets
Figure J yes
Solution suited to sensitive installations or with changing load levels. The most effective and the most flexible solution. Does not depend on the percent load or the type of upstream source.
General comment
*** Excellent
** Good
*Sufficient
Table 6: Comparison of individual harmonic-filtering solutions..
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Battery UPS
Type of filter Criterion
SineWave
AC input SW AC input
Phase-shift filter
AC input
AC input
Diagram
Load
Load
Load
Load
Figure AA Reduction in distortion THDI at 100% load THDI at 50% load Harmonics eliminated Power factor at 100% load at 50% load Compatibility with generator Efficiency of filter Flexibility, upgradeability Cost Dimensions Compliance with guide IEC 61000-3-4
Figure BB < 10% 35% with 1 UPS shut down
Figure CC < 5% 19% with 1 UPS shut down
Figure DD < 4% 12% with 1 UPS shut down
4% 5% H2 to H25 0.95 1 *** *** *** *** *** yes

Solution suited to sensitive installations or with changing load levels. The most effective and the most flexible solution. Does not depend on the percent load or the type of upstream source.
0.8 0.8 ** ** * *** * yes

Solution cannot be modified. Suited to installations with more than two parallel-connected UPS units.
General comment
*** Excellent
** Good
* Sufficient
Table 7: Comparison of overall solutions..
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Battery UPS
System earthing arrangements

Background information on system earthing arrangements
Protection of persons against electrical contact
International standards require that electrical installations implement two types of protection of persons against the dangers of electrical currents. Protection against direct contacts The purpose of this form of protection is to avoid direct contact between persons and intentionally live parts (see figure 13). It includes the points listed below. Isolation of live parts using barriers or enclosures offering a degree of protection at least equal to IP2X or IPXXB. Opening of the enclosure (doors, racks, etc.) must be possible only using a key or a tool, or following de-energising of the live parts or automatic installation of a screen. Connection of the metal enclosure to a protective conductor. Protection against indirect contacts and system earthing arrangements The purpose of this form of protection is to avoid indirect contact between persons and exposed conductive parts (ECP) that have become live accidentally due to an insulation fault. The fault current creates in the exposed conductive parts (ECP) a potential that may be sufficient to cause a dangerous current to flow through the body of the person in contact with the exposed conductive parts (see figure 13). This protection includes the points listed below. Mandatory earthing of all exposed conductive parts (ECP) that may be accessed by the user. The protective conductor is used for connection to the earth. It must never be interrupted (no breaking devices on the protective conductor). The interconnection and earthing techniques for the exposed conductive parts (ECP) determine the system earthing arrangement (SEA) for the installation. Disconnection of the supply when the potential of the ECPs risks reaching dangerous levels. Interruption is carried out by a protection device that depends on the selected system earthing arrangement (SEA). It often requires residual-current devices (RCD) because the insulationfault currents are generally too low to be detected by standard overcurrent protection devices.
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Battery UPS
Figure 13: Direct and indirect contacts..
Types of system earthing arrangements (SEA)

There are three types of system earthing arrangements (SEA): Isolated neutral (IT), Earthed neutral (TT), Exposed conductive parts connected to the neutral (TN with TN-C and TN-S). The first two letters indicate how the neutral and the ECPs of the loads are connected.
First letter Connection of the neutral T = earthed neutral I = isolated neutral
Second letter Connection of the ECPs T = exposed conductive parts earthed N = exposed conductive parts connected to the neutral
Third letter (for TN) Type of protective conductor C = Common neutral and protective conductor (PEN) S = Separate neutral (N) and protective conductor (PE) TN-C or TN-S
IT, TT or TN systems
Table 8..
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Battery UPS
System earthing arrangements (SEA)

Isolated neutral (IT)
Figure 14: IT system..

Earthed neutral (TT)
Figure 15: TT system..
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Battery UPS
Exposed conductive parts connected to the neutral (TN)
Figure 16: TN-S system (the basic principle is identical for the TN-C system)..
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Comparison of system earthing arrangements (SEA)

Type of SEA IT (isolated neutral) Signalling of first insulation fault. Location and elimination of the first fault. Disconnection for the second fault. Interconnection and earthing of ECPs. First fault: - very low current, - monitoring/indication by an IMD. Second fault: - potentially dangerous current, - interruption by overcurrent protection devices (e.g. circuit breaker). TT (earthed neutral) Disconnection for the first insulation fault. TN-S (ECP to neutral) TN-C (ECP to neutral)
Operation
Disconnection Disconnection for the first for the first insulation fault insulation fault. occurs. Common neutral Separate neutral and protective (N) and protective conductor (PEN). conductor (PE). Interconnection and earthing of ECPs and neutral imperative. First fault: - fault current, - interruption by overcurrent protection devices (e.g. circuit breaker). Interconnection and earthing of ECPs and neutral imperative. First fault: - fault current, - interruption by overcurrent protection devices (e.g. circuit breaker).
Protection of persons
Earthing of ECPs combined with use of residualcurrent devices (RCD). First fault: - leakage current is dangerous, but too low to be detected by the overcurrent protection devices, - detection by the RCDs combined with breaking devices. Residual-current devices (RCD). Easiest solution to design and install. Mandatory use of RCDs. Different earth electrodes (distant sources). Highly sensitive to lightning strikes.
Specific equipment
Insulation-monitoring device (IMD) and fault-locating device. Solution offering the best continuity of service (the first fault is signalled). Requires competent surveillance personnel (location of the first fault). High EMC performance, very low currents in the earth cable.
For long distances, RCDs must be used. High installation costs for high power ratings. Difficult to design (calculation of the loop impedances). Flow of high fault currents. High EMC performance, low current in the PE during normal operation. Reduced installation costs (one less conductor). Difficult to design (calculation of the loop impedances). Flow of high fault currents. Low EMC performance, high currents in the PEN (connections between ECPs).
Advantages and disadvantages EMC
Use
Installations Commercial requiring continuity and residential of service, e.g. premises, public hospitals, airports, lighting, schools, industrial processes, etc. ships. Installations and premises where there is a risk of fire or explosion, i.e. mines, etc.
Large commercial Large commercial premises, tall premises, tall buildings, etc. buildings, etc. Industries without Industries without continuous continuous processes processes (IT system). (IT system). Supply of Supply of computer systems. computer systems.
Table 9..
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Battery UPS
Applications in UPS installations

Specific aspects in systems with UPS
Implementation of the aforementioned protection systems in installations comprising a UPS requires a number of precautions for a number of reasons: The UPS plays two roles: - a load for the upstream system, - a power source for the downstream system, When the battery is not installed in a cabinet, an insulation fault on the DC system can lead to the flow of a residual DC component. This component can disturb operation of certain protection devices, notably RCDs used for the protection of persons.
downstream system, either the same or a different one, depends on its compatibility with sensitive loads. Table 9 provides the necessary elements to compare the various standardised system earthing arrangements. Caution, local regulations may prohibit certain types of system earthing arrangements. Selection of the breaking devices Above and beyond the interconnection and earthing of the exposed conductive parts in compliance with a standardised system earthing arrangement, the protection of persons must be ensured by breaking devices selected according to the system earthing arrangement. These devices must cause tripping of the overcurrent protection devices in the event of an insulation fault. Tripping may: be directly provoked by suitable settings on the overprotection devices (circuit breakers, fuses), or require (mandatory for the IT system) use of residual-current devices (RCD) that may or may not be built into the circuit breaker. The RCDs are required to detect the insulation-fault currents that are often too low to trip standard overcurrent protection devices. Check local requirements concerning the safety of electrical installations.
Protection against direct contact

When the battery is not installed in a cabinet (generally in a special room), the measures presented at the end of this section should be implemented.
Protection against indirect contact

Selection of a system earthing arrangement A basic protection measure required by the standards is the creation of a standardised system earthing arrangement both upstream and downstream of the UPS. The two systems can be the same or different if certain precautions are taken. In an existing installation to which the UPS is added, the upstream system is already determined. Selection of the
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Battery UPS
Types of systems for UPS

The possible systems depend on: The existing or selected system upstream of the UPS, The system downstream of the UPS for which selection may be determined by: - reuse of the same system as upstream, - the presence of isolation transformers upstream or downstream which make it possible to change the system earthing arrangement, - the loads (e.g. computer systems require a TN-C or TN-s system), - the organisation of the downstream distribution system, with static transfer switches (STS), Certain requirements imposed by standards, e.g. the protective conductor PE or PEN must never be interrupted to ensure flow of the fault current. A TN-C system (non-interrupted PEN) can be installed upstream of a TN-S system (separate N and PE conductors), but not the contrary.
UPS are increasingly designed without transformers, offering advantages in terms of weight, size and efficiency. Transformerless technology also makes it possible to modulate the voltage for improved adapatation to all types of loads, in particular nonlinear loads with harmonics. Transformerless technology has an impact on the use of system earthing arrangements. For more information see White Paper - WP 98: The Elimination of Isolation Transformers in Data Center Power Systems). Many different cases may be encountered depending on the upstream and downstream earthing arrangements and the type of UPS. Your Caterpillar representative has a complete set of diagrams for all system earthing arrangements and UPS ranges concerned. The ranges are designed with isolation transformers. All the other ranges use transformless technology with the neutral recreated electronically. The following pages show some examples, contact your Caterpillar representative to obtain the applicable diagram.
Figure 17: Standard diagrams..
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Battery UPS
Identical systems upstream and downstream
Figure 18: A few examples with the same system upstream and downstream..
Different systems upstream and downstream
Figure 19: A few examples with different systems downstream..
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Battery UPS
Protection
Protection using circuit breakers
The protection system for installations with UPS units presented here will implement circuit breakers. Below is a presentation of the main characteristics of circuit breakers and their trip units. Comparison Thermal-magnetic trip units are simple and inexpensive. Electronic trip units offer more precise and comprehensive settings for better adaptation to installations and their requirements. Table 10 sums up the characteristics of both types of trip units for circuitbreakers from 1 to 630 A and should enable you to solve most of the problems commonly encountered (from 1 to 400 kVA). Figure 20 presents the characteristic curves for the trip units.
Definition Overload current setting. Applies a long tripping delay (e.g. for motor starting). Short-circuit current setting. On electronic trip units, Isd is a function of Ir (generally 2 to 10 Ir). Applies a short tripping delay (e.g. for time discrimination with downstream circuit breaker). Instantaneous short-circuit setting. Depends exclusively on trip-unit rating (e.g. protection of static switches). Availability All trip units. Electronic trip units (e.g. Micrologic 2, 5, 6). All trip units. Electronic trip units (e.g. Micrologic 5, 6). Electronic trip units (e.g. Micrologic 5, 6).
Trip units
Technology There are two types of trip units: Thermal-magnetic, Electronic. Construction Built-in (thermal-magnetic only), Interchangeable.
Protection Overload protection (thermal or long delay) (1) Long delay (2) Short-circuit protection (magnetic or short delay) (3) Short delay (4) Symb. Ir tr Im or Isd
tm or tsd
Short-circuit protection, instantaneous trip (5)
Ii
(1) Ir is the thermal protection threshold (sometimes written Ith) of thermal-magnetic trip units or the long-delay protection threshold of electronic trip units. These thresholds are defined by an inverse time curve that depends on the selected setting. (2) tr is the time delay of the long-delay thermal protection for a given value of Ir. (3) Im is the magnetic threshold of thermal-magnetic trip units and Isd the short-delay threshold of electronic trip units. (4) tm is the time delay (adjustable or fixed) of the magnetic protection of thermal-magnetic trip units and tsd the time delay (generally adjustable) of the short-delay protection of electronic trip units. (5) Ii is the instantaneous tripping threshold.
Table 10..
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Battery UPS
Figure 20: Circuit-breaker time/current curves (Icu is the ultimate breaking capacity)..
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Battery UPS
Discrimination, cascading, current limiting

Discrimination Discrimination results from correct circuit-breaker selection and setting such that, if a fault occurs, it trips only the first upstream circuit breaker. Discrimination thus limits the part of the installation affected by the fault to a strict minimum. There are a number of types of discrimination summed up in table 11 and illustrated in figure 20.
Current limiting When a high fault current hits the circuit breaker, the breaker contacts separate under the electrodynamic forces, an arc is created and its resistance limits the shortcircuit energy. Cascading When a short-circuit occurs downstream of the installation (see figure 21), the fault current also flows through the upstream circuit breaker which current limits, thus attenuating the current applied to the downstream circuit breaker. The breaking capacity of the latter is thus reinforced.
Principle The fault current is lower than the upstream threshold setting. Ir upstream > Ir downstream and Im or Isd upstream > Im or Isd downstream. Delays upstream tripping by the longtime (Ir) and short-time (Im or Isd) delay. Arc pressure upstream is not sufficient to trip the upstream circuit breaker, but it is sufficient to trip the downstream circuit breaker. Delays upstream tripping if the shortcircuit is also detected downstream. A pilot wire connects the upstream and downstream trip units.
Discrimination Current discrimination Time discrimination Energy discrimination
Concerns
All types of trip units.
Electronic trip units only (e.g. Micrologic).
Compact NSX and NS.
Zone-selective interlocking
Compact NSX 100 to Masterpact with Micrologic trip units.
Table 11..
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Battery UPS
Breaking capacity
The breaking capacity must be selected just above the short-circuit current that can occur at the point of installation.
Ir and Im thresholds
Table 12 indicates how to determine the Ir and Im thresholds to ensure discrimination, depending on the upstream and downstream trip units.
Figure 21: Upstream/downstream. discrimination and cascading.
Selection of circuit breakers

Rating
The selected rating (rated current) for the circuit breaker must be the one just above the rated current of the protected downstream cable.
Remark: Time discrimination must be implemented by qualified personnel because time delays before tripping increase the thermal stress (I2t) downstream (cables, semiconductors, etc.). Caution is required if tripping of CB2 is delayed using the Im threshold time delay.
Energy discrimination does not depend on the trip unit, only on the circuit breaker. Ir and Im thresholds depending on the upstream and downstream trip units
Type of downstream circuit Downstream trip unit Distribution Asynchronous motor
Ir upstream / Ir downstream ratio all types > 1.6 >3
Im upstream / Im downstream ratio magnetic >2 >2
Im upstream / Im downstream ratio electronic > 1.5 > 1.5
Table 12..
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Battery UPS
Special case of generator shortcircuits

Figure 22 shows the reaction of a generator to a short-circuit. To avoid any uncertainty concerning the type of excitation, we will trip at the first peak (3 to 5 In as per X"d) using the Im protection setting without a time delay.
Example
Consider the example used to determine the UPS power rating (page 17) with a number of parallelconnected 400 V three-phase loads, namely: Computer system - S1 = 4 x 10 kVA, = 0.6, in-rush current 8 In over four periods (80 ms), Variable-speed drive - S2 = 20 kVA, = 0.7, in-rush current 4 In over five periods (100 ms), Isolation transformer - S3 = 20 kVA UPS was selected, = 0.8, in-rush current 10 In over six periods (120 ms). The three loads represent 54 kW with a power factor of 0.68. On page 20, 100 kVA UPS was selected, I = 100 / (400 x 3) = 144 A.
Figure 22: Generator during a short-circuit..
Figure 23: Example of an installation..
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Battery UPS
The goal is to select circuit breakers CB1 and CB2, and the most powerful circuit breaker CB3 compatible with discrimination requirements, given that the upstream installation includes the following: 20 kV / 400 V transformer with a power rating of 630 kVA, 400 V engine generator set with a power rating of 400 kVA, Transformer to MLVS link, five meters of aluminium cable 4 x 240 mm2 per phase, Busbars to circuit breaker link, four meters using three copper bars 400 mm2 per phase.
Calculation of CB1 and CB2 ratings and breaking capacities

The breaking capacity depends on the short-circuit currents downstream of CB1 and CB2 at the level of the main low-voltage switchboard (MLVS). Most often, this upstream short-circuit value is supplied by the utility. It can also be calculated. It is necessary to determine the sum R of the resistances upstream and the sum X of the reactances upstream of the considered point. The three-phase short-circuit current is calculated as: Isc 3-ph = U 3 R2 + X2 U is the phase-to-phase no-load voltage (load voltage + 3 to 5%). R = Rupstream and X = Xupstream In this example, we simply indicate the general method with a number of simplifications to shorten the calculations.
Figure 24: Calculation of short-circuit current for CB1 and CB2..

It is necessary to calculate the resistances and reactances upstream of CB1 and CB2 in figure 23.
Battery UPS
Distribution system upstream of the transformer Psc = upstream short-circuit power = 500 MVA = 500 x 106 VA U20 = phase-to-phase no-load voltage on the transformer secondary winding = 400 V, + 3%, i.e. 410 V Rup = resistance upstream 15% Xup, negligible given Xup Xup = reactance upstream with respect to transformer secondary winding Xup = U202 Psc = 4102 500 x 106 = 0.288 m
Rup 0 and Xup = 0.33 m. Transformer Sn = rated apparent power 630 kVA In = rated current = 630 / U 3 = 630 103 / (400 x 3) = 909 A Usc = transformer short-circuit voltage = 4% Pcu = transformer copper losses in VA Rtr = transformer resistance = Pcu 3 In2 Xtr Ztr = transformer impedance = Rtr 0 and Xtr = 10.7 m. Cables linking the transformer to the MLVS Length 5 meters Cross-section 240 mm = resistivity at the normal temperature of the conductors copper: = 22.5 m.mm2/m, aluminium: = 36 m.mm2/m Xc = conductor reactance (typically 0.08 m/m) = 0.08 x 5 = 0.4 m Rc = cable resistance (copper) = Rc = 0.12 m and Xc = 0.4 m. General circuit breaker Typical values Rd 0 et Xd = 0.15 m. Busbars Xb = busbar reactance (typically 0.15 m/m) = 0.15 x 4 = 0.6 m Rb = busbar resistance = L / S= 22.5 x 4 / (3 x 400) = 0.075 m (negligible) Rb 0 and Xb = 0.6 m.
20% Xtr, negligible given Ztr U202 Sn x Usc = 4102 x 0.04 / 630 103 = 10.7 m
L S
= 22.5 x 5 / (4 x 240) = 0.12 m
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Battery UPS
Transformer Isc at the level of CB1 and CB2 R = Total upstream resistance = 0.12 m X = Total upstream reactance = 0.33 + 10.7 + 0.4 + 0.15 + 0.6 =12.18 m R can be neglected, given X. Isc 3-ph = U 3 R2 + X2 U 410 = 19.4 kA 3 X 3 x 12.18 x 10-3
Note: A rough estimate is provided by the short-circuit current on the transformer terminals, assuming that the upstream short-circuit power is infinite.
ISCT = on transformer terminals = In / Usc = 20 In = 20 x 909 = 18.2 kA Generator Isc at the level of CB1 and CB2 Rated apparent power of the generator = 400 kVA Rated current of the generator = 400 / U 3 = 400 103 / (400 x 3) = 577 A X"d = short-circuit voltage of the generator = 10% It is decided to trip at 5 In (figure 22). ISCG = on the generator terminals = 5 In = 5 x 577 = 2.9 kA Continuous current of CB1 This is the current at the UPS input. It is necessary to multiply the UPS rating by 1.2 to take into account the efficiency, i.e. 120 kVA. Iinput = 120 / U 3 = 120 103 / (400 x 3) = 173 A Continuous current of CB2 This is the continuous current of the loads supplied via the bypass, i.e. 54 kW with a power factor of 0.68 for an apparent power S = 54 / 0.68 = 67.5 kVA. Iload = 67.5 / U 3 = 120 103 / (400 x 3) = 97 A Energising current of the largest load The loads must be energised at different times. The highest inrush current is that of the 20 kVA transformer, i.e. In = 28.8 A and 10 In = 288 A - 120 ms. Calculation of the maximum static-switch current This is the short-circuit current at the level of CB3, which is practically that of CB2. Selection parameters Table 13 sums up the various values calculated.
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Battery UPS
Parameter Transformer short-circuit current Generator short-circuit current Rectifier current (UPS input) Continuous load current downstream of the UPS Energizing current of the largest load Maximum static-switch current
Value 19.4 kA 2.9 kA 173 A 97 A 288 A - 120 ms 19.4 kA
Characteristics of CB1 and CB2

Characteristic Breaking capacity Continuous current Ir threshold Im threshold D1 > 19.4 kA, i.e. 25 kA > 173 A, i.e. 200 A > 173 A +20% > 173 A + 20% and < 2.9 kA - 20% D2 > 19.4 kA, i.e. 25 kA > 97 A, i.e. 125 A > 97 A + 20% > 288 A +20% and < 2.9 kA - 20%
20% represents here the typical tolerance range of circuit-breaker settings.
Table 13..
Characteristics of the most power circuit breaker CB3 possible
Figure 25: Calculation of the short-circuit current at CB3..
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Battery UPS
Operation with bypass power Breaking capacity The highest short-circuit current downstream of CB3 is virtually that of CB2 because it is assumed that the outgoing circuits are near the UPS. Consequently, the breaking capacity of CB3 is also 25 kA. The rating is determined by the largest load, i.e. the 4 x 10 kVA of the computer system with a continuous current of: Iload = 40 / U 3 = 40 103 / (400 x 3) = 57 A A 60 A device should be selected.
Settings A majority of the loads is of the distribution type, i.e. the Ir threshold of CB3 must be less than 97 A / 1.6, i.e. < 61 A. The Im threshold must be less than 1847 / 2, i.e. < 900 A. Operation without bypass power In this case, the short-circuited UPS limits its current to 2.33 In for one second.
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Battery UPS
Cables
Selection of cable sizes
Cable temperature rise and voltage drops
The cross section of cables depends on: Permissible temperature rise, Permissible voltage drop. For a given load, each of these parameters results in a minimum permissible cross section. The larger of the two must be used. When routing cables, care must be taken to maintain the required distances between control circuits and power circuits, to avoid any disturbances caused by HF currents.
Voltage drops
Maximum values The maximum permissible voltage drops are: 3% for AC circuits (50 or 60 Hz), 1% for DC circuits. Selection tables Table 14 indicates the voltage drop in percent for a circuit made up of 100 meters of copper cable. To calculate the voltage drop in a circuit with a length L, multiply the value in the table by L/100. If the voltage drop exceeds 3% on a three-phase circuit or 1% on a DC circuit, increase the cross section of the conductors until the value is within tolerances. Voltage drop for 100-meter cables Sph - the cross section of the conductors, In - rated current of the protection devices on the circuit.
Temperature rise
Permissible temperature rise in cables is limited by the withstand capacity of cable insulation. Temperature rise in cables depends on: The type of core (Cu or Al), The installation method, The number of touching cables. Standards stipulate, for each type of cable, the maximum permissible current.
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Battery UPS
Three-phase circuit (copper conductors) 50-60 Hz - 400 V three-phase, cos = 0.8, balanced 3-ph + N system
Sph (mm2) In (A) 10 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 70 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 600 800 1000
For a three-phase 230 V circuit, multiply the result by 3. For a single-phase 208/230 V circuit, multiply the result by 2.
10 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.1 5.1 5.7 6.5 8.2
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
1.1 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.3 3.7 4.2 5.3 6.6 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.4 4.3 5.5 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.2 4.3 5.3 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.4 3.2 3.9 4.9 0.9 1.0 1.2 2.0 2.4 3.2 3.9 4.9 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.4 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.5 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.6 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.9 4.9 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.2 5.3 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.4 6.5 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.4 3.0 3.8 4.7
DC Circuit (Copper Conductors)

Sph (mm2) In (A) 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 600 800 1000 1250 25 5.1 35 3.6 4.5 50 2.6 3.2 4.0 70 1.9 2.3 2.9 3.6 95 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.3 120 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.4 150 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.4 185 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.8 3.4 4.3 240 0.5 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.3 4.2 5.3 300 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.2 5.3
Table 14..
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Battery UPS
Special case for neutral conductors

In three-phase systems, the thirdorder harmonics (and their multiples) of single phase loads add up in the neutral conductor (sum of the currents on the three phases). For this reason, the following rule is applied - neutral cross section = 1.5 x phase cross section.
Example of an installation
Calculation example
Consider a 70-meter 400 V three-phase circuit, with copper conductors and a rated current of 600 A. Standard IEC 60364 indicates, depending on the installation method and the load, a minimum cross section. We shall assume that the minimum cross section is 95 mm2. It is first necessary to check that the voltage drop does not exceed 3%. The table for three-phase circuits indicates, for a 600 A current flowing in a 300 mm2 cable, a voltage drop of 3% for 100 meters of cable, i.e. for 70 meters: 3 x 70/100 = 2.1%, less than the 3% limit. A identical calculation can be run for a DC current of 1000 A in a 10-meter cable with a cross section of 240 mm. The voltage drop for 100 meters is 5.3%, i.e. for ten meters: 5.3 x 10/100 = 0.53%, less than the 1% limit.
Figure 26: Connection of cables..
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Battery UPS
Energy storage
Storage technologies
Energy storage in UPS
A UPS requires an energy-storage system to supply the inverter with power if utility power fails or is no longer within tolerances. The stored energy must have the following characteristics: Electricity that is immediately available to ride through microbreaks, short voltage drops and utility outages, Sufficient power level to supply the entire load, i.e. a rating equivalent to that of the UPS system itself, Backup time, generally about ten minutes, suited to the needs of the loads and to any other sources available (e.g. an engine generator set for long backup times).
Available technologies
The various technologies currently available are the following: Batteries: - sealed lead-acid, - vented lead-acid, - nickel cadmium, Ultracapacitors, Flywheels: - traditional units turning at low speeds (1500 rmp) and combined with engine generator sets, - medium-speed (7000 rpm) or high-speed (30 to 100 000 rpm) units.
Comparison of technologies
Batteries are by far the most commonly employed solution today. They are the dominant solution due to low cost, proven effectiveness and storage capacity, but nonetheless have a number of disadvantages in terms of size, maintenance and the environment. Ultracapacitors do not yet offer the necessary performance levels.
Figure 27: Simplified diagram of a. UPS with backup energy storage.
Flywheels operating at high speeds constitute a possible technology in terms of their power ratings (40 to 500 kW), for short backup times (12 seconds to 1 minute). Figure 28 shows the fields of application for the different technologies.
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Battery UPS
Figure 28: Characteristics in terms of power ratings and backup times..

Table 15 compares the different solutions in terms of their capacity to meet the energystorage requirements of static UPS.
Criteria for comparison Sealed lead- Vented leadacid batteries acid batteries Power **** *** 5 minutes up to several hours **** low *** no **** Technology Ni/Cad batteries **** Ultracapacitors * * a few seconds Flywheels *** ** a few dozen seconds
Backup time
**** * 5 minutes up 5 minutes up to several to several hours dozen minutes *** low to medium ** yes ** medium * yes
Purchase price Implementation / installation / start-up Requires a special room Temperature Service life Footprint Maintenance Frequency / time required Maturity of the technology for UPS
**** Excellent *** Good
* high **** no
* high ** no
* ** ** ** medium ****
** Fair * Poor
* ** ** ** medium ****
** *** ** * high ****
**** **** **** **** none **
*** *** *** *** low ***
Table 15,.
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Battery UPS
Selection of a battery
Types of batteries
The batteries most frequently used in a UPS are: Sealed lead-acid, also called gasrecombination batteries, Vented lead-acid, Nickel cadmium. Lithium-polymer batteries are currently being studied for use in also. Solutions using this technology should be available in two to three years. Types of batteries, see page 149 Energy storage - Types of batteries . Selection of a battery depends on the following factors: Operating conditions and requirements (special room, battery cabinet, racks, etc.), Required backup time, Cost considerations.
The following general rules apply. Computer systems Battery backup time must be sufficient to cover file-saving and system-shutdown procedures required to ensure a controlled shutdown of the computer system. Generally speaking, the computer department determines the necessary backup time, depending on its specific requirements. Industrial processes The backup-time calculation should take into account the economic cost incurred by an interruption in the process and the time required to restart. Applications requiring long backup times An engine generator set can back up a battery if long outages occur, thus avoiding the need for very large batteries. Generally speaking, use of an engine generator set becomes feasible for backup times greater than 30 minutes to one hour. The combination must be carefully studied to optimise the generator rating and ensure correct operation. Combination with an engine generator set, see page 153 Engine generator set .
Backup time
Manufactures typically offer: Standard backup times of 5, 10, 15 or 30 minutes, Custom backup times that can reach a number of hours. Selection depends on: The average duration of powersystem failures, Any available sources offering long backup times (engine generator set, etc.), The type of application.
Service life
Battery manufactures provide batteries with service lives of 5 or 10 years or longer. Battery service life, see page 150.
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Battery UPS
Comparison between types of batteries

Sealed lead-acid batteries (gasrecombination) These are the most commonly used batteries for the following reasons: No maintenance, Easy implementation, Installation in all types of rooms (computer rooms, technical rooms not specifically intended for batteries, etc.). Vented batteries This type of battery (lead-acid or Ni/Cad) offers certain advantages: Long service life, Long backup times, High power ratings. Vented batteries must be installed in special rooms complying with precise regulations (see page 58 Preliminary work) and require appropriate maintenance.
Limitation of the battery current, Continuous evaluation of available power taking into account the battery age, the temperature and the percent load, Forecast of battery service life, Periodic, automatic tests on the battery, including a check on the battery circuit, an open-circuit test, a partial-discharge test, etc. DigiBat, see page 151 Battery Management . Environment sensor unit Battery operating parameters and particularly the temperature affect battery life. The Environment Sensor, easy to install and combined with a Network Management card (SNMP/Web), makes possible monitoring of temperature/humidity and the status of two contacts via SNMP or the web. It also initiates equipment shutdown if necessary.
Battery monitoring
Battery monitoring on UPS
DigiBatTM The DigiBatTM battery-monitoring system is an assembly of hardware and software, which offers the following functions: Automatic entry of battery parameters, Optimised battery service life, Protection against excessive discharges, Regulation of the battery floating voltage depending on the temperature,
Detection and prevention of battery failure for UPSs

In spite of the advantages of sealed lead-acid batteries, over time, all batteries will fail due to aging. Without rigorous monitoring, the true integrity and capacity of a battery remains unknown. Battery-monitoring techniques have a major impact on reliability and can be used to define the best strategy for replacement, resulting in a better level of protection.
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Battery UPS
Human-machine interface and communication

Human-machine interface (HMI)
General characteristics
The human-machine interface on the UPS must be user-friendly, easy to use and multi-lingual (adjustable to the user's language). It is generally made up of a mimic panel, a status and control panel, and an alphanumeric display. A passwordprotected personalisation menu may be available for entry of installation parameters and access to detailed information. A screen providing: Access to measurements: - input power (voltage, current, frequency), - battery (voltage, charge and discharge currents, remaining backup time, temperature), - inverter output (phase-toneutral voltage, current, frequency, active and apparent power, crest factor), Access to history logs: - log containing time-stamped events, - curves and bargraphs of the measured values.
Example
The HMI typically offers the following functions: On and Off buttons: Delayed to avoid erroneous operations, With an option for a remote EPO (emergency power off), Independent with respect to the rest of the display. Status LEDs that clearly identify: Normal operation (load protected), Downgraded operating mode (malfunction), Dangerous situations for the load (load not protected), Operation on battery power. Alarms: Alarm buzzer and buzzer reset button, Battery shutdown warning, General alarm, Battery fault.
Communication
High availability for critical applications requires communicating protection equipment
The UPS system, essential for mission-critical equipment, must include communication features that keep operators continously informed, wherever they may be, of any risk of compromising the operating security of the system so that they can take immediate action. To ensure power availability, the UPS communication features provide the following four essential functions: Supervision / monitoring of all installed UPS via software. Notification via the network and the Internet. Controlled shutdown (local or remote, automatic or manual) of protected applications.
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Battery UPS
Solutions
Communication cards Network management card (Ethernet) - web monitoring - email notification - SNMP MIB and Traps - server protection with Network Shutdown Module - supervision with Enterprise Power Manager or ISX Central - environment monitoring with Environment Sensor (T, H%, Inputs)
Modbus Jbus card (RS232 and RS485) - monitoring Relay card (Contacts) - indications
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Battery UPS
Preliminary work
Installation considerations
The main elements that must be taken into account for the UPS installation are the following: Plans for site modifications, any preliminary work (notably for a battery room), taking into account: - the dimensions of equipment, - operating and maintenance conditions (accessibility, clearances, etc.), - temperature conditions that must be respected, - safety considerations, - applicable standards and regulations, Ventilation or air-conditioning of rooms, Creation of a battery room.
Ventilation, air-conditioning
Ventilation requirements UPS are designed to operate within a given temperature range (typically 0 to 40C) that is sufficient for most operating conditions without modifications. However, UPS and their auxiliary equipment produce heat losses that can, if no steps are taken, increase the temperature of a poorly ventilated room. What is more, the service life of a battery is heavily dependent on the ambient temperature. The service life is optimal for temperatures between 15 C and 25 C. This factor must be taken into account if the battery is installed in the same room as the UPS. A further consideration is the fact that a UPS may be installed in the same room as computer equipment which often has more severe requirements concerning operating-temperature ranges. Selecting a type of ventilation For all the above reasons, a minimum amount of ventilation is required, and where applicable air-conditioning, to avoid any risk of excessive temperature rise in the room due to the heat losses. Ventilation can be by: Natural convection, Forced exchange by a ventilation system, Installation of an air-conditioning unit.
Dimensions
Layout of UPS cabinets and enclosures should be based on precise plans. For each range: The dimensions and weights of: - UPS and centralised-bypass cabinets; - battery cabinets, - any auxiliary cabinets (autotransformers, transformers, filters, etc.), Minimum clearances required for cabinets and enclosures to ensure optimal ventilation and sufficient access.
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Battery UPS
Selection depends on: The heat losses that must be evacuated, The size of the room. The thermal characteristics of a UPS may be used to calculate ventilation needs. They mention for each range: The heat losses of cabinets and any filters installed, The volume of air output by a ventilation system.
Battery installation method

The criteria determining the batteryinstallation method are the following: Available floor space, The weight that the floor can handle (kg/m2), Ease of access and maintenance. The following three methods are used. Battery installed directly on floor This is the most simple arrangement. However, a large battery room is required, given: The large amount of floor space occupied by the battery, The insulated flooring (duck board), which is mandatory if the voltage exceeds 150 volts. Battery on racks The battery cells are installed on a number of different levels, off the floor. When determining the height between each rack, it is necessary to take into account the space required to check battery levels and fill the battery cells easily. A minimum height of 450 mm is recommended. Battery on tiers This installation method is similar to the preceding. It is the most convenient method for checking battery levels.
IP degree of protection and noise level

Degree of protection (IP) A UPS must operate in an environment that is compatible with their degree of protection (IP 20 for a UPS from Caterpillar), defined by standard IEC 60529/EN 60529. The presence of dust, water and corrosive substances must be avoided. Noise level A UPS must produce a low level of noise, suited to the room where they are installed. Measurement conditions for the level of noise indicated by the manufacturer must comply with standard ISO 3746 (measurement of noise).
Battery room
Where possible and if desired, the battery should be installed in a cabinet. Battery-cabinet dimensions are indicated for each UPS range, depending on the rated power. However, for very high-power UPS, batteries are generally installed in special rooms (electrical room). Batteries must be installed in compliance with international standards, local regulations and standard IEC 60364.
Battery room features

Whatever the installation method selected, the battery installation must comply with the following requirements (the numbers indicate the elements shown in figure 29).
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Battery UPS
Floor and walls (1) The floor must slope to an evacuation trough which leads to a holding tank, Protection coating against acid on the floor and walls, up to a height of at least 0.5 meters. For example, asphalt for lead-acid batteries, PVC or chlorine-based paint for alkaline batteries. Ventilation (2) Calculation of throughput The volume of air to be evacuated depends on the maximum load current and the type of battery. In installations comprising a number of batteries, the quantities of air that must be evacuated are cumulative. - vented batteries d = 0.05 x N x Im, where d - throughput in cubic meters per hour, N - number of battery cells, Im - maximum load current in amperes. - sealed battery The ventilation conditions in a general-purpose room are sufficient. Safety An automatic device must stop battery charging if the ventilation system fails. Location Air must be drawn out from the top of the battery room.
Layout of cells (3) Layout must inhibit simultaneous contact with two bare parts presenting a voltage greater than or equal to 150 V. If the condition listed before cannot be met, terminal shields must be installed and connections must be made using insulated cables. Service flooring (4) If the voltage exceeds 150 V, special flooring is required. It must offer sure footing, be insulated from the floor and offer at least one meter of walkway around the battery. Battery connection (5) Connections must be as short a possible. Battery-protection circuit breaker (6) The circuit breaker is generally installed in a wall-mounted enclosure. Fire-fighting equipment (7) Authorized fire extinguishers include power, CO2 or sand. Safety equipment (8) The safety equipment must include protective glasses, gloves and a source of water. Inspection equipment (9) Hydrometer, Filling device, Thermometer. Sensors (10) Hydrogen detector, Temperature sensor.
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Figure 29: Layout of battery room..
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Selection of possible configurations Types of possible configurations

Basic diagrams
Single source
The load is supplied by a single set of UPS.
Multi-source
The load is supplied by more than one set of UPS.
Figure 30: Basic diagrams..
UPS configurations
Single UPS
This is the standard double-conversion UPS (see figure 31). A single UPS can be used to form redundant configurations as shown in diagrams 4 and 11. Single UPS, see page 5 and page 126 UPS components and operation .
Parallel UPS
Purpose of parallel connection Parallel connection of a number of identical UPS units is the means to: Increase the power rating, Establish redundancy that increases MTBF and availability, Make the installation scalable. Two types of UPS units can be connected in parallel: Integrated parallel UPS units: each UPS unit includes an automatic bypass and a manual maintenance bypass (figure 31). The manual bypass may be common to the entire system and located in an external cubicle (e.g. figure 32); Parallel UPS units with a centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC) (e.g. figure 33).
Standard diagrams (see table 16): No. 1 No. 4 No. 11
Figure 31: Double-conversion single UPS..
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Integrated parallel UPS This configuration is upgradeable, starting for instance with one integrated parallel UPS unit equipped with an automatic bypass and a manual maintenance bypass. When starting with two units or when expanding to two units or more, a common maintenance bypass is installed in an external enclosure (see figure 32).
Standard diagrams (see table 16): No. 2 No. 3
Figure 32: Installation with three integrated parallel UPS. units and a common maintenance bypass.
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Parallel UPS units with a centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC) The static-switch cubicle comprises an automatic bypass and a maintenance bypass that are common for a number of modules without a bypass (see figure 33). It is possible to have two redundant SSCs.
Upgrading of this configuration depends on the rating of the static switch. It offers the highest level of reliability (SSC with independent UPS units).
Standard diagrams (see table 16): No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 No. 9
Figure 33: Three parallel UPS units with a centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC)..
Parallel connection with redundancy

The parallel configurations presented earlier may or may not be redundant. Without redundancy All the UPS units are required to supply the load. Failure of one unit means the entire system shuts down.
With active redundancy (N + 1, N + 2, etc.) Only N UPS units are required to supply the load, even though N + 1, N + 2 or more units are installed. This ensures a secure supply of power to the load even if one (for N + 1 redundancy) or two (for N + 2 redundancy) UPS units fail or require maintenance.
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Optimum redundancy of non-modular UPS For non-modular systems, differences in the lengths or tightening torques of cables connecting the different units can lead to problems concerning the impedance upstream and downstream of each UPS. For this reason, the highest MTBF is obtained for redundant systems with just two UPS (figure 34). For modular UPS systems, module interconnections are an integral part of the system, thereby eliminating installation problems that can lower the MTBF as more units are added.
Power distribution units (PDUs) can be used to complete this distribution configuration, offering: Load management, Multi-channel supply of power to the loads (dual attach), Isolation of parts of the installation for maintenance or upgrading. This type of configuration ensures a very high degree of availability and offers a number of installationupgrade possibilities.
Standard diagrams (see table 16): No. 11 No. 12
Figure 34: For non-modular redundant UPS systems,.

the best MTBF is obtained with two units.
Redundant distribution with an STS

All the loads are supplied by more than one UPS source (two single UPS units). Each source can be made up of a number of parallel-connected units offering active redundancy. Use of a static transfer switch (STS) ensures transfer of the load between the sources in the event of a downstream fault (while avoiding any risk of fault propagation) or for maintenance.
Figure 35: Redundant distribution with an STS..
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Selection table and corresponding ranges

Criteria for comparison
Table 16 compares the standard diagrams of this section, mainly related to UPS, according to the following criteria.
Upgradeability
It must be possible to upgrade the installation over time, taking into account both the need to expand the installation gradually and operating requirements.
Availability
A level of availability meeting the needs of the application. Figures are based on: An estimated level of utilitypower availability of 99.9% (the European average), An MTTR of ten hours as per standard MIL-HDB-217-F level 2 (U.S. military) and IEEE.
Discrimination and non-propagation of faults

It must be possible to limit faults to as small a part of the installation as possible, while enabling servicing without stopping operations.
Installation operation and management

Make operations easier by providing the means to anticipate events via installation supervision and management systems.
Maintainability
Ensure easy maintenance of the equipment under safe conditions for personnel and without interrupting operation.
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Single-source configurations
Standard diagram number 1. Single UPS 2. 2 integrated parallel UPS units 3. Integrated parallel units and external maintenance bypass 4. Isolated redundancy 5. Centralised SSC 6. Total isolation, single busbar 7. Total isolation, double busbar 8. Total isolation, single busbar 9. Total isolation, double busbar Criteria for comparison Availability 99.99790% MTBF M1 = 475 000 h Maintainability * Upgradeability 4-parallelconnected UPS units 4-parallelconnected UPS units 4-parallelconnected UPS units Flexible 6-parallelconnected UPS units 6-parallelconnected UPS units 6-parallelconnected UPS units 6-parallelconnected UPS units 6-parallelconnected UPS units Comment Reference for calculations
99.99947%
up to 4 x M1
**
99.99947%
up to 4 x M1
**
99.99970% 99.99968%
6.8 x M1 6.5 x M1
** **
99.99968%
6.5 x M1
***
99.99968%
6.5 x M1
***
99.99968%
6.5 x M1
****
99.99968%
6.5 x M1
****
Multi-source configurations
Standard diagram number 10. Isolated redundancy 11. With STS 12. STS + PDU
**** Excellent
Criteria for comparison Availability 99.99970% 99.99970% 99.99930%

*** Good ** Fair
MTBF 7 x M1 7 x M1 The highest level of availability

* Poor
Maintainability ** **** ****
Upgradeability No limit No limit to the power rating No limit to the power rating
Comment
No propagation of faults + load management
Table 16..
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Diagram no. 1. Single UPS
Figure 36: Double-conversion single-UPS unit.. This is the basic solution for UPS installations. The double-conversion UPS unit supplies high-quality voltage, whatever the level of disturbances in the utility power.
Availability of power for the load 99.99790% and an MTBF of 475 000 hours, compared to a utility MTBF of 96 hours. UPS maintenance Made easy due to the built-in bypass for supply of power to the load during servicing. Possible upgrades On site by connecting several identical UPS units in parallel.
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Diagram no. 2. Active redundancy with two integrated parallel UPS units
Figure 37: Active redundancy with two integrated parallel UPS units.. A simple solution where the UPS units share the load.
Availability of power for the load 99.99947% and an MTBF up to four times higher than that for a single UPS. UPS maintenance During maintenance on one unit, the load remains protected by the other. Possible upgrades Several identical UPS units can be connected in parallel and equipped with an external maintenance bypass. Special characteristics: The automatic-bypass function is ensured by managing the static switches, Centralised monitoring of the various modules, Can be used only with two identical units.
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Diagram no. 3. Active redundancy with integrated parallel UPS units and external maintenance bypass
Figure 38: Active redundancy with integrated parallel. UPS units and external maintenance bypass.
An upgradeable solution where the power rating can be increased up to 4000 kVA*.
Availability 99.99947% and an MTBF up to four times higher than that for a single UPS. UPS maintenance During maintenance on one unit, the load remains protected by the other units. Easy upgrades Several identical UPS units can be connected in parallel for a low cost solution with small dimensions. Special characteristics The UPS units share the load, The automatic-bypass function is ensured by managing the static switches, Centralised monitoring of the various modules, Identical modules must be used.
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Diagram no. 4. Isolated redundancy with two UPS units
Figure 39: Isolated redundancy with two UPS units.. An extremely flexible solution that can combine heterogeneous and distant UPS units. It also offers improved backup time and is perfectly suited to the technology implemented by Caterpillar which provide excellent withstand capacity for load step changes.
Availability 99.99970% and an MTBF 6.8 times higher than that of a single UPS. UPS maintenance During maintenance on one unit, the load remains protected. Special characteristics For a single load, the two UPS units have the same power rating, but if there is a second load (possible load), the rating of the backup UPS unit must be adapted correspondingly; No control wires between the UPS units.
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Diagram no. 5. Active redundancy with parallel units and centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC)
Figure 40: Active redundancy with parallel units and centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC).. The solution for centralised installations up to 4 MVA*. Excellent reliability due to the independence between the units and the staticswitch cubicle (SSC).
Availability 99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5 times higher than that for a single UPS. UPS maintenance During maintenance on one unit, the load remains protected by the other units and the SSC. During maintenance on the SSC, redundancy of the UPS units is maintained. Easy upgrades Up to eight UPS units. Special characteristics The UPS units share the load.
* Power rating for N + 1 reduncancy.
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Diagram no. 6. Active redundancy with parallel UPS units and total isolation, single busbar
Figure 41: Active redundancy with parallel UPS units and total isolation, single busbar.. A solution that can evolve with needs up to 4 MVA*. Excellent reliability and improved maintainability due to the total independence between the UPS units and the static-switch cubicle (SSC).
Availability 99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5 times higher than that for a single UPS. UPS maintenance During maintenance on one unit, the load remains protected by the other units and the SSC. During maintenance on the SSC, redundancy of the UPS units is maintained. Easy upgrades Up to eight UPS units. Special characteristics: Total isolation of the UPS units or the SSC for maintenance, The UPS units can be tested using a test load, Isolation of each UPS unit and the SSC, thus eliminating the single point of failure in the SSC.
* Power rating for N + 1 redundancy.
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Diagram no. 7. Active redundancy with parallel UPS units and total isolation, double busbar
Figure 42: Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, double busbar..
A solution that can evolve with needs up to 4 MVA*. Excellent reliability and improved maintainability due to the total independence between the UPS units, the static-switch cubicle (SSC) and the busbars.
Availability 99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5 times higher than that for a single UPS. UPS maintenance During maintenance on the UPS units and one busbar, the load remains protected by the other units and the SSC, which are parallel-connected to the second busbar. During maintenance on the SSC, redundancy of the UPS units is maintained.
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Easy upgrades Up to eight UPS units. Special characteristics: Transfer from one busbar to the other without disturbing the load, Total isolation of the UPS units or the SSC for maintenance, Isolation of each UPS unit and the SSC, thus eliminating the single point of failure in the SSC.
* Power rating for N + 1 redundancy.
Battery UPS
Diagram no. 8. Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, single busbar
Figure 43: Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, single busbar..
An upgradeable solution offering improved maintainability due to the total redundancy of the UPS units and the static-switch cubicles (SSC).
Availability 99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5 times higher than that for a single UPS.
UPS maintenance During maintenance on the UPS units and one SSC, the load remains protected by the other units and the second SSC. During maintenance on one SSC, redundancy of the UPS units is maintained.
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Easy upgrades Up to eight UPS units. Special characteristics: Only one SSC is active, the other is on stand-by and transfer of the UPS units from one to the other takes place without disturbing the load, During operation on the bypass, the load is split 50/50 between the two SSCs,
Total isolation of each SSC for maintenance, Parallel connection of the UPS units in the output cabinet eliminates the single point of failure in an SSC, The possibility of installing the SSCs in two separate rooms increases system availability in the event of fire or other problems.
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Diagram no. 9. Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, double busbar
Figure 44: Active redundancy with parallel UPS units, double SSC and total isolation, single busbar.. A solution for two evolving loads with different needs in terms of power ratings and redundancy.
Availability 99.99968% and an MTBF up to 6.5 times higher than that for a single UPS. UPS maintenance During maintenance on one UPS unit and one SSC, the load remains protected by the other units and the second SSC. During maintenance on one SSC, redundancy of the UPS units is maintained. Easy upgrades Up to eight UPS units.
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Special characteristics: During operation of only one load, only one SSC is active, the other is on stand-by and transfer of the UPS units from one to the other takes place without disturbing the load, During operation of the two different loads, both SSCs are active, each with a number of assigned UPS units,
Parallel connection of the UPS units in the output cabinet eliminates the single point of failure in an SSC, The possibility of installing the SSCs in two separate rooms increases system availability in the event of fire or other problems.
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Diagram no. 10. Isolated redundancy N + 1
Figure 45: Isolated redundancy N + 1.. Solution combining heterogeneous and distant UPS units to protect a number of independent loads.
Availability of power for the load Greater than 99.99970% and an MTBF up to seven times higher than that for a single UPS. UPS maintenance During maintenance on one UPS unit, the load remains protected. However, the UPS units are not totally isolated (servicing under energised conditions). Possible upgrades No limit to the power rating.
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Short-circuit propagation Impossible between the sources. Special characteristics: Short-circuit capacity is lower than in a configuration with parallel UPS units, (Isc, discrimination, crest factor, etc.), Sizing of the backup UPS must take into account the number of
UPS units downstream, their power ratings and their criticality, as well as any future plans for the installation (generally speaking, the backup UPS has a parallel configuration), All the advantages of isolated redundancy (diagram no. 4).
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Diagram no. 11. Redundant distribution with STS
Figure 46: Redundant distribution with STS units.. The best solution in terms of availability, site operation and safety. It is the only solution that deals with power distribution through to the loads. It is particularly flexible and makes for easy adaptation of redundancy to the needs of the load.
Availability of power for the load Greater than 99.9999%, the highest level of availability! UPS maintenance Total distribution redundancy and servicing under no-load conditions make for maximum safety during maintenance. Easy upgrades Using single-UPS units and with no limit to the total power rating, upgrading is made easy by the capacity to partially isolate distribution subassemblies.
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Fault propagation Load segmenting and the technology employed in STS units (breakbeforemake source transfer with no interruption to the loads) ensures isolation of loads from disturbances caused by other, faulty loads. Easy operation Automatic or manual source transfer. Continuous monitoring of the sources (11 parameters and internal circuits). Secure transfer of desynchronised sources.
Special characteristics: The synchronisation module ensures perfect source synchronisation under all conditions (long outages, etc.), Selection of the load distribution for the UPS units, The UPS units can be heterogeneous and remote from the load.
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Diagram no. 12 . Active redundancy with parallel UPS and a common battery
Figure 47: Redundant distribution with STS units and PDU..
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Redundancy is built into each level, including the PDUs, the STS units, the UPS units and the synchronisation modules.
Same advantages as diagram no. 11, plus: Capacity to enhance the reliability of a particular point in the installation, Four different supply channels to dual-attach servers.
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Elimination of harmonics in installations Harmonics

Definition, origin and types of harmonics
Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal currents or voltages with a frequency that is a whole multiple (k) of the frequency of the distribution system, called the fundamental frequency (50 or 60 Hz). When combined with the sinusoidal fundamental current or voltage respectively, harmonics distort the current or voltage waveform (see figure 48). Harmonics are generally identified as Hk, where k is the harmonic order. IHk or UHk indicate the type of harmonic (current or voltage). IH1 or UH1 designates the sinusoidal current or voltage at 50 or 60 Hz that exists when there are no harmonics (the fundamental current or voltage).
Figure 48: Distortion of H1 (the fundamental) by H3 (third-order harmonic)..
Non-linear loads are the cause

Equipment implementing power electronics is the main cause of harmonics. To supply the electronics with DC power, the equipment has a switch-mode power supply with a rectifier at the input that draws harmonic currents. Examples are computers, variablespeed drives, etc.
Other loads distort the current due to their operating principle and also cause harmonics. Examples are fluorescent lamps, discharge lamps, welding machines and devices with a magnetic core that can be saturated. All the loads that distort the normal sinusoidal current cause harmonics and are called non-linear loads.
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Figure 49: Examples of non-linear loads that cause harmonics..
Linear and non-linear loads

Utility power supplies 50/60 Hz sinusoidal voltage to loads. The current waveform supplied by the source in response to the needs of the load depends on the type of load. Linear loads The current drawn is sinusoidal with the same frequency as the voltage. The current may be displaced (angle ) with respect to the voltage. Ohm's law defines a linear relation between the voltage and the current (U = ZI) with a constant coefficient, the load impedance. The relation between the current and the voltage is linear. Examples are standard light bulbs, heating units, resistive loads, motors, transformers. This type of load does not contain any active electronic components, only resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C).
Non-linear loads The current drawn by the load is periodic, but not sinusoidal. The current waveform is distorted by the harmonic currents. Ohm's law defining the relation between the total voltage and current (1) is no longer valid because the impedance of the load varies over one period (see figure 50). The relation between the current and the voltage is not linear. The current drawn by the load is, in fact, the combination of: - a sinusoidal current called the fundamental, at the 50 or 60 Hz frequency, - harmonics, which are sinusoidal currents with an amplitude less than that of the fundamental, but a frequency that is a multiple of the fundamental and which defines the harmonic order (e.g. the third order harmonic has a frequency 3 x 50 Hz [or 60 Hz]).
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(1) Ohm's law applies to each voltage and current of the same harmonic order, Uk = Zk Ik, where Zk is the load impedance for the given order, but is no longer valid for the total voltage and current.
Linear loads, non-linear loads, see page 6 Power quality of UPS .
Figure 50: Voltage and current for non-linear loads..
Types of harmonics and specific aspects of zero-sequence harmonics

Types of harmonics Non-linear loads cause three types of harmonic currents, all in odd orders (because the sinusoidal is an odd function). Harmonics H7 - H13 - . : positive sequence, Harmonics H5 - H11 - . : negative sequence, Harmonics H3 - H9 - . : zero sequence.
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Specific aspects of zero-sequence harmonics (H3 and multiples) Zero-sequence harmonic currents (H3 and odd multiples, written 3(2k + 1) where k is an integer) in three-phase systems add up in the neutral conductor. This is because their order 3(2k + 1) is a multiple of the number of phases (3), which means they coincide with the displacement (one third of a period) of the phase currents. Figure 51 illustrated this phenomenon over one period. The currents of the three phases are displaced one third of a period (T/3), i.e. the respective IH3 harmonics are in phase and the instantaneous values add up. Consequently: When there are no harmonics, the current in the neutral is equal to zero: IN = I1 + I2+ I3 = 0 When there are harmonics, the current in the neutral is equal to: I1 + I2 + I3 = 3 IH3. It is therefore necessary to pay particular attention to this type of harmonics in installations with a distributed neutral (commercial and infrastructure applications).
Figure 51: The third-order harmonics and. their multiples add up in the neutral.
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Figure 52: When there are H3 harmonics and their odd multiples, the current in the. neutral is no longer equal to zero, it is the sum of the zero-sequence harmonics.
Characteristic harmonic values

The harmonic analysis of a non-linear current consists in determining: The harmonic orders present in the current, The relative importance of each harmonic order. Below are a few characteristic harmonic values and fundamental relations used in harmonic analysis. Further information on harmonics, see the explanations in White Paper no. 17 Understanding Power Factor, Crest Factor and Surge Factor .
IH1 is the fundamental component (50 or 60 Hz), IHk is the harmonic component where k is the harmonic order (k times 50 or 60 Hz). Harmonic analysis is used to determine the values.
Total rms current

Irms IH12 + IH22 + IH32 + ... IHk2 + ...
Individual harmonics
Each harmonic is expressed as a percentage, i.e. the ratio of its rms value to the rms value of the fundamental. This ratio is the level of the individual harmonic. Hk% = distortion of harmonic k = 100 IHk IH1
Rms value of harmonics

It is possible to measure the rms value of each harmonic order because the various harmonic currents are sinusoidal, but with different frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency.
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Voltage and current harmonic distortion

Non-linear loads cause both current and voltage harmonics. This is because for each load current harmonic, there is a supply voltage harmonic with the same frequency. As a result, the voltage is also distorted by harmonics. The distortion of a sine wave is presented as a percentage: THD* % = total distortion = 100 rms value of all harmonics rms value of fundamental
* Total Harmonic Distortion. The following values are defined: TDHU % for the voltage, based on the voltage harmonics, TDHI % for the current, based on the current harmonics. The THDI (or the THDU using the UHk values) is measured using the equation: THDI% = 100 IH22 + IH32 + IH42 + ... + Hk2 + ... IH1
Crest factor
The crest factor (Fc), used to characterise the form of the signal (current or voltage), is the ratio between the peak value and the rms value. Fc = peak value rms value
Below are typical values for different loads: Linear load: Fc = 2 = 1.414, Main frame: Fc = 2 to 2.5, Microcomputers: Fc = 2 to 3.
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Spectrum of the harmonic current

Defining the spectrum of a harmonic current consists in determining the current waveform and the individual harmonics, as well as certain values such as the THDI and Fc.
Figure 53: Harmonic spectrum of the current drawn by a non-linear load..
Power factor
Power factor The power factor is the ratio between the active power (kW) and the apparent power S (kVA) across the terminals of a given non-linear load. = P (kW) S (kVA)
Distortion factor The distortion factor is defined as: = THDI2 = (as defined by IEC 60146). cos 1
When there are no harmonics, this factor is equal to 1 and the power factor is simply the cos .
Power
Linear load Across the terminals of a balanced, threephase linear load, supplied with a phase-to-phase voltage U and a current I, where the displacement between U and I is , the power values are: P apparent = S = UI, in kVA, P active = S cos , in kW, P reactive = Q = S sin , in kVAr, S = P2 + Q2
It is not the phase displacement between the voltage and the current, because they are no longer sinusoidal. Displacement between the fundamental current and voltage The phase displacement 1 between the fundamental current and voltage, both sinusoidal, can be defined as: P (kW) cos 1 = 1 S1 (kVA) where P1 and S1 are the active and apparent power, respectively, of the fundamental.
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Non-linear load
Across the terminals of a non-linear load, the equation for P is much more complex because U and I contain harmonics. It can however be expressed simply as: P = S ( = power factor) For the fundamentals U1 and I1, displaced by 1: P apparent fundamental = S1 = U1I13 P active fundamental = P1 = S1 cos 1 P reactive fundamental Q1 = S1 sin 1 S = P12 + Q12 + D2 where D is the distortion power, due to the harmonics.
pulsating torque exists, creating vibrations, The only active power present during a voltage drop is the heating produced by the harmonic current (Ihk) in a conductor with a resistance r (r IHk2).
Effects of harmonics
In electrical devices, harmonics produce neither active nor reactivepower, only losses through the Joule effect (ri2).
Loss of apparent power

Figure 54 shows that the product of a voltage at the fundamental frequency without harmonics multiplied by a third-harmonic current is zero at the end of one period. This is true whatever the phase and order of the harmonic. This is expressed by the relation S = P12 + Q12 + D2 A part of the apparent power is consumed by the harmonics, to no effect. In rotating machines, the resulting motor torque is equal to zero and only a parasitic
Figure 54: U x I products for fundamentals (top) and for fundamentals with harmonics (bottom).
Temperature rise in cables

Temperature rise due to harmonic currents adds to the temperature rise due to the fundamental current.
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Temperature rise in cables is expressed as: Losses = r + IHn2

n=1
Current in the neutral

The neutral must be oversized to take into account the third-order harmonic currents and their multiples. All third-order harmonic currents and their odd multiples add up in the neutral (see figure 55). The current in the neutral can reach 1.7 times that in the phases. Consequences Significant losses in the neutral r Ineutral2 = temperature rise in the neutral.
Figure 55: The third-order harmonics and. their multiples add up in the neutral.
Self-polluting loads
Voltage distortion mirrors that of the current and increases in step with the sum of the impedances upstream of the non-linear load. Current distortion THDI, caused by the load, results in voltage distortion THDU caused by the harmonic currents flowing through the various impedances from the source on down. Figure 56 shows the various forms of distortion throughout a common electrical installation.
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Figure 56: Effects of harmonics throughout the installation..
Risk of capacitor breakdown

In conclusion, the higher the content of high-order components in the voltage, the worse the situation for the capacitor. It is often necessary to use reinforced capacitors. The value of a current in a capacitor is equal to: .I = U C For a harmonic current of order k, the angular frequency is equal to = 2 k f, and the current is equal to: .I = 2 k f U C where f = the fundamental frequency and k = the harmonic order. It follows that the value of the current increases with k.
What is more, for a harmonic frequency, there can also be resonance (1) of the capacitor (capacitance C) with the equivalent inductance (L) of the source (transformer, essentially inductive) in parallel with that of the other supplied loads. This resonant circuit (see figure 57) significantly amplifies the harmonic current of the corresponding order, thus worsening the situation for the capacitor.
(1) This is the case if, for a harmonic order k, with a frequency fk = k x 50 (or 60) Hz, LCk2 - 1, where = 2 fk.
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Figure 57: Effects of harmonics with capacitors, risk of resonance..

Consequences Risk of capacitor breakdown, Risk of resonance due to the presence of the inductors. Certain limitations must be respected: U max = 1.1 Un, I max = 1.3 In, THDU max = 8%, Selection of capacitor type, depending on the situation, i.e. standard, class h (reinforced isolation), with harmonic inductors. k= Consequences In compliance with standard NFC 52-114, transformers must be derated by applying a coefficient k to their rated power, such that:
1
n= n=2
1,6 1 + 0,1 H2 nn
This is an empirical equation. Other national standards recommend derating using a similar k factor that depends on the country (e.g. BS 7821 Part 4, IEE 1100-1992). Example A 1000 kVA transformer supplies a sixpulse rectifier bridge drawing the following harmonics: H5 = 25%, H7 = 14%, H11 = 9%, H13 = 8%. The derating coefficient is k = 0.91. The apparent power of the transformer is therefore 910 kVA.
Derating of transformers
Generally speaking, harmonics result in source derating that is inversely proportional to the load power factor, i.e. the lower the power factor, the more the source must be derated. A number of effects are combined: Due to the skin effect, the resistance of a transformer winding increases with the order of the harmonics, Losses due to hysteresis are proportional to the frequency, Losses due to Foucault currents are proportional to the square of the frequency.
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Risk of disturbing generators

Practically speaking, the THDI of the current in the generator must not exceed 20%. Above, derating is necessary. Similar to transformers, generators suffer greater losses due to hysteresis and Foucault currents. The subtransient reactance X"d increases as a function of the frequency, The harmonic rotating field sweeps the rotor at a frequency other than the synchronism frequency (50 or 60 Hz). Consequences Creation of parasitic torque resulting in lower efficiency of the mechanical to electrical conversion, Additional losses in the inductor windings and the rotor damper, Presence of vibration and abnormal noise.
Automatic telephone exchanges, Alarms, Sensitive electronic equipment, Remote-control systems.
Effect on recent UPS systems

Modern UPS systems have high chopping frequencies (PWM) and very low output impedance (equivalent to a transformer five times more powerful). When confronted with non-linear loads, these UPS offer: Limited losses, Current-limiting operation, Very low voltage distortion (THDU < 3%). UPS are an excellent means to supply non-linear loads.
Conclusion
Harmonics may have damaging effects on electrical installations and on the quality of operation. That is why international standards stipulate increasingly precise harmonic-compatibility levels for equipment and set limits for the harmonic content on public distribution systems. Standards on harmonics, see page 145 UPS standards . On the following pages are a presentation of the various strategies concerning harmonics and the usefulness of active harmonic conditioners.
Losses in asynchronous motors

Harmonics produce the following effects in asynchronous motors: Increases in Joule and iron losses (stator losses), Pulsating torque (rotor losses with a drop in mechanical efficiency). The THDU must be less than 10% to limit these phenomena.
Effects on other equipment

Harmonics can disturb operation of the following equipment as well: Non-rms trip units, resulting in nuisance tripping of circuit breakers,
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Elimination of harmonics
Strategies against harmonics
There are two strategies: Accept and live equipment to take, Eliminate the harmonics, conditioners. Figure 59 shows that for the strongest harmonic currents (H3 to H7), the L /R ratio is equal to 1 for cables with a cross-section of 36 mm. Consequently, above 36 mm, it is necessary to reduce the impedance by using multicore cable to create parallel impedances. For Data Centers, see Harmonic Currents in the Data Center: A Case Study .
Living with harmonics

Oversizing of equipment
Given that the negative effects of harmonic currents increase with the cumulative impedance of cables and sources, the obvious solution is to limit the total impedance in order to reduce both voltage distortion and temperature rise. Figure 58 shows the results when cable cross-sections and the power rating of the source are doubled. Given that the THDU depends primarily on the inductive component and thus on the length of the cables, it is clear that this solution is not very effective and results simply in limiting temperature rise.
Figure 58: Increased cable cross-sections. to limit distortion and losses.
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Figure 59: Influence of cable cross-section on L /R..
Solutions to eliminate harmonics

There are different types of solutions to eliminate harmonics. Filters, see page 28 Selection of a filter .
Active filters / active harmonic conditioners

Active filters, also called active harmonic conditioners, cancel harmonics by injecting exactly equal harmonic currents where they arise. This type of filter reacts in real time (i.e. actively) to the existing harmonics in order to eliminate them. More effective and flexible than passive filters, they avoid their disadvantages and, in comparison, constitute a solution that: offers greater performance (total elimination of all harmonics is possible, up to the 50th order), is flexible, adaptable (action can be configured) and reusable.
Passive filters
LC passive filters are tuned to the frequency requiring elimination or attenuate a band of frequencies. Harmonic recombination systems (double bridge, phase shifting) can also be grouped in this category. Passive filters have two major disadvantages: Elimination of harmonics is effective only for a specific installation, i.e. the addition or removal of loads can disrupt the filtering system, it is often difficult to implement them in an existing installation.
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Table summing up the possible strategies against harmonics

Strategy Advantages Disadvantages Live with harmonics Difficult in existing solutions. Costly solution limited to reducing the Reduction in resistive component for small crosssupply THDU by sections (the inductance remains reducing the constant). Requires parallel cables source impedance. for large cross-sections. Does not Reduction in Joule avoid disturbances upstream of the losses. installation. Does not comply with standards. Limits disturbances to neighboring Same as above. loads through decoupling. Partially eliminate harmonics Tuned passive filters. Only for one or two harmonic orders. Wide-band filters are not very effective. Possibility of resonance. Costly design work is required. Range of passive filters Including double-bridge and phase-shifting solutions. Solutions
Increase the ratings of sources and/or the crosssections of cables.
Special supply for non-linear loads.
Simple solution.
Reduction in Inductors upstream harmonic currents. Increase in THDU across the Limits the effects of of the non-linear terminals of the load. transient loads. overvoltages. Special transformers. Elimination of only certain harmonic orders. Non-standard construction. Completely eliminate harmonics Active harmonic conditioners. Total elimination of all harmonics Simple and flexible is possible (up to the 25th order), adaptable (action configured) and solution. reusable system. Active conditioners
Table 17.
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Active harmonic conditioners

Active harmonic conditioners
Characteristics
Active harmonic conditioners Active harmonic conditioners constitute a more general approach to the problem of harmonics. These active filters are not only for a UPS unit, but are designed to eliminate harmonics throughout the installation.
50/60 Hz systems
Active harmonic conditioners are particularly well suited to mediumpower industrial and infrastructure applications, offering conditioning currents from 20 to 480 A in threephase systems with a neutral. These solutions are presented in the following section. Table 18 sums up the main characteristics.
Main characteristics Applications
Range
Power level
Active harmonic conditioner
20 to 480 A
Filtering up to H25 Digital active conditioning with: - analysis and 380 to 415 V conditioning of 3 Ph+N and 3 Ph individual orders, - response time 40 ms for load fluctuations.
Filtering of medium-power commercial, infrastructure and industrial systems, 3Ph+N and 3 Ph, singlephase loads.
Table 18..
Advantages of active harmonic conditioning

Wide-band solution from H2 to H25 with individual conditioning of each phase, It is possible to select individual harmonic orders for conditioning, No risk of overloads, conditioning limits to the maximum power rating, even if the load power exceeds the rating, Automatically adapts to all types of loads, single-phase and threephase,
Compatible with all system earthing arrangements, Power factor correction, Economic, when harmonics are cut in half, losses are reduced by four, Can be reused in other installations, Upgradeable with parallelconnected units, Very compact, Simple installation, with current transformers upstream or downstream.
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Operating principle
The source supplies exclusively the fundamental component (IF) of the load current. The active conditioner measures in real time the harmonics (IH) drawn by the load and supplies them. Upstream of point A, where the conditioner is connected, the fundamental current IF is not altered, downstream the load draws the nonlinear current IF + IH.
Figure 60: Harmonic conditioning..
Operating modes
Digital mode, conditioning of individual orders The basic operating mode is digital, with a current sensor, analogue/digital conversion of the current measurements and real-time calculation of the harmonic spectrum. This information is supplied to the inverter for compensation of the individual harmonic orders. The response time to load fluctuations is 40 ms (two cycles).
Operating diagram The power required for conditioning is drawn on the three-phase distribution system and stored in the inductor L and the capacitors charged to +Vm and -Vm respectively (see figure 61). Depending on the sign of the harmonic current required, the pulse width of one capacitor or the other is modulated. This means the same connection to the supply system can be used to draw power and inject the harmonics.
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The power sent to the load depends on: The harmonic values measured, User requirements, set during system configuration: harmonic orders to be eliminated and power-factor correction (yes or no). The current transformer, combined with an analogue/digital converter, determines the spectrum (fundamental and harmonics) of the current supplying the load. Depending on these values and the
selecting program, a processor prepares the commands for the inverter, for execution one phase after the measurements. Power factor correction is obtained by generating a fundamental current +90 out of phase with the voltage
Figure 61: Operation..

Options On 3Ph or 3 ph+N systems, the user can decide to condition: All or only certain harmonics up to H25, The power factor For parallel installations, a single set of sensors is required on the conditioned circuit and a wire link is used to send the load-current measurements to the various conditioners. If one conditioner shuts down, the remaining conditioners continue to condition the harmonics, within the limits of their rated conditioning capacity.
Installation modes
Parallel mode Up to four active harmonic conditioners can be connected in parallel at the same point of installation. This the means to increase harmonic conditioning capacity and/or system availability.
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Figure 62: Parallel operation of three. active harmonic conditioners.

Cascade or in-series mode Cascade or in-series operation is possible, but simply requires special settings to avoid any interaction between the different conditioners. The downstream conditioner generally conditions a high-power load. The upstream device conditions other low-power outgoing circuits and, where applicable, any residual harmonics not conditioned by the first conditioner.
Figure 63: Active harmonic conditioners. in cascade mode.

Multi-circuit mode In this mode, a single conditioner can condition up to three outgoing circuits. A set of sensors is required for each circuit conditioned and all are connected to active harmonic conditioners . This configuration is very useful when the harmonics are concentrated on a small number of circuits.
Figure 64: One active conditioner for several circuits..
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Position in the installation

Total (or centralised) conditioning The active harmonic conditioner is connected just downstream of the sources, generally at the main lowvoltage switchboard (MLVS) level. Partial conditioning The active harmonic conditioner is connected at the main or secondary switchboard level and conditions a set of loads. Local conditioning The active harmonic conditioner is connected directly to the terminals of each load
Figure 65: Three possible installation points, depending on user requirements.
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Comparison of installation possibilities

Type of conditioning Total (MLVS level) Advantages Economical. Relieves generators (transformers, generators). Disadvantages Harmonics remain in the downstream part of the installation. Cables must be oversized. Applications Compliance with utility requirements. Avoid injecting harmonics upstream of the installation.
Avoids oversizing the Harmonics remain Large buildings. cables between the between the secondary Conditioning regularly main and secondary switchboard and the spaced on each floor Partial switchboards. non-linear load. or set of floors. (secondary-switchboard Recombination of Outgoing cable to the Several circuits level) certain harmonics may load must be supplying non-linear make it possible to oversized. loads. reduce conditioner rating. Eliminates harmonics where they occur. Reduces losses in all cables, up to the source. Local (load level) Costly when a number of conditioners are required. For installations where non-linear loads are few in number and high-powered iwth respect to the other loads (example: large variable-speed drives, high-power UPS): - Examples: server bays, lighting, highpower UPS, fluorescent lighting systems.
Table 19..
Practically speaking Total conditioning does not pose any calculation problems, Partial conditioning requires a few precautions, For all non-compensated RCD loads (high-power variablespeed drives without inductors for variable-torque applications), local conditioning can guarantee only a THDU not exceeding certain limits to ensure proper load operation.
Position of current transformers upstream or downstream

In most of the installation modes, previously listed, two different types of current-transformer (CT) installation can be used with active harmonic conditioners.
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CT upstream of the load This is the most common situation.
Figure 66: Installation with one CT upstream of the load..

Installation with one CT upstream of the active harmonic conditioners and one CT on the switchboard incomer This configuration simplifies matters when it is difficult to install a CT on the line just upstream of the load. The two CTs must have compatible and complementary characteristics. The difference between the measured currents determines the necessary compensation current.
Figure 67: Installation with two CTs, one on the switchboard. incomer and the other upstream of the conditioner.
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Advantages
Elimination of the conditioned harmonic currents For the selected harmonics, active harmonic conditioners are designed to provide a path for the harmonic currents with virtually zero impedance with respect to that of the source. This eliminates their flow upstream towards the source. Figure 68 shows active harmonic conditioners between two line sections ZL1 and ZL2, supplying a standard RCD load that can be either single or three-phase (switch-mode power supply or variable-speed drive).
The harmonic currents IHn that previously flowed through impedances Zs and ZL1 upstream of the active harmonic conditioners point of installation, are eliminated. The source now supplies exclusively the fundamental current If. It is the active harmonic conditioners that supplies the harmonic currents IHn to the load, by continuously measuring the harmonics drawn by the load.
Figure 68: Modifies the current upstream of its point of installation..
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Reduction in THDU at the point of installation Upstream of active harmonic conditioners, the selected harmonic currents IHn (all or only some of the harmonics up to the 25th) are eliminated. Total harmonic distortion upstream of the point of installation is calculated as (see page 158, figure 94):
Procedure for implementing active conditioning

Conclusion on active conditioning
Precise conditioning calculations require: Precise and in-depth knowledge on the installation (sources, lines and installation method), Precise knowledge on the loads (harmonic and displacement curves depending on the source impedance), Special calculation tools, Analysis and simulation.
THDU% = 100
n=2
UHn2
UH1
where UHn is the voltage drop corresponding to harmonic IHn. Elimination of the harmonic current for a given order eliminates the harmonic voltage for the same order (1). The result is a major reduction in the THDU, by selecting the most significant harmonics. Given that above the 25th order, individual harmonics are negligible, the THDU is practically equal to zero and distortion is totally eliminated if it is decided to condition all harmonics up to the 25th. (1) In that UHn and IHn are sinusoidal components at frequency nf (where f is the frequency of the fundamental), they are related by the Ohm law, taking into account the value of the concerned impedances (Zs and ZL1) with an angular frequency n. Therefore: UHn = (Zs(n) + ZL1(n)) IHn. For all the conditioned harmonics, IHn = 0 and consequently, UHn = 0.
New installations
The standard rules governing electrical installations remain valid, but an evaluation of the voltage distortion (THDU) is required where harmonic currents flow. This evaluation is very complex and requires special calculation software as well as in-depth knowledge of the non-linear loads, in particular the harmonic distribution as a function of the upstream impedance.
Existing installations
For existing installations, a precise evaluation of the site is the indispensable prerequisite to any corrective action. The mathematical relationship between current and voltage distortion is complex and depends on the various components of the installation.
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Control over harmonic phenomena requires know-how and experience, as well as specialised tools and software (spectrum analyser, calculation software for distortion in cables, simulation software, etc.). However, even if each solution is specific to a given site, proper professional techniques and rigorous methods ensure maximum probability that the installation will operate correctly.
Operating modes: - on utility power, - on engine generator sets (standby power or cogeneration), - on UPS. Downgraded operating modes: - without redundancy, - on engine generator set power. This diagram should enable you to locate the different measurement points and identify critical operating phases (for evaluation by simulation or calculation). Measurements Following the previous indispensable step, the measurement phase can begin, starting preferably at the source and working downstream toward the loads drawing the harmonics, in order to limit the number of measurements. The quality of measurements is more important than their quantity and makes the next step easier. Preliminary installation study This first step ends with a preliminary study of the installation: Point(s) of installation of the conditioner(s), Installation conditions for the protection circuit breakers, Installation of sensors (energised conditions or not), Possibility of shutting down the load, Available space, Evacuation of losses (ventilation, air-conditioning, etc.), Environmental constraints (noise, EMC, etc.).
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Methodology
Three-step approach: 1. Site audit, 2. Determination of the most suitable solution, 3. System installation and checks.
1. Site audit
Installation diagram Before initiating a series of measurements, we suggest you draft a simplified diagram of the installation, indicating the following. Types of equipment: - generators: type, power rating, voltage, Usc, X"d (engine generator set), - isolation transformers: voltage, power rating, type, Usc, coupling, - distribution: type of cables, length, cross-section, installation method, - loads: power rating, type, - system earthing arrangements at the various points in the installation.
Battery UPS
2. Determination of the most suitable solution

The previous elements are used to determine the optimum solution through: Analysis of the measurement results, Simulation of different solutions for the problem encountered, Determination of the most suitable solution, Drafting of a summary report with the proposed solutions.
3. System installation and checks

This last step includes: Implementation of the selected solutions, Checks on performance levels with respect to the guaranteed results, Drafting of a system start-up report.
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Theoretical review Supplying sensitive loads

Types of electrical disturbances
Power distribution systems, both public and private, theoretically supply electrical equipment with a sinusoidal voltage of fixed amplitude and frequency (e.g. 400 volts rms, 50 Hz, on low-voltage systems). In real-life conditions however, utilities indicate the degree of fluctuation around the rated values. Standard EN 50160 defines the normal fluctuations in the LV supply voltage on European distribution systems as follows: Voltage +10% to -15% (average rms values over 10-minute intervals), of which 95% must be in the +10% range each week, Frequency +4 to 6% over one year with 1% for 99.5% of the time (synchronous connections in an interconnected system). Practically speaking, however, in addition to the indicated fluctuations, the voltage sine-wave is always distorted to some degree by various disturbances that occur on the system.
Origins of disturbances
Utility power Utility power can be disturbed or even cut by the following phenomena: Atmospheric phenomena affecting overhead lines or buried cables: - lightning which can produce a sudden voltage surge in the system, - frost which can accumulate on overhead lines and cause them to break, Accidents: - a branch falling on a line, which may produce a short-circuit or break the line, - cutting of a cable, for example during trench digging or other construction work, - a fault on the utility power system, Phase unbalance, Switching of protection or control devices in the utility power system, for load shedding or maintenance purposes.
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User equipment Some equipment can disturb the utility power system, e.g.: Industrial equipment: - motors, which can cause voltage drops due to inrush currents when starting, - equipment such as arc furnaces and welding machines, which can cause voltage drops and high-frequency interference, Power electronics equipment (switch-mode power supplies, variable speed drives, electronic ballasts, etc.), which often cause harmonics, Building facilities such as lifts which provoke inrush currents or fluorescent lighting which causes harmonics.
Types of disturbances
Disturbances that are due to the previously listed causes are summed up in the following table, according to the definitions contained in standards EN 50160 and ANSI 1100-1992.
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Disturbances
Micro-outages
Characteristics
Power outages Total absence of voltage 10 ms.
Main causes
Atmospheric conditions, switching, faults, work on the utility.
Main consequences
Faulty operation and loss of data (computer systems) or interrupted production (continuous processes). Depending on the duration, shutdown of machines and risks for people (e.g. lifts), loss of data (computer systems) or interrupted production (continuous processes).
Outages
Total absence of voltage for more than one period: short outage: < 3 minutes (70% of outages last less than 1 s) long outage: > 3 minutes
Atmospheric conditions, switching, faults, incidents, line breaks, work on the utility.
Voltage variations Voltage sags Reduction in the rms value of voltage to less than 90% of the rated value (but greater than 0%), with return to a value greater than 90% within 10 ms to 1 minute. Temporary increase to more than 10% over the rated voltage, for a duration of 10 ms to a few seconds. Atmospheric phenomena, load fluctuations, short-circuit on a neighboring circuit. Shutdown of machines, malfunctions, damage to equipment and loss of data.
Overvoltage
Quality of utility generators and transmission systems. Interaction between generators and load fluctuations on the utility power system. Switching on the utility power system. Stopping of high-power loads (e.g. motors, capacitor banks). Peak in consumption, when the utility cannot meet demand and must reduce its voltage to limit power. Close lightning strikes, static discharges.
For computer systems: corruption of data, processing errors, system shutdown, stress on components. Temperature rise and premature aging of equipment.
Undervoltage
Drop in voltage lasting from a few minutes to days.
Shutdown of computer systems. Corruption or loss of data. Temperature rise. Premature aging of equipment. Processing errors, corruption of data system shutdown. Damage to computers, electronic boards. Temperature rise. Disconnection of a phase.
Voltage spike
Sudden major jump in voltage (e.g. 6 kV).
Voltage unbalance (in three-phase systems)
Condition where the rms value of the phase voltages or the unbalances between phases are not equal.
Induction furnaces. Unbalanced single-phase loads.
Frequency variations Frequency fluctuations Instability in the frequency. Typically +5%, -6% (average for ten-second time intervals). Regulation of generators. Irregular operation of generators. Unstable frequency source. --These variations exceed the tolerances of certain instruments and computer hardware (often 1%) and can therefore result in the loss or corruption of data. Physiological disturbances.
Flicker
Flicker in lighting systems due to a drop in voltage and frequency (< 35 Hz). Sudden major and very short jump in voltage. Similar to a voltage spike.
Welding machines, motors, arc furnaces, X-ray machines, lasers, capacitor banks. Atmospheric phenomena (lightning) and switching.
Other disturbances HF transients Destruction of equipment, accelerated aging, breakdown of components or insulators.
Short duration
< 1 s. Amplitude < 1 to 2 kV at frequencies of several tens of MHz. < 1 s and 100 s. Peak value 8 to 10 times higher than the rated value up to several MHz. > 100 s. Peak value 5 to 6 times higher than the rated value up to several hundred MHz. Distortion of the current and voltage sine-waves due to the harmonic currents drawn by non-linear loads. The effect of harmonics above the 25th order is negligible. Electromagnetic or electrostatic conducted or radiated disturbances. The goal is to ensure low emission and high immunity levels.
Starting of small inductive loads, repeated opening and closing of low-voltage relays and contactors. Faults (lightning) or high-voltage switching transmitted to the lowvoltage by electromagnetic coupling. Stopping of inductive loads or highvoltage faults transmitted to the low-voltage system by electromagnetic coupling. Electric machines with magnetic cores (motors, off-load transformers, etc.), switch-mode power supplies, arc furnaces, variable speed drives. Switching of electronic components (transistors, thyristors, diodes), electrostatic discharges. Oversizing of equipment, temperature rise, resonance phenomena with capacitors, destruction of equipment (transformers). Malfunctions of sensitive electronic devices.
Medium duration
Long duration
Harmonic distortion
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
Table 20..
Battery UPS
UPS
UPS
A UPS (uninterruptible power system) is used to supply sensitive applications with secure power. A UPS is an electric device positioned between the utility and the sensitive loads that supplies voltage offering: High quality: the output sinewave is free of any and all disturbances in utility power and within strict amplitude and frequency tolerances, High availability: the continuous supply of voltage, within the specified tolerances, is ensured by a backup supply of power. The backup supply is generally a battery that, if necessary, steps in without a break in the supply to replace utility power and provide the backup time required by the application. These characteristics make UPSs the ideal power supply for all sensitive applications because they ensure power quality and availability, whatever the state of utility power. Inverter It completely regenerates a highquality voltage output sine-wave: Free of all utility-power disturbances, notably micro-outages, Within tolerances compatible with the requirements of sensitive electronic devices (e.g. tolerances in amplitude 0.5% and frequency 1%, compared to 10% and 5% in utility power systems, which correspond to improvement factors of 20 and 5, respectively.
Note: The term inverter is sometimes used to designate a UPS, when in reality it is only a part of the UPS.
Energy Storage The energy storage provides sufficient operating backup time (seconds to a number of hours) by stepping in to replace utility power as needed. Static bypass The static bypass ensures no-break transfer of the load from the inverter to direct utility power and back. Nobreak transfer is carried out by a device implementing SCRs (sometimes called a static switch). The static bypass makes it possible to continue supplying the load even if an internal fault occurs or during maintenance on the rectifier/charger and inverter modules. It can also serve for transfers to call on the full power available upstream in the event of overloads (e.g. short circuits) exceeding UPS capacity.
Components of a UPS
A UPS generally comprises the main components listed as follows. Rectifier/charger It draws utility power and produces a DC current to supply the inverter and charge or recharge the battery.
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During operation on the static bypass, the load is supplied directly by utility power and is no longer protected (operation in downgraded mode). Maintenance bypass This bypass may be used to supply the load directly with utility power, without calling on the inverter or the static switch. Transfer to the maintenance bypass is user initiated with switches. By actuating the necessary switches, it is the means to isolate the static bypass and the inverter for maintenance, while continuing to supply the load in downgraded mode.
Figure 69: The UPS solution..

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UPS applications
UPS are used for a wide range of applications requiring electrical power that is available at all times and not affected by disturbances on the utility power system. Table 21 presents a number of applications. For each, it indicates the sensitivity of the application to disturbances.
The applications requiring this type of installation are: Computer systems, Telecommunications, Industry and instruments, Other applications. The required UPS typologies are presented on page 5, Types of static UPS . They include static UPS implementing the following typologies: Passive standby, Line interactive, Double conversion.
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UPS Applications
Protection required against Application Protected devices Microoutages Outages Voltage Frequency variations variations Other
Computer systems
Data centers Large bays for rack-mounted servers Internet data centers Sets of computers with terminals and peripheral devices (tape storage units, disk drives, etc). Networks made up of PCs or workstations, server networks (WAN, LAN) ***** ***** ***** ***** *****
Company networks
*****
*****
*****
*****
*****
Small networks and servers
****
****
***
***
**
PCs, workstations Stand-alone computers Peripheral devices: printers, plotters, voice mail
**
**
**
Telecommunications
Telecommunications Digital PABXs ***** ***** ***** ***** *****
Industry and instruments

Process control PLCs Numerical control systems Control systems Robot control/monitoring systems Automatic machines Instrumentation Scanners (60 Hz) Machine-tools Welding robots Plastic-injection presses Precise regulation devices (textile, paper, etc.) Heating equipment for manufacture of semiconductors, glass, pure materials Public buildings (elevators, safety equipment) Tunnels Runway lighting in airports
Industrial processes
***
*****
***
***
****
Medical and laboratories
****
*****
****
****
***
Industrial equipment
***
****
***
***
***
Lighting systems
**
****
***
***
**
Other applications
Special frequencies Frequency conversion Power supplies for aircraft (400 Hz) **** **** **** ***** ***
* low sensitivity to disturbances ***** high sensitivity to disturbances
Table 21..
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Types of UPS
Static or rotary UPS
Static or rotary UPS solutions
There are two main types of UPS which basically differ in the way the UPS inverter function is implemented. Static solution These UPS use only electronic components to perform the inverter function. A static-inverter function is obtained. Rotary solution These UPS use rotary machines to perform the inverter function. These UPS in fact combine a motor and a generator with a highly simplified static inverter. The inverter filters out utility-power disturbances and regulates only the frequency of its output voltage (generally in square-wave form), which supplies a regulated motor/generator set that is sometimes combined with a flywheel. The motor/generator set generates an output voltage sine-wave, taking the inverter output frequency as the reference.
Figure 70: Static and rotary UPS..
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Comparison
Rotary solution The arguments often put forward in favour of this solution are as follows: High generator short-circuit current on the order of 10 In (ten times the rated current) that makes setting of protection devices easier, 150% overload capacity (of the rated current) over a longer period (two minutes instead of one), Downstream installation galvanically isolated from upstream AC source due to the motor/generator set, Internal impedance providing high tolerance to the non-linear loads frequently encountered with the switch-mode power supplies used by computer systems.
150% overload capacity (of the rated current) for one minute. The two-minute overload capacity is of no practical use because most overloads are very short (less than one second, e.g. in-rush currents of motors, transformers and power electronics). Galvanic isolation, when required, by means of an isolating transformer, Double-conversion operation which completely isolates the load from utility power and regenerates the output voltage with precise regulation of the voltage amplitude and the frequency, Very low internal impedance for higher performance with nonlinear loads due to the use of power-transistor technologies. Other advantages Static solutions provide many other advantages as well, due to powertransistor technology combined with a PWM chopping technique. Simplified overall design, with a reduction in the number of parts and connections, and in the number of possible causes of failure; Capacity to react instantaneously to utility-power amplitude and frequency fluctuations by means of microprocessor-controlled switching regulation based on digital sampling techniques. The voltage amplitude returns to regulated conditions ( 0.5% or 1% depending on the model) in less than 10 milliseconds for load
Static solution
Compared to the advantages of rotary solutions The static UPS offers the advantages listed below. Operation in current-limiting mode with discrimination ensured for circuits rated up to In/2. These features, which are more than sufficient in practice, prevent the disadvantages of rotary systems: - overheating of cables, - the effects of an excessive short-circuit current and the corresponding voltage drop on sensitive devices, during the time taken by protective devices to clear the fault.
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step changes up to 100%. Within the indicated time interval, such a load step change produces a load voltage variation of less than for example 2%; High, constant efficiency whatever the percent load, which is a major advantage for redundant UPS units with low percent loads. A static UPS unit with a 50% load maintains high efficiency (94%), whereas the efficiency of a rotary UPS drops to the 88-90% range (typical value), which directly impacts on operating costs; Redundant configurations providing high availability in the framework of ultrareliable supply systems (e.g. for data centres); Possible integration in redundant architectures with separate functions that facilitate maintenance by isolating parts of the installation. Rotary systems integrate the UPS, the backup power and the generator as a single component, thus making it impossible to separate the functions. Consider also the following nonnegligible advantages: No wear on rotating parts, hence easier and faster maintenance. For example, rotary systems require checks on the alignment of the rotating parts and the replacement of the bearings after 2 to 6 years is a major operation (lifting equipment, heating and cooling of the bearings during the replacement).
Conclusion Given the advantages just presented, static UPS are used in the vast majority of cases, and for high-power applications in particular. In the following pages, the term uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is taken to mean the static solution.
Types of static UPS

Standards
UPS Due to the vast increase in the number of sensitive loads, the term UPS now includes devices ranging from a few hundred VA for desktop computers up to several MVA for data centres and telecommunications sites. At the same time, different typologies have been developed and the names used for the products on the market are not always clear (or even misleading) for end users. That is why the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) established standards governing the types of UPS and the techniques used to measure their performance levels, and those criteria were adopted by Cenelec (European standardisation commission). Standard IEC 62040-3 and its European equivalent EN 62040-3 define three standard types (topologies) of UPS and their performance levels.
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UPS technologies include: Passive standby, Line interactive, Double conversion. AC input power These definitions concern UPS operation with respect to the power source including the distribution system upstream of the UPS. The standards define the following terms: Primary power: power normally continuously available which is usually supplied by an electrical utility company, but sometimes by the user's own generation, Standby power: power intended to replace the primary power in the event of primary-power failure. Practically speaking, a UPS has one or two inputs: Normal AC input (or Mains 1), supplied by primary power, Bypass AC input (or Mains 2), supplied by standby power (generally speaking via a separate cable from the same main low-voltage switchboard (MLVS).
Operating principle Normal mode: - The inverter operates in passive standby mode, - The load is supplied by utility power via a filter which eliminates certain disturbances and provides some degree of voltage regulation, - The standards do not mention this filter and speak simply of a UPS switch . They also indicate that additional devices may be incorporated to provide power conditioning, e.g. ferroresonant transformer or automatic tapchanging transformer . Battery backup mode: - When the AC input voltage is outside specified tolerances for the UPS or the utility power fails, the inverter and the battery step in to ensure a continuous supply of power to the load following a very short transfer time (generally less than 10 ms). The standards do not stipulate a time, but do indicate that the load [is] transferred to the inverter directly or via the UPS switch (which may be electronic or electromechanical) , - The UPS continues to operate on battery power until the end of battery backup time or utility power returns to normal, which provokes transfer of the load back to the AC input (normal mode).
UPS operating in passivestandby mode

The UPS is installed in parallel to the utility and backs it up. The battery is charged by a charger that is separate from the inverter.
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Usage This configuration is in fact a compromise between an acceptable level of protection against disturbances and cost. The mentioned disadvantages mean that, practically speaking, this type of UPS can be used only for low power ratings (< 2 kVA) and cannot be used as a frequency converter.
UPS operating in line-interactive mode

The inverter is connected in parallel with the AC input in a standby configuration, and also charges the energy storage. It thus interacts (reversible operation) with the AC-input source. Operating principle Normal mode The load is supplied with conditioned power via a parallel connection of the AC input and the inverter. As long as the input power is within tolerances, the inverter regulates fluctuations in the input voltage. Otherwise (reversible operation), it charges the battery. The output frequency depends on the AC-input frequency. Backup mode - When the AC input voltage is outside specified tolerances for the UPS or the input power fails, the inverter and the energy storage step in to ensure a continuous supply of power to the load. The power switch (e.g. static switch) also disconnects the AC input to prevent power from the inverter from flowing upstream.
Figure 71: UPS operating in.. passive-standby mode.

Advantages Simple diagram, Reduced cost. Disadvantages No real isolation of the load with respect to the upstream distribution system, Transfer time. It operates without a real static switch, so a certain time is required to transfer the load to the inverter. This time is acceptable for certain individual applications, but incompatible with the performance required by more sophisticated, sensitive systems (large computer centres, telephone exchanges, etc.), No regulation of the output frequency, which is simply that of the utility power.
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- The UPS continues to operate on backup power until the end of energy storage backup time or input power returns to within tolerance, which provokes transfer of the load back to the AC input (normal mode). Bypass mode This type of UPS may be equipped with a bypass. If one of the UPS functions fails, the load can be transferred to the bypass AC input via the maintenance bypass.
Disadvantages No real isolation of the load with respect to the upstream distribution system, thus: - sensitivity to variations in the utility voltage and frequent demands placed on the inverter; - influence of downstream nonlinear loads on the upstream input voltage; Usage This product is primarily used where efficiency is a driving factor in the product purchase.
Double-conversion UPS
The inverter is connected in series between the AC input and the application. The power supplied to the load continuously flows through the inverter. Operating principle Normal mode During normal operation, all the power supplied to the load passes through the rectifier/charger and inverter which together perform a double conversion (AC-DCAC), hence the name. The voltage is continuously regenerated and regulated. Backup mode - When the AC-input voltage is outside specified tolerances for the UPS or the input power fails, the inverter and the energy storage step in to ensure a continuous supply of power to the load.
Figure 72: UPS operating in. line-interactive mode.

Advantages The product has improved efficiencies due the fact that not all power is being broken down and rebuilt as with a double conversion UPS.
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- The UPS continues to operate on backup power until the end of energy storage backup time or input power returns to normal, which provokes transfer of the load back to the AC input (normal mode). Bypass mode This type of UPS comprises a static bypass (sometimes called a static switch) that ensures nobreak transfer of the load from the inverter to direct utility power and back. The load is transferred to the static bypass in the event of the following: - UPS failure, - load-current transients (inrush or fault currents), - overloads, - end of energy storage backup time.
The presence of a static bypass assumes that the input and output frequencies are identical, which means it cannot be used as a frequency converter. If the voltage levels are not the same, a bypass transformer is required. The UPS is synchronised with the bypass AC input to ensure no-break transfers from the inverter to the bypass line.
Note. Another bypass line, often called the maintenance bypass, is available for maintenance purposes. It is closed by a manual switch.
Figure 73: Double-conversion UPS..
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Advantages Complete regeneration of the output power, whether it comes from the utility or the battery, Total isolation of the load from the distribution system and its disturbances, Very wide input-voltage range, yet precise regulation of the output voltage, Independence of the input and output frequencies, thus ensuring an output frequency within strict tolerances. Capacity to operate as a frequency converter (if planned as such), by disabling the static switch, Much higher performance levels under steady-state and transient conditions, Instantaneous shift to backup mode if input power fails, No-break transfer to a bypass line (bypass mode), Manual bypass (generally standard) to facilitate maintenance.
Disadvantages Reduced efficiency driving higher owning and operating cost and increased heat rejection. Usage This configuration is the most complete in terms of load protection, regulation possibilities and performance levels. It notably ensures independence of the output voltage and frequency with respect to the input voltage and frequency.
Conclusion
Double-conversion UPSs represent the vast majority of the medium to high-power systems sold (90% of the overall UPS market). This is due to their numerous strong points in meeting the needs of sensitive loads at these power ratings and is largely the result of the inverter positioned in series with the AC input.
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UPS components and operation

Components of a UPS
The information that follows concerns the double-conversion UPS, the technology most commonly used for power ratings greater than 10 kVA.
General diagram of a UPS

The various items in figure 74 have been assigned numbers that correspond to the sections on the following pages.
Figure 74: Components of a UPS..
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Power sources and UPS inputs

Practically speaking, a UPS has one or two inputs: Normal AC input (or Mains 1), supplied by primary power, Bypass AC input (or Mains 2), supplied by standby power (generally speaking via a separate cable from the same main lowvoltage switchboard (MLVS). AC Input Power, see page 121 UPS connection to both the primary and standby-power sources (UPS inputs supplied by two separate circuits from the MLVS) is recommended because overall system reliability is increased. However, if two separate circuits from the MLVS are not available, it is possible to have both AC inputs (normal and bypass) supplied by primary power (second cable). Management of transfers between the two input lines is organised as follows. The UPS synchronises the inverter output voltage with that of the bypass line as long as the latter is within tolerances. It is thus possible, if necessary, for the static switch to transfer the load to the bypass AC input, without a break (because the two voltages are synchronised and in phase) or disturbances (because the standby power is within tolerances) for the load; When standby power is not within tolerances, the inverter desynchronises and transfer is disabled. It can, however, by carried out manually.
Components of a UPS
Rectifier/charger (1) Transforms the AC power from the primary-power source into DC voltage and current used to: Supply the inverter, Charge and float charge the battery. Inverter (2) Using the DC power supplied by the: Rectifier during normal operation, Battery during autonomous operation, the inverter completely regenerates a sinusoidal output signal, within strict amplitude and frequency tolerances. Battery (3) Makes the UPS autonomous with respect to the utility in the event of: A utility outage, Utility-power characteristics outside specified tolerances for the UPS. Battery backup times range from 6 to 30 minutes as standard and can be extended on request. Depending on the duration of the backup time, the battery is housed in the UPS cabinet or in a separate cabinet. Static bypass (4) A static switch is used to transfer the load from the inverter to the bypass without any interruption* in the supply of power to the load (no break because the transfer is performed by electronic rather than mechanical components). The switch is possible when the frequencies upstream and downstream of the UPS are identical.
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Transfer takes place automatically for any of the following reasons: Voluntary shutdown of the UPS, An overload exceeding the limiting capacity of the inverter (this transfer can be disabled), An internal fault. It can also be carried out manually. * No-break transfer is possible when the voltages at the inverter output and on the bypass AC input are synchronised. The UPS maintains synchronisation as long as the standby power is within tolerances. Manual bypass (5) A manual switch is used to transfer the load to the bypass for maintenance purposes. The switch is possible when the frequencies upstream and downstream of the UPS are identical. The shift to manual-bypass mode is carried out using manual switches. Manual switches (6, 7, 8) These devices isolate the rectifier/charger and inverter modules and/or the bypass line for servicing or maintenance. Battery circuit breaker (9) The battery circuit breaker protects the battery against excessive discharge, and the rectifier/charger and inverter against a battery short-circuit.
Upstream isolating transformer (10) (optional equipment) Provides UPS input/output isolation when the downstream installation is supplied via the bypass. It is particularly useful when the upstream and downstream system earthing arrangements are different. Voltage-matching transformer (11) (optional equipment) Adapts the voltage to the desired value. Filters (12) (optional equipment) Upstream of the rectifier/charger, when it is of the thyristor-based Graetz bridge type, a harmonic filter (see page 25) reduces the current harmonics resulting from the switching of the rectifier thyristors. This reduces the voltage distortion on the upstream busbars resulting from the flow of harmonic currents (the level required is generally <5%). What is more, these UPS from Caterpillar are equipped with an oversized neutral conductor installed as standard to overcome the consequences of third-order harmonics and their multiples which flow in the neutral conductor; Downstream, UPS implementing new PWM-chopping techniques may be directly connected to non-linear loads. This technique makes it possible for UPS from Caterpillar to maintain the THDU below 3%.
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Built-in communication (13) (14) In addition to the need for a userfriendly human/machine interface for effective monitoring of UPS operation, it is today increasingly important for UPS to communicate with their electrical and computing environment (supervision systems, building management systems (BMS), computer management systems, etc.). UPS from Caterpillar are designed with built-in capacity for total communication and include: A user-friendly human/machine interface (HMI) with an advanced graphic display and mimic panel. The interface is built up around self-monitoring and selfdiagnostic systems that continuously indicate the status of the various UPS components, in particular the batteries. For example: - the Digibat system continuously monitors the status of the battery with full battery management features,
A large selection of communication cards compatible with market standards: - Network Management Card (Ethernet); - Modbus Jbus card (RS232 and RS485); - Relay card (dry contacts) for indications; These cards can be used to implement supervision, notification, controlled shutdown and Teleservice functions. Human-machine interface and Communication: see page 56. Upstream and/or downstream distribution and protection devices (15) (16) (optional equipment) The UPS can be supplied with the following equipment: Upstream LV circuit-breakers for the AC inputs (normal and bypass), Upstream LV switchboard with circuit-breaker protection for the AC inputs (normal and bypass), Downstream LV switchboard with circuit-breaker protection for the different outgoing circuits.
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Main characteristics of UPS components

These characteristics are based on the main technical specifications presented in the IEC 62040-3 / EN 62040-3 standards on UPS performance requirements. Certain terms used here differ from the common jargon and a number of new features have not yet been assimilated by manufacturers. New terms or characteristics used by the standard are indicated between parentheses and preceded by an asterisk. For example, the title of a section input current during battery float charging , a commonly used term, is followed by (*rated input current), the term used in the standard. Note that a number of numerical values are indicated as examples. They are, for the most part, drawn from the technical characteristics of the corresponding UPS or indicated simply for the purposes of the example.
Example: 400 V rms 15% at a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz 5%, three-phase. Bypass AC input The bypass AC input is supplied with standby power. Practically speaking, this a cable connected to a utility feeder in the MLVS other than the one supplying the normal AC input. In general, it supplies voltage with the same characteristics as that of the primary power. Example: 400 V rms 15% at a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz 5%, and a short-circuit current Isc2 = 12.5 kA. The short-circuit current is important information for the downstream protection devices in the event of operation via the static or maintenance bypass. Supply of separate primary and standby power is recommended because it increases overall system reliability, but is not mandatory. However, if two separate circuits from the MLVS are not available, it is possible to have both AC inputs (normal and bypass) supplied by primary power (second cable).
AC input power
Number of phases and system earthing arrangement The AC-input supply (primary power) is three-phase + neutral. Single-phase inputs are not used for the power levels dealt with here. The system earthing arrangement is generally imposed by standards (IT, TT, TNS or TNC). Normal AC input The normal AC input is supplied with utility power for the rectifier/charger, within the specified tolerances.
Rectifier/charger
Floating voltage This is the voltage supplied by the rectifier/charger which keeps the battery fully charged. It depends on the batteries used and the manufacturer's recommendations. Input current during battery float charging (* rated input current) This is the current, under normal operating conditions, required to supply the inverter at its rated power while float charging the battery.
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Example: for a 100 kVA UPS with a battery backup time of 10 minutes, this current is I input float = 166 A while float charging the battery. Input current during battery charging This corresponds to the current required to supply the inverter at its rated power while charging the battery. It is consequently higher than the previous current and is used to size the charger input cables. Example: for the same UPS as above, the input current is I input float = 182 A, i.e. higher than above because it is necessary to charge the battery. Maximum input current This is the input current with the UPS operating under worst-case conditions of permitted overload, with the battery discharged. It is higher than the above input current during battery charging (due to the overload current) but is limited in time (as is the overload). Example: for the same UPS as above, can accept a 25% overload for ten minutes and a 50% overload for one minute. In the worst-case situation with the battery charging, the input current can reach: I input max. = 182 A x 1.25 = 227.5 A for ten minutes, I input max. = 182 A x 1.5 = 273 A for one minute. Beyond the above limits, the UPS initiates no-break transfer of the load to the bypass line and automatically transfers back when the overload has ended or been cleared by the corresponding protection devices.
Battery (* energy storage means)

Type A battery is characterised by its type (vented or sealed lead acid, or nickel/cadmium) and how it is installed. Caterpillar proposes sealed lead-acid batteries mounted in cabinets. Service life This is defined as the operating period, under normal usage conditions, for which the battery supplies at least 50% of the initial backup time. For example, if a UPS is supplied as standard with sealed lead-acid batteries with a service life of ten years or more. This type of battery, rated for 30 minutes of backup time, will contractually supply only 15 minutes at the end of the specified service life. It may supply more if it has been used under optimum conditions (notably concerning the temperature). However, it is contractually guaranteed not to supply less, unless used improperly. Operating modes The battery may be: Charging. It draws a charge current (I1 charge) supplied by the rectifier/charger, Float charging. The battery draws a low, so-called floating current (I1 floating), supplied by the rectifier/charger, which maintains its charge by compensating for open-circuit losses, Discharging. The battery supplies the inverter until its shutdown voltage is reached.
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When this voltage, set by the battery manufacturer, is reached, the battery is automatically disconnected to avoid damage by deep discharge. Rated voltage This is the DC output voltage that the battery supplies to the inverter. Example: 450 V DC. Capacity Battery capacity is expressed in ampere/hours. Example: for a 100 kVA UPS equipped with a battery offering ten minutes of backup time and a service life of five years, the capacity is 85 A/h. Number of cells Number of single battery cells making up the entire battery string. Example: the battery of a 100 kVA UPS comprises, for a given type of battery, 33 cells providing 13.6 V each, for a backup time of ten minutes. Floating voltage This is the DC voltage used to maintain the battery charge, supplied by the rectifier/charger. Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, the floating voltage is between 423 and 463 V DC. Backup time (* stored energy time) This is the time, specified at the beginning of the battery service life, that the battery can supply the inverter operating at full rated load, in the absence of the AC-input supply. This time depends on the UPS percent load.
For a UPS operating at full rated load (100% of rated power), the end of the battery backup time is reached when the battery voltage drops to the shutdown voltage specified by the manufacturer. This provokes automatic shutdown of the UPS. For a UPS operating at a lower percent load (e.g. 75%), the actual backup time may be longer. However, it always ends when the battery shutdown voltage is reached. Recharge time (* rated restored energy time) This is the time required by the battery to recover 80% of its backup time (90% of its capacity), starting from the battery shutdown voltage. The rectifier/charger supplies the power. Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, the recharge time is eight to ten hours, depending on the battery and the backup time. Note that the probability of the battery being called on to supply power twice within such a short period is low. This means the indicated recharge time is representative of actual performance. Maximum battery current (Ib) When discharging, the battery supplies the inverter with a current Ib which reaches its maximum value at the end of discharging. This value determines battery protection and cable dimensions. Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, this current is Ib max = 257 A.
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Inverter
Rated power (Sn) (* rated output apparent power) This is the maximum apparent power Sn (kVA) that the inverter can deliver to a linear load at a power factor of 0.8, during normal operation under steady-state conditions. The standards also define this parameter for operation on battery power. Theoretically speaking, it is the same if the battery is correctly sized. Active output power (Pa) (* rated output active power for linear or reference non-linear load) This is the active power Pa (kW) corresponding to the apparent output power Sn (kVA), under the measurement conditions mentioned above. This value may also be indicated for a standardised reference non-linear load. Example: the previous UPS, with a rated power of 100 kVA supplies an active power of Pa = Sn x 0.8 = 80 kW. Rated current (In) This is the current corresponding to the rated power. Example: again for a 100 kVA UPS and an output voltage of 400 V, this current is: Sn 100000 = = 144.3 A In = Un 3 400 x 1,732 Apparent load power (Su) and percent load This is the apparent power Sn (kVA) actually supplied by the inverter to the load, under the selected operating conditions.
This value is a fraction of the rated power, depending on the percent load. Su Sn. and Tc = Percent load (%) = Su / Sn. Example: for the UPS mentioned above, if the inverter supplies 3/4 of its rated power (75% load), it delivers an apparent power of 75 kVA, which under standard operating conditions (PF = 0.8) corresponds to an active load power of Pa = Su x PF = 75 x 0.8 = 60 kW. Load current (Iu) This is the current corresponding to the load power, that is, to the percent load in question. It is calculated from Pu as for the rated current, where the voltage is the rated voltage Un (value regulated by the inverter). Example: for the UPS mentioned above (75% load) lu = Su 75000 = = 108.2 A Un 3 400 x 1,732
which is the same as: Iu = In x Tc = 144.3 x 0.75 = 108.2 A Efficiency () This is the ratio of active power Pu (kW) supplied by the UPS to the load to the power Pin (kW) that it draws at its input, either by the rectifier or from the battery. = Pu / Pin. For most UPS, efficiency is optimum at full rated load and drops sharply with lower percent loads. Due to their low output impedance and no-load losses.
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Output voltage Un
Number of phases The output can be three-phase (3ph3ph UPS) or single-phase (3ph-1ph UPS), depending on the situation. Note that the upstream and downstream system earthing arrangements may be different. Rated output voltage In general, it is the same as that of the AC input. However, a voltagematching transformer may be installed. Static characteristics These are the tolerances (maximum permissible variations) for the amplitude and frequency of the output voltage under steady-state conditions. Stricter than those applying to utility power, they are measured for normal operation on AC-input power and for operation in battery backup mode. Output voltage variation The amplitude tolerance is expressed as a percentage of the nominal rms value and may be adjustable. Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, the voltage 400 V rms 1% may be adjusted to 3%. The standards also stipulate a rated peak output voltage and the tolerance with respect to the rated value. Output frequency variation The tolerance is expressed as a percentage of the rated frequency. Example: for a 100 kVA UPS, 50 or 60 Hz 0.1% during normal operation on primary power and 0.5% in battery backup mode.
Frequency synchronisation with primary power The inverter supplies an output voltage within the previously mentioned tolerances, regardless of the disturbances affecting the upstream power. To that end, the UPS: Monitors the voltage parameters (amplitude, frequency, phase) for the primarypower source to determine whether they are within specified tolerances, Reacts to any drift in parameters so as to: - readjust the inverter (phase and frequency) to the standby power, as long as the drift remains within tolerances, in view of load transfer, if necessary, - transfer the load to battery power as soon as the drift goes outside tolerances. The new IGBT and PWM chopping technologies used in UPS allow an excellent adaptation to these variations. Example: for UPSs, the maximum variation in frequency corresponding to the tolerance is 50 Hz x 0.5% = 0.25 Hz. Frequency synchronisation with bypass AC power is possible from 0.25 to 2 Hz, in 0.25 Hz steps. Practically speaking, this signifies that frequency variations may be monitored at dF/dt = 0.25 Hz/s and readjustment carried out within 0.25 to 1 second.
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Dynamic characteristics These are the tolerances under transient load conditions. Some UPSs are capable of withstanding the following conditions. Load unbalance For unbalance in the load voltage (phase-to-neutral or phase-tophase) of: - 30%, the output voltage variation is less than 0.1%, - 100% (one phase at Pn and the others at 0), the output voltage does not vary more than 0.2%. Load step changes (voltage transients) For load steps from 0 to 100% or from 100 to 0% of the rated load, the voltage does not vary more than: 2% on utility power; + 2% to -4 % on battery power. Overload and short-circuit capacity Overloads - 1.1 In for 2 hours, - 1.5 In for 1 minute, with no change in the output tolerances. Short-circuits Beyond 1.65 In, inverters may operate in current-limiting mode up to 2.33 In for 1 second, corresponding to: I peak max. = 2 x 1.65 In = 2.33 In.
Beyond this value, the inverter transfers the load to standby power or performs a static shutdown (selfprotection feature). Total output-voltage distortion UPSs must guarantee performance levels for all types of loads, including non-linear loads. Example: some UPSs limit the voltage total harmonic distortion (THDU) in output power to the following levels for: 100% linear loads: - THDU ph/ph < 1.5 %, - THDU ph/N < 2%, 100% non-linear loads: - THDU ph/ph < 2 %, - THDU ph/N < 3%. General note. The standard specifies certain of the previously mentioned performance levels for output power during normal operation and operation on backup power. In general, they are identical.
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Summary diagram for main characteristics
Figure 75: Diagram showing the main characteristics (see the following list)..
Normal AC input:
Voltage Un + 10% to - 15%, Frequency f + 4% to - 6%.
Inverter:
Apparent output power: - rated: Sn (kVA), - load power: Su (kVA) = Sn x Tc%. UPS percent load Tc% = Su / Sn, Active output power: - rated: Pn (kW) = Sn (kVA) x 0.8, - load power: Pu (kW) = Su (kVA) x PF = Sn x Tc% x PF = Un Iu PF , Efficiency: Pu / Pn = 93%, Static characteristics (outputvoltage tolerances under steady-state conditions): - amplitude: Un 1% adjustable to 3%, - frequency: f 1% during normal operation, f 0.5% in battery backup mode, - inverter output voltage synchronised (frequency and phase) with that of the standby power as long as the latter is within tolerances,
Bypass AC input:
Voltage Un + 10% to - 15%, Frequency f + 4% to - 6%, Short-circuit current Isc2 (withstand capacity of the static bypass).
Rectifier/charger:
Floating voltage, Input currents: - rated (battery float charging), - maximum (battery charging).
Battery:
Backup time: standard 5, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60 minutes, longer times on request), Service life: 10 years or longer, Maximum current Ib max.
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Dynamic characteristics (tolerances under transient conditions): - maximum voltage and frequency variations for load step changes from 0% to 100% or 100% to 0%: Un 2%, f 0.5%, Output voltage distortion: - 100% non-linear loads THDU < 2%, Overload and short circuit capacity: - overloads: 1.5 In for 1 minute, - short-circuits: current limiting to 2.33 In for 1 second. Load: Load current (Iu), Power factor PF .
The remaining current is supplied to the inverter with generates an outputvoltage sine-wave within the specified amplitude and frequency tolerances.
Backup mode (on battery power, see figure 76)

The energy storage steps in to replace primary power and supplies the power required by the inverter for the load, with the same tolerances as in normal mode. This takes place through immediate transfer (the energy storage is parallel connected) in the event of: Normal AC-input failure (utility-power outage), Normal AC input outside tolerances (degradation of utility-power voltage).
UPS operating modes

Normal mode (on utility power, see figure 76)
The UPS draws the AC utility power required to operate via the rectifier/ charger which provides DC current. Part of the utility power drawn is used to charge or float charge the battery: I1 floating, if the battery is already fully charged, I1 charge if the battery is not fully charged (i.e. charging following a recent discharge).
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Figure 76: Normal mode and battery backup mode..
Bypass mode (on static-bypass line, see figure 77)

A static switch (SS) ensures no-break transfer of the load to the bypass AC input for direct supply of the load by standby power. Transfer is automatic in the event of: An overload downstream of the UPS exceeding its overload capacity, An internal fault in the rectifier/ charger and inverter modules. Transfer always takes place for internal faults, but otherwise is possible only if the voltage of the standby power is within tolerances and in phase with the inverter. To that end: The UPS synchronises the inverter output voltage with that of the bypass line as long as the latter is within tolerances. Transfer is then possible:
- without a break in the supply of power. Because the voltages are in phase, the SCRs on the two channels of the static switch have zero voltage at the same time, - without disturbing the load. The load is transferred to a bypass line that is within tolerances. When standby power is not within tolerances, the inverter desynchronises and operates autonomously with its own frequency. Transfer is disabled. It can, however, by carried out manually.
Note 1. This function greatly increases reliability due to the very small probability of a downstream overload and a standby-power failure occurring at the same time.
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Note 2. To ensure correct operation of the bypass line, discrimination must be ensured between the protection device upstream of the bypass AC input (on the MLVS outgoer) and those on the UPS outgoing circuits (see information on discrimination that follows).
Maintenance mode (on maintenance bypass, see figure 77)

Maintenance is possible without interrupting load operation. The load is supplied with standby power via the maintenance bypass. Transfer to the maintenance bypass is carried out using manual switches. The rectifier/charger, inverter and static switch are shut down and isolated from power sources. The battery is isolated by its protection circuit breaker.
Figure 77: Bypass mode and maintenance mode..
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UPS configurations
Parallel UPS with redundancy
Types of possible configurations is entirely devoted to a presentation of the various configurations. Below is some additional information on parallel connection for redundancy. Configurations, see Types of possible configurations . Types of parallel configurations There are two types of parallel configurations. Integrated parallel UPS units This upgradeable configuration can be started using a single UPS unit with an integrated static bypass and manual maintenance bypass. For configurations with more than two UPS units, a common maintenance bypass is housed in an external cubicle (see figure 78). Parallel UPS units with a centralised static-switch cubicle (SSC) The static-switch cubicle comprises an automatic bypass and a maintenance bypass that are common for a number of UPS units without a bypass (see figure 79). This configuration, less upgradeable than the previous due to the rating of the bypass, offers greater reliability (SSC and UPS units are independent).
Modular UPSs UPSs of the modular range are made up of dedicated and redundant modules (power, intelligence, battery and bypass). Modular design with plug-in power modules improves dependability, in particular maintainability and availability, as well the upgradeability of the installation. Redundancy Redundancy in parallel configurations can be N + 1, N + 2, etc. This means that N UPS units are required to supply the load, but N + 1 or N + 2 are installed and they all share the load. See the following example. Example Consider a critical load with a 100 kVA rating, 2+1 redundancy: - 2 UPS units must be capable of fully supplying the load if redundancy is lost, - each UPS unit must therefore have a 50 kVA rating, - 3 UPS units normally share the 100 kVA load, i.e. each supplies 33.3 kVA, - the 3 UPS units normally operate at a percent load of 33.3 / 50 = 66.6%, - integrated parallel UPS units are each equipped with a static bypass. Transfer is managed such that the three UPS units transfer to the bypass simultaneously, if necessary.
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Figure 78: Integrated parallel UPS units with common maintenance bypass. and 2+1 redundancy. Operation with all units OK (redundancy available).
Loss of redundancy: - one UPS unit shuts down, the two remaining units operate at 100%, - the faulty UPS unit can be serviced due to the maintenance bypass.
Figure 79: Integrated parallel UPS units with common maintenance bypass. and 2 + 1 redundancy. Operation following loss of redundancy.
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Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

Electromagnetic disturbances
Electromagnetic disturbances
All electromagnetic disturbances involve three elements. A source A natural source (atmosphere, earth, sun, etc.) or, more often, an industrial source (electrical and electronic devices). The source generates disturbances through sudden (pulse) variations in electrical values (voltage or current), defined by: A wave form, A wave amplitude (peak value), A spectrum of frequencies, A level of energy. A coupling mode Coupling enables transmission of disturbances and may be: Capacitive (or galvanic), for example via transformer windings, Inductive, by a radiating magnetic field, Conducted, by a common impedance, via an earthing connection. A victim This is any device likely to be disturbed, and which malfunctions due to the presence of the disturbances.
Examples
Sources In low-voltage installations, sources include suddenly varying currents resulting from: Faults or short-circuits, Electronic switching, High-order harmonics, Lightning or transformer breakdown. Frequencies may be low (< 1 MHz) for power frequencies and their harmonics or high (> 1 MHz) for lightning. Coupling Capacitive: transmission of a lightning wave via a transformer. Inductive: radiation of a magnetic field created by one of the previously mentioned currents. Radiation creates an induced electromotive force, that is an induced disturbing current, in the loops of conductors made up of the cables supplying devices and the earthing conductors of the devices. As in indication, a radiation of 0.7 A/m can disturb a video monitor. That corresponds to the field created 2.2 m around a conductor carrying a current of 10 A. Conducted (common impedance): increase in the potential of an earthing connection.
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EMC standards and recommendations

Disturbances
Emission, immunity, susceptibility An electric device is installed in an environment that may be more or less disturbed electromagnetically. It must be seen as both a source and possible victim of electromagnetic disturbances. Depending on the point of view, on may speak of: The emission level for a source, The compatibility level for an environment, The immunity and susceptibility levels for a victim. These notions are discussed on the next page in the section on disturbance levels defined by the standards. Disturbance levels Standard IEC 6100-2-4 defines a number of disturbance levels for EMC: Level 0: no disturbance, Emission level: maximum level authorised for a user on a public utility or for a device, Compatibility level: maximum disturbance level expected in a given environment, Immunity level: level of disturbance that a device can withstand, Susceptibility level: level starting at which a device or system malfunctions. Consequently, for devices and equipment that are considered:
- Sources, limits (emission levels) must be set for disturbances emitted by devices to avoid reaching compatibility levels, - Victims, they must also withstand disturbance levels higher than the compatibility levels, if they are exceeded, which is permissible on a transient basis. These higher levels are the immunity levels. EMC standards set these levels. List of EMC standards, see the section on page 146 on EMC standards.
Figure 80: EMC disturbance levels for. disturbing/disturbed devices.
Measured values
Devices are subjected to tests. Five major values are measured: CE - conducted emissions, RE - radiated emissions, ESD - electrostatic discharges, CS - conducted susceptibility, RS - radiated susceptibility.
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The tests require major resources, namely a Faraday cage for conducted emissions and susceptibility and an anechoic chamber for radiated emissions.
Figure 81: Five major measurement values..
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Battery UPS
UPS standards
Scope and observance of standards
Scope of standards
Standards cover the following aspects: UPS design, Safety of persons, Performance levels, Electrical environment (notably harmonic disturbances and EMC), Ecological environment. Standards on UPS have become much more precise, notably with the creation of the European EN standards and their harmonisation with a part of the previously existing IEC standards. It is mandatory for free circulation of goods in the EU. Its purpose is to guarantee, through respect of the corresponding European directives: That the product is not dangerous (Low-voltage Directive), That it does not pollute (Environment Directive) and its electromagnetic compatibility (EMC Directive). Before placing the CE marking on a product, the manufacturer must run or have run checks and tests which ensure conformity of the product with the requirements in the applicable directive(s). It is NOT a certification standard or mark of conformity. It does not signify that the product complies with national or international standards. It is not a certification as defined by French law (law dated 3 June 1994). What is more, the CE marking is placed on a product under the exclusive responsibility of the manufacturer or the importer. It does not imply inspection by a certified external organisation. Not all labels carry the same implications for manufacturers.
Observance of standards and certification

Observance of standards guarantees the reliability and the quality of a UPS, its compatibility with the loads supplied as well as with the technical, human and natural environment. Statement by a manufacturer of conformity with standards is not, in itself, a sufficient indication of quality. Only certification by recognised organisations is a true guarantee of conformity. To that end, performance levels of UPSs from Caterpillar with respect to standards are certified by organisations such as TV and Veritas.
CE marking
CE marking was created by European legislation.
Conformity with standards and specified levels of performance must be certifiable by an organisation. This is not the case for CE marking which authorises selfcertification.
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Main standards governing UPS

UPS from Caterpillar comply (certified by TV and Veritas) with the main applicable international standards.
IEC 61000-3-5 / EN 61000-3-5 Limitation of voltage fluctuations and flicker. EN 50160 Voltage characteristics of public networks (see table 23). IEEE 519 Recommended practices and requirements for harmonic control in electrical power systems. EMC EN 50091-2 UPS - EMC. IEC 62040-2/ EN 62040-2 Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) - Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements. EMC Directive 2004/108/EC For equipment liable to cause or be affected by electromagnetic disturbances.
Safety
IEC 60950-1 / EN 60950-1 Information technology equipment - Safety - Part: General requirements IEC 62040-1/ EN 62040-1 Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) - General and safety requirements for UPS. IEC 62040-3 / EN 1000-3 Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) - Method of specifying the test and performance requirements. IEC 60439 Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies. LV directive: 2006/95/EC
Electrical environment, harmonics and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

Harmonics IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 61000-2-2 Compatibility levels for lowfrequency conducted disturbances and signalling in public lowvoltage power supply systems. (see table 22) IEC 61000-3-2 / EN 61000-3-2 Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current 16 A/ph). IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-4 Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current > 16 A/ph).
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Quality
Design , production and servicing in compliance with standard ISO 9001 - quality organisation.
Ecological environment
Manufacturing in compliance with standard ISO 14001.
Acoustic noise
ISO 3746 Sound power levels. ISO 7779 / EN 27779 Measurement of airborne noise emitted by computer and business equipment.
Battery UPS
Tables on harmoniccompatibility levels

Compatibility levels for individual harmonic voltages in low voltage networks as indicated in standard IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 61000-2-2.
Odd harmonics non-multiple of 3 Harmonic order n 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 25 >25 Odd harmonics multiple of 3 Even harmonics
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic order Harmonic order voltage as a % voltage as a % voltage as a % n n of fundamental of fundamental of fundamental 6 5 3.5 3 2 1.5 1.5 1.5 0.2 + 0.5 x 25/n 3 9 15 21 >21 5 1.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 2 4 6 8 10 12 >12 2 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2
Resulting THDU < 8% (for all harmonics encountered among those indicated)
Table 22..
Compatibility levels for harmonic voltages according to the type of equipment as indicated in standard EN 50160.
Order of the voltage harmonic generated 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 TDHU
(1)
Class 1 (sensitive systems and equipment) % of fundamental 2 3 1 3 0.5 3 0.5 1.5 0.5 3 0.2 3 5%
Class 2 (1) (industrial and public networks) % of fundamental 2 5 1 6 0.5 5 0.5 1.5 0.5 3.5 0.2 3 8%
Class 1 (for connection of major polluters) % of fundamental 3 6 1.5 8 1 7 1 2.5 1 5 1 4.5 10%
Class 2 corresponds to the limits of Table A of standard IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 61000-2-2
Table 23..
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Battery UPS
Energy storage
Possible technologies
Energy storage in UPS
The energy-storage systems used by UPSs to backup the primary source must have the following characteristics: Immediate availability of electrical power, Sufficient power rating to supply the load, Sufficient backup time and/or compatibility with systems providing long backup times (e.g. an engine generator set or fuel cells).
Batteries
The battery solution
Batteries are by far the most commonly employed solution today for energy storage in UPSs. They are the dominant solution due to low cost, proven effectiveness and storage capacity, but nonetheless have a number of disadvantages in terms of size, maintenance and the environment. At the power ratings under consideration, they offer backup times in the tenminute range, enough to ride through long outages and wait for start-up of an engine generator set for extended runtime. Electrochemical energy storage using batteries, where applicable backed up by a thermal engine generator set, is the commonly used solution to protect critical loads using a UPS.
Figure 82: Energy storage using a battery and an engine generator set for long backup times..
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Battery UPS
Types of industrial batteries

Battery families A battery is a set of interconnected cells. Depending on the type of cell, there are two main families of batteries: Lead-acid batteries, Nickel cadmium batteries. Cells may also be of the: Recombination type sealed batteries. The gas recombination rate is at least 95% and they therefore do not require water to be added during service life (hence the term sealed), Vented type vented batteries They are equipped with ports to: - release to the atmosphere the oxygen and hydrogen produced during the different chemical reactions, - top off the electrolyte by adding distilled or demineralised water. Batteries used in a UPS The main types of batteries used in conjunction with UPSs are: Sealed lead-acid batteries, used 95% of the time because they are easy to maintain and do not require a special room, these batteries can be installed in office environments and in any position, Vented lead-acid batteries,
Vented nickel-cadmium batteries. Vented batteries impose greater constraints in terms of maintenance (checks on the electrolyte level) and their position (only in the vertical position). Lithium-polymer batteries are currently being studied for use in UPSs. Battery selection, see page 54.
Installation modes
Depending on the UPS range, the battery capacity and backup time, the battery is: Sealed type and housed in the UPS cabinet, Sealed type and housed in one to three cabinets, Vented or sealed type and rackmounted. Cabinet mounting This installation method (see figure 83) is suitable for sealed batteries. It is easy to implement and offers maximum safety. Batteries installed on racks: On shelves (figure 84). This installation method is possible for sealed batteries or maintenancefree vented batteries which do not require topping up of their electrolyte, Tier mounting (figure 85). This installation method is suitable for all types of batteries and for vented batteries in particular, as level checking and filling are made easy.
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Access
Access must be provided for testing operations. Battery installed in UPS cabinet or other cabinet: comply with the clearances indicated in the Dimensions and weights .
Figure 83: Cabinet mounting..
Battery installed on racks: select an installation method suited to the type of battery. Preliminary work: this aspect is important as it involves safety. It is discussed in page 58.
Main battery parameters

Figure 84: Mounting on shelves..
Backup time For a given battery, the backup time depends on: The power that must be supplied, a low value increases the available autonomy,
Figure 85: Tier mounting..
Constraints on batteries
Atmospheric constraints
The batteries supplied with UPSs are typically designed to operate under the following conditions: Optimum temperature range: 15C to 25C, Optimum relative humidity range: 5% to 95%, Atmospheric pressure: 700 to 1060 hPa (0.7 to 1.06 bars). For other operating conditions, please consult us.
The discharge conditions, a high discharge rate makes possible a lower shutdown voltage and thus increases the backup time, Temperature, within the recommended operating limits, the backup time increases with increasing temperature. Note, however, that a high temperature adversely affects battery service life, Aging, battery backup time decreases with the age of the battery. Service life A battery is considered to reach the end of its service life when its real backup time has fallen to 50% of the specified backup time.
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Battery UPS
The service life of a battery is basically enhanced by: Providing protection against deep discharge, Correct charger settings, in particular the ripple factor of the charge or float current, An optimum operating temperature, maintained between 15C and 25C.
Recharge mode
The charge cycle takes place in two steps: Step 1, a constant current limited to 0.1 C10 (one tenth of the battery capacity for a ten-hour discharge), Step 2, a constant voltage, at the maximum permissible value. The charge current regularly decreases and reaches the floating value.
Figure 86: Battery charge cycle..
Battery management
DigibatTM To manage the previously mentioned parameters, all UPS from Caterpillar come as standard with the microprocessor-based DigibatTM battery-monitoring system (dedicated DSP for real-time processing). DigibatTM, an easy-to-use system, offers advanced and flexible functions as well as physical and computer-aided protection for the battery. It provides a high level of safety, true measurement of the backup time and optimises battery service life. Some functions included are: Automatic entry of battery parameters,
Measurement of the real backup time remaining, taking into account the age of the battery, the temperature and the load level, Estimate of remaining battery life, Battery test to preventively detect battery-function faults, Regulation of battery voltage with respect to the temperature to optimise battery life, Automatic battery-discharge test at adjustable time intervals.
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Protection includes: Protection against deep discharge (depending on the discharge rate) and battery isolation using a circuit breaker which automatically opens when the backup time, multiplied by two plus two hours, has elapsed, Limiting of the recharge current in the battery (0.05 C10 to 0.1 C10), Progressive audio alarm signalling the end of the backup time, Numerous automatic tests.
Figure 87: Digibat TM.

Temperature monitoring UPS can also be equipped with the Temperature Monitoring module used to: Optimise the charger voltage depending on the temperature in the battery room, Warn the user if preset permissible temperature limits are exceeded, Refine the estimate on battery backup time carried out by the standard system $.
Natural ventilation of battery cabinets avoids battery temperature rise. Environment Sensor is also a simple means to monitor temperature and humidity. It can be used to launch shutdown when combined with software running the module.
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Battery UPS
UPS / generator-set combination

Use of a generator
Long backup times
An engine generator set is made up of an internal-combustion engine driving a generator that supplies the distribution system. The backup time of an enginegenerator set depends on the quantity of fuel available. In some installations, the required backup time in the event of a utility outage is such that it is preferable to use an engine generator set to back up utility power (figure 88). This solution avoids using large batteries with very long backup times. Though there is no general rule in the matter, a generator is often used for backup times exceeding 30 minutes. Critical installations requiring very high availability levels and with high down-time costs (e.g. data centres) systematically combine UPS and engine generator sets. The battery backup time of the UPS must be sufficient for generator startup and connection to the electrical installation. Connection is generally carried out on the main LV switchboard using an automatic source-changeover system. The time required for changeover depends on the specific characteristics of each installation, notably the start-up sequence, load shedding, etc.
Figure 88: UPS / generator-set combination..

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Battery UPS
UPS / generator-set compatibility

A number of factors must be taken into account when using an engine generator set to provide long backuptime power to a UPS. Load step changes In the event of emergency conditions requiring connection of the installation to the generator set, heavy loads can result in high inrush currents which can cause serious generator-set operating problems.
To avoid such phenomena, UPSs from Caterpillar are equipped with a system ensuring gradual start-up of the charger. The walk-in lasts approximately ten seconds. What is more, when utility power returns, the charger may be stopped gradually via an auxiliary switch in order to avoid disturbing the other loads.
Figure 89: Gradual start of the UPS rectifier during operation on generator power..
Capacitive currents The generator can supply only relatively low capacitive currents (10 to 30 % of In). When an LC filter is installed, the main difficulty lies in the gradual start-up of the rectifier on generator power, when active power is equal to zero and the generator supplies only the capacitive current for the filter. Consequently, the use of LC filters must be correctly analysed to ensure that operation complies with manufacturer specifications. Use of compensated LC filters with a contactor solves this problem. For UPSs with a PFC rectifier, compatibility is total. LC filters and generators, see page 26.
Respective UPS and generator power ratings A UPS equipped with a PFC rectifier has a high input power factor (greater than 0.9). The engine generator set can therefore be used to maximum effectiveness. For LC filters, compensated filters with a contactor solve the problem concerning capacitive currents. Compatibility of power ratings between modern UPSs and engine generator sets avoids all problems of derating.
Battery UPS
Stability of generator frequency During operation on engine generator set power, fluctuation in the generator frequency may occur due to variations in the speed of the thermal motor for which the regulation functions are not instantaneous. These variations are due to changes in the load. Examples are start-up of the engine generator set itself (until it reaches its rated speed), start-up of other loads supplied by the engine generator set (elevators, air-conditioning systems), or shedding of loads. This may create problems with a lineinteractive UPS whose output frequency is identical to that of the input. Generator frequency variations may lead to multiple transfers to the energy storage (frequency outside tolerances) and returns to input power (when the inverter has stabilised the frequency, but the generator itself has not yet stabilised), resulting in hunting phenomena (instability around the frequency setpoint). With a double-conversion UPS, the regulation of the output power by the inverter avoids this problem. Double-conversion UPS are totally compatible with the frequency fluctuations of engine generator sets. This is lesser so with lineinteractive UPS. Harmonics The subtransient reactance X"d of a generator is generally higher than the short-circuit voltage Uscx of a transformer (two to four times higher). Any harmonic currents drawn by the UPS rectifier may have greater impact on the voltage harmonic distortion on
the upstream busbars. With PFC rectifier technology, the absence of upstream harmonics avoids this problem.
Review of inrush currents

On start-up, a number of loads cause major inrush currents (switching surges, startup peaks), which last a certain time. For the UPS, these currents represent an apparent load Sa (kVA) that is greater than Sn (kVA), which can be supplied under steady-state conditions. The value of Sa to be taken into account in sizing UPS power is calculated on the basis of these inrush currents. Below are indications on these currents caused by common load devices.
Motors
Motors are generally of the threephase asynchronous type (95% of all motors). The additional power requirement corresponds to the startup current defined by (figure 90): Id (5 to 8 In, rated rms value) for a time td (1 to 10 seconds), Imax = 8 to 12 In, for 20 to 30 milliseconds. The power drawn that must be taken into account (neglecting the peak effect of Imax) is: Sa (kVA) = Un Id 3 during td.
LV/LV transformers
Transformer switching produces current peaks with amplitudes that are damped
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Battery UPS
according to an exponential decay with a time constant (see figure 91). i = I1st peak exp -t/ where is a few cycles (30 to 300 ms), I1st peak = k In (where k is given, generally 10 to 20). Indications generally include the number of cycles the phenomenon lasts and the value of the various peaks as a percentage of I1st peak. The corresponding inrush current is generally calculated on the basis of (see example): Sa (kVA) = Un I1st peak 3 , i.e. Sa (kVA) = k Un In 3 during the number of cycles, Example of an inrush current damped in four cycles with: - 1st peak (100%): k In (k from 10 to 20), - 2nd peak 30 %: 0.3 k In, - 3rd peak 15 %: 0.15 k In. The total of the rms values of the currents corresponding to the various peaks (Ipeak / 2) (1) is: k ln (1 + 0,3 + 0,15) = K ln 1,45 k ln 2 2 This is roughly equivalent to the value of the first peak alone.
half wave of approximately 2 In. However, it is generally much lower than this and can be neglected.
Figure 90: Curve for direct online starting. of a three-phase asynchronous motor.
Figure 91: LV/LV transformer.. switching current.
Figure 92: Computer load starting current...
(1) Considering the current peaks as sine waves; note that some manufacturers indicate an rms value of Ipeak / 2.
Computer loads
Switch-mode power supplies are non-linear loads. The current for a single-phase load has a wave form similar to that shown in figure 95. There can be a peak during the first
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Battery UPS
Harmonics
Harmonics
Origin of harmonics
The increasing use of computing, telecommunications and powerelectronics devices have multiplied the number of non-linear loads connected to power systems. These applications require switchmode power supplies which transform the voltage sine wave into periodic signals of different wave forms. All these periodic signals of frequency f are the product of superimposed sinusoidal signals with frequencies that are multiples of f, known as harmonics (see the section Characteristic harmonic values dealing with the Fourier theorem on page 159). Figure 93 illustrates this showing the initial current (the fundamental) and the third-order harmonic.
Figure 93: Example of harmonics...

The increased presence of harmonics is a phenomenon that concerns all electrical installations, commercial and industrial, as well as residential. No modern electrical environment is exempt from these disturbances caused by devices such as PCs, servers, fluorescent tubes, airconditioners, variable-speed drives, discharge lamps, rectifiers, static power supplies, microwave ovens, televisions, halogen lamps, etc. All these loads are termed non-linear .
Consequences of harmonics
Harmonics disturb, increasingly severely, all sorts of activities, ranging from factories producing electronic components and data-processing systems to pumping stations, telecommunications systems, television studios, etc., because they represent a significant part of the current drawn.
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There are three types of negative consequences for users: Impact on the electrical installation Harmonics increase the value of the rms current with respect to that of the rated sinusoidal current. The result is temperature rise (sometimes significant) in lines, transformers, generators, capacitors, cables, etc. The hidden costs of accelerated aging in such devices can be very high. Impact on applications Harmonic currents circulate in the source and line impedances, thus generating voltage harmonics which lead to voltage distortion on the busbars upstream of the non-linear loads (figure 94). The distortion of the supply voltage (upstream THDU - Total harmonic distortion in voltage) may disturb the operation of certain sensitive devices connected to the these busbars. What is more, for TNC systems where N and PE conductors are combined to form a PEN conductor, the zerosequence third-order harmonics cumulate in the neutral conductor. This unbalance current in the neutral can disturb circuits interconnecting low-current devices and may require oversizing of the neutral.
Impact on the available electrical power Harmonics represent an outright loss of current (up to 30% more current consumed). The user must pay more for less available power.
Precautions
General There are a number of traditional solutions to limit harmonics: Installation of tuned passive filters, Installation in parallel of several cables with medium-sized cross sections, Separation of non-linear loads and sensitive loads behind isolating transformers. However, these solutions have two major disadvantages: Limitation of harmonics is effective only in the existing installation (the addition or removal of loads can render it ineffective), Implementation is difficult in existing installations. Active harmonic conditioners (see page 98) avoid these disadvantages. Much more effective than other solutions, they may be used with all types of loads and can selectively eliminate harmonics ranging from the 2nd to the 25th order. UPS Due to the rectifier/charger, a UPS is a non-linear load for its power source. UPS from Caterpillar offer perfect control over upstream harmonics by using clean PFC rectifiers or filters.
Figure 94: Voltage distortion due to reinjection of harmonic currents by non-linear loads.
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Battery UPS
Upstream of the UPS, the total voltage distortion remains within limits that are acceptable for the other devices connected to the same busbars.
IHn is the rms value of the nth harmonic, at frequency nf, n is the phase displacement between the nth harmonic current and the voltage. It is important to evaluate the harmonics (n 2) with regards to the fundamental (n = 1) to determine to what degree the function differs from the fundamental. To that end, the values shown next are taken into account. Current individual harmonic content This value expresses the ratio in percent between of the rms value of the given harmonic and that of the fundamental. Ihn% = 100 IHn IH1
Characteristic harmonic values

Current values
Harmonic expansion of a periodic current The Fourier theorem indicates that any periodic function with a frequency f may be represented as the sum of terms (series) composed of: A sinusoidal term with frequency f, called the fundamental frequency, Sinusoidal terms with frequencies that are whole multiples of the fundamental frequency, i.e. the harmonics, A DC component, where applicable. Application of the Fourier theorem to the currents of non-linear loads indicates that a periodic current I(t), of whatever form at frequency f (50 or 60 Hz), is the sum of harmonic sinusoidal currents defined by:
All the harmonics present in a given current with the indication of their relative importance (Ihn values) constitute the harmonic spectrum of the current. Generally speaking, the influence of the orders above the 25th is negligible.
I(t) = IH12 sin(t + 1) + IHn2 sin(nt+n)

n=2
where IH1 is the rms value of the fundamental current at frequency f (50 or 60 Hz), = 2 f is the angular frequency of the fundamental, 1 is the phase displacement between the fundamental current and the voltage,
Battery UPS
Current total harmonic distortion This distortion is called THDI (Total Harmonic Distortion where I is for the current). It expresses the ratio between the rms value of all harmonics (n 2) and that of the fundamental. The THDI is also expressed in terms of the individual harmonics.
THDI%=100
IH n=2
IH1
2 n
=100
n=2
IHn 2 = IH1
(Ihn%)2
n=2
Note. Harmonic contents are sometimes expressed with respect to the complete signal Irms, and not the fundamental (IEC documents). Here, we use the definition of the CIGREE, which uses the fundamental. For the low harmonic contents analysed in the following pages, the two definitions produce virtually identical results. Rms value of a current with harmonics The rms value of an alternating current with a period T is: 1 T l(t)2dt Irms = T O After calculation and using harmonic representation, this can be expressed as:
The rms value is also expressed as:

Irms =
IH12 + IHn2 or:

n=2
Ieff = IH1
2 1+ IHn hence: n=2 IH1
Irms = IH1
1+ Ihn2 = IH1 1+THDI2

n=2
Ihn = Ihn% / 100 (individual level expressed as a value and not as a percentage), THDI = THDI% / 100 (distortion expressed as a value and not as a percentage). The rms value of the current is that of the fundamental, multiplied by a coefficient which is due to the harmonics and is a function of the distortion. One effect of harmonics is therefore to increase the rms value of the current, which can lead to temperature rise and therefore require oversizing of conductors. The lower the distortion, the less need for oversizing.
Irms =
IHn2 nth
n=1
where IHn = rms value of the harmonic.
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Battery UPS
Example
Input current of a three-phase rectifier.
Figure 95: Example of the spectrum of a harmonic current..

THDI%=
n=2
(Ihn%)2
Voltage values
At the terminals of a non-linear load, through which a distorted periodic AC current flows, the voltage is also periodic with a frequency f and it is also distorted with respect to the theoretical sinusoidal wave. The relation between voltage and current is no longer governed by Ohm's linear law, because it is applicable only for sinusoidal voltage and current. It is possible, however, to use a Fourier expansion for the voltage and to define, similar to the current and with the same results, the following values: Voltage individual harmonic content UHn% = 100UHn Uh1
The value under the square root sign is: 332 + 2.72 + 7.32 + 1.62 + 2.62 + 1.12 + 1.52 + 1.32 = 1164 consequently THDI% 34% and THDI = 0.34. Ieff = IH11 + THDI2 = IH1 1 + 0.342 = 1.056 x I1 The rms value of this current is therefore 5.6% higher than the rms value of the fundamental, i.e. than the rated current containing no harmonics, with a corresponding temperature rise.
The harmonic spectrum can also be calculated for the voltage.
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Voltage total harmonic distortion
THDU%=100
UH n=2
IH1
2 n
=100
n=2
UHn UH1
(Uh ) n=2
n
THDU for Total Harmonic Distortion, where U is for the voltage. Rms value of a voltage with harmonics Irms =
where P1 and S1 are the active and reactive power, respectively, corresponding to the fundamentals. Standard IEC 146-1 defines the distortion factor: = cos 1
n=1
IHn2
Which, similar to the current, can also be expressed as: Urms =UH1
1+Uh = IH1 1+THDU

2 n
n=2
When there are no harmonics, this factor is equal to 1 and the power factor is simply the cos . Power in the presence of harmonics Across the terminals of a balanced, three-phase linear load, supplied with a phase-tophase voltage u(t) and a current I(t), where the displacement between u and i is , the apparent power in kVA, depending on the rms values U and I, is: S = UI3 The active power in kW is: P = S cos The reactive power in kvar is: Q = S sin Where: S = P2 + Q2 At the terminals of a non-linear load, the mathematical definition of P is much more complex because U and I contain harmonics. It can however be expressed simply as: P = S ( = power factor)
The rms value of the voltage is that of the fundamental, multiplied by a coefficient which is due to the harmonics.
Power values
Power factor in the presence of harmonics On the basis of the active power at the terminals of a non-linear load P (kW) and the apparent power supplied S (kVA), the power factor is defined by: = P(kW) S(kVA)
This power factor does not express the phase displacement between the voltage and the current because they are not sinusoidal. However, it is possible to define the displacement between the voltage fundamental and the current fundamental (both sinusoidal), by: cos 1 = P1(kW) S1(kVA)
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If U1 and I1 are the fundamentals displaced by 1, it is possible to calculate the corresponding apparent, active and reactive power by: S1 = U1I13 P1 = S1 cos 1 and Q1 = S1 sin 1. The total apparent power is: S = P12 + Q12 + D2 where D is the distortion power, due to the harmonics.
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Non-linear loads and PWM technology

Non-linear load performance of UPS using PWM technology
Importance of the UPS output impedance
Equivalent diagram of an inverter output With respect to the load, an inverter is a perfect source of sinusoidal voltage V0 in series with an output impedance Zs. Figure 96 shows the equivalent diagram of the inverter output when a load is present.
Figure 96: Equivalent diagram of an inverter output..

Effects of different load types For a linear load, the impedances Zs, ZL, Zc are considered at the angular frequency = 2 f corresponding to the distribution frequency (f = 50 or 60 Hz), giving V0 = (Zs + ZL + Zc) I, For a non-linear load, the harmonic currents drawn by the load flow through the impedances. For the fundamental and each individual harmonic, the rms values of the current and the voltage are related similarly and can be expressed as: - for the fundamental: U1 = (Zs + ZL + Zc) I1 - for each harmonic order k: UK = [Zs(kf) + ZL(kf) + Zc(kf)] IK
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The impedance values are considered at the frequency kf of the given order. Voltage distortion decreases with the individual levels of the voltage harmonics UK / U1. These levels are related to those of the harmonic currents IK/ I1 by the equation: [Zs(kf) + ZL(kf) + Zc(kf)] / (Zs + ZL + Zc). Consequently, for a given load current spectrum, the individual voltage harmonic levels and the total distortion (THDU) decrease with the impedance of the source and the cables at the given frequencies. Consequences of non-linear loads To reduce the effects of the harmonic currents (THDU at B and C), it is necessary, to the greatest extent possible, to: reduce the line impedance, ensure a low source impedance at the various harmonic frequencies.
Good behaviour on the part of a UPS supplying non-linear loads requires a low output impedance at the various harmonic frequencies. Below is a presentation of the advantages of the PWM (pulse width modulation) chopping technique in this respect.
UPS operating principle

Chopping of the DC voltage by the inverter with filtering An inverter is made up of a converter that transforms the DC power supplied by the rectifier/charger or the battery into AC power. For example, on a single-phase UPS, there are two ways to convert the DC power, using either a half bridge (see figure 97) or a full bridge (see figure 98). The square-wave voltage obtained between A and B is then filtered to produce a sinusoidal voltage with a low level of distortion at the output.
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Figure 97: Half-bridge DC/AC converter. Figure 98: Full-bridge DC/AC converter..
Practically speaking, the switches shown in figures 97 and 98 are IGBTs for which it is possible to control the relative on and off times. By controlling the on and off times, it is possible to distribute the voltage over the reference sinusoidal wave. This principle is known as PWM (pulse width modulation). It is shown in a simplified manner, with five squarewave pulses, in figure 99. The area of the voltage sinusoidal wave is equal to that of the square-wave pulses used to generate it. These areas represent the power supplied by the inverter to the load over a given time, i.e.
The higher the chopping frequency (the higher the number of squarewave pulses), the better the regulation with respect to the reference wave. Chopping also reduces the size of the internal filter required on the LC output (see figure 100).
five square-wave pulses per half-wave.
Figure 99: DC/AC converter output voltage with.
VIdt
0
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Comparison with the reference voltage wave makes it possible to maintain the inverter output voltage within strict distortion tolerances, even for highly distorted currents.
Figure 100: Inverter output filter..
PWM inverters
PWM chopping The PWM (pulse width modulation) chopping technique combines highfrequency chopping (a few kHz) of the DC voltage by the inverter and regulation of the pulse width for the inverter output, to comply with a reference sinusoidal wave. This technique uses IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar transistors) offering the advantages of voltage control and very short commutation times. Due to the high frequency, the regulation system can react quickly (e.g. 333 nanoseconds for a frequency of 3 kHz) to modify the pulse widths within a given period.
Functional diagram of a PWM inverter Figure 101 shows the functional diagram of a PWM inverter. The output voltage is continuously compared to the reference voltage Vref which is a sinusoidal wave with a very low level of distortion (< 1%). The difference in the voltage is processed by a corrector, according to a transfer function C(p), intended to ensure the performance and stability of control. The voltage from the corrector is then amplified by the DC/AC converter and its control system with a gain A. The Vm voltage supplied by the converter is filtered by the LC filter to supply the output voltage Vs. Practically speaking, it is necessary to take into account the impedance of the output transformer when it exists, to obtain the total inductance L. Often, the inductance is built into the transformer, which is why it is not included in diagrams.
Figure 101: Functional diagram of a PWM inverter..
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Output impedance of a PWM inverter It is possible to represent the above DC/AC converter and filter as a series impedance Z1 and a parallel impedance Z2 (see the left-hand side of figure 102). The diagram can be modified to display the output impedance Zs.
The equivalent diagram (right-hand side of figure 110) shows: V'm = voltage measured under no-load conditions, i.e.: Z2 V'm = Vm Z1 + Z2 Zs = impedance measured at the output with V'm short-circuited, i.e.: ZZ Zs = 1 2 Z1 + Z2
Figure 102: Equivalent diagram of an inverter as seen from the output..

The ratio Z2 is the transfer Z1 + Z2
function of the filter, noted H(p). To simplify, C(p) x A is replaced by (p) which represents the transfer function of the correction and amplification.
Figure 103: Transformed functional diagram of a PWM-chopping inverter equipped. with an output-voltage regulation system with modulated chopping frequency.
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It is possible to show that the inverter output impedance Zs in this case is equal to: Z' s Z1 (p)
This means that in the regulation pass band, the inverter output impedance is equal to the filter series impedance divided by the correction and amplification gain. Given the high gain in the regulation pass band, the output impedance is significantly reduced compared to impedance Z1 of an inverter without this type of regulation. Outside the regulation pass band, the inverter output impedance is equal to that of the filter, but remains low because it corresponds to the impedance of a highfrequency capacitor. Consequently, the output impedance is a function of the frequency (see figure 104). The free-frequency PWM (pulse width modulation) technique considerably limits the output impedance.
Transformers and generators the curve is a straight line corresponding to the effect of the inductance L (the term which rapidly becomes dominant in the reactance with respect to the resistance and which increases linearly as a function of the frequency). Modern inverters implementing the PWM chopping technique with modulated chopping frequency - at all harmonic frequencies, the Zs/Zc ratio is: - less than that noted for other sources, - low and virtually constant.
Conclusion
The PWM inverter is the source offering by far the lowest output impedance in the presence of harmonics. It is clearly the best source on the market in terms of its aptitude to minimise the voltage distortion caused by non-linear loads. It is five to six times better than a transformer with an identical power rating. The new generation of UPS implementing IGBTs and the PWM chopping technique with frequency modulation are the best sources of sinusoidal voltage, whatever the type of current drawn by the load.
Comparison of different sources

Output impedance of various sources
The curves in figure 104 show the output impedances for various sources with equal output ratings as a function of the AC frequency. The impedances are plotted as a percent of the load impedance Zc.
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Figure 104: Output impedance of different sources depending on the frequency..
Free-frequency chopping
Free-frequency chopping
Free frequency is an improvement to the PWM technique. PWM chopping can use either of two techniques (figure 105). Fixed-frequency chopping The chopping fronts occur at fixed, regular intervals corresponding to the choppingfrequency over one period. The width of the pulses (square-wave pulses) can be modulated to conform to the reference within the fixed time interval. The two sine waves shown in the diagram correspond to the tolerance (< 1%) around the reference sine wave.
Free-frequency chopping The chopping fronts do not necessarily occur at fixed intervals. Chopping adapts to the requirements of the regulation, i.e. the rate of change of the reference. The width of the commutation fronts decreases (the chopping frequency increases) as the rate of change of the reference sine wave increases. Conversely, the width of the commutation fronts increases (the chopping frequency decreases) as the rate of change of the reference decreases. On the whole, the average chopping frequency is the same as that for the fixed-frequency technique (approximately 3 kHz). But regulation is better because the commutation accelerates in the zones where the rate of change is high (see figure 106).
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It can reach eight commutations per millisecond, i.e. a regulation time as low as 125 nanoseconds (compared to 300 ns for the fixed-frequency technique). The free-frequency technique increases the precision of the voltage regulation in PWM inverters compared to the fixedfrequency technique.
Figure 105: PWM chopping with fixed-frequency and free-frequency regulation..
Figure 106: Regulation employing free-frequency commutation..
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PFC Rectifiers
Standard and PFC rectifiers
UPS units draw power from the AC distribution system via a rectifier/charger. With respect to the upstream system, the rectifier is a non-linear load drawing harmonics. In terms of harmonics, there are two types of rectifiers.
PFC rectifiers
Operating principle The principle behind PFC rectifiers consists in forcing the current drawn to remain sinusoidal. To that end, they use the PWM technique presented earlier. The principle is that of a voltage source converter (see figure 107), whereas the active harmonic conditioner uses a current source converter. The converter acts as a backelectromotive force (a sinusoidal voltage generator) on the distribution system and the sinusoidal current is obtained by inserting an inductor between the utility power and the voltage source. Even if other non-linear loads increase the voltage distortion on the distribution system, the regulation can adapt to draw a sinusoidal current. The frequency of low residual harmonic currents is the frequency of the modulation and of its multiples. Frequency depends on the possibilities of the semiconductors used.
Standard rectifiers
These are three-phase rectifiers incorporating SCRs and using a sixphase bridge with standard chopping of the current. This type of bridge draws harmonic currents with orders of n = 6 k 1 (where k is a whole number), mainly H5 and H7, and to a lesser degree H11 and H13. Harmonics are controlled by using a filter.
Clean PFC (Power Factor Correction) rectifier

This type of rectifier comprises built-in IGBTs and a regulation system that adjusts the input voltage and current to a reference sine wave. This technique ensures an input voltage and current that are: Perfectly sinusoidal, i.e. free of harmonics, In phase, i.e. an input power factor close to 1. With this type of rectifier, no filters are required.
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Figure 107: Operating principle of a clean voltage generator converter..
Implementation
Single-phase rectifier Figure 108 shows the operation of a single-phase rectifier. Voltage modulation is obtained by a controller that forces the current to follow a sinusoidal current reference. Transistor T and diode D make up the voltage modulator. The voltage u thus changes between 0 and Vs according to whether transistor T is in the on or off state. When transistor T conducts, the current in inductor L can only increase as the voltage is positive and u = 0. Therefore: di e 0 = > dt L
When transistor T is off, the current in L decreases, provided that Vs is greater than V, so that: di=e-VS>0 dt L For this condition to be fulfilled, voltage Vs must be greater than the peak voltage of V, i.e. the rms value of the AC voltage multiplied by 2. If this condition is fulfilled, the current in L can be increased or decreased at any time. The variation of the current in L with time can be forced by monitoring the respective on and off times of transistor T. Figure 109 shows the evolution of current IL with respect to a reference value.
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Battery UPS
Figure 108: Diagram of a clean, single-phase rectifier drawing a sinusoidal signal..
Figure 109: Evolution of current IL with respect to the reference..
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Three-phase rectifier/charger The basic circuit arrangement is shown in figure 110. It is similar to that in figure 108, with the inductor placed upstream of the rectifiers; the operating principle is also the same. The monitoring system controls each power leg and forces the current drawn on each phase to follow the sinusoidal reference.
Figure 110: Diagram of a clean, three-phase rectifier drawing a sinusoidal signal..
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Glossary and bibliography Glossary

Active harmonic conditioner Active harmonic conditioners (AHC) are used to eliminate the harmonic currents flowing in an electrical installation and consequently limit voltage and current distortion (THDU and THDI respectively) to a given percentage. The conditioner continuously analyses the harmonic current drawn by the load and injects, on a realtime basis, an identical current with the appropriate phase. The current supplied by the source remains virtually sinusoidal, whatever the operating conditions. The conditioner automatically adapts to changes in the installation and covers the entire low-frequency harmonic spectrum (H2 through to H25). Active harmonic conditioners are also called active filters. ANSI (American National Standards Institute) U.S. organisation in charge of standardisation. Traditionally, it is assisted in this task by scientific organisations such as the IEEE (Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers). Availability of an electrical installation Availability is the probability that the installation will be capable of supplying energy with the level of quality required by the supplied loads. Availability (%) = (1MTTR ) x 100 MTBF Backup time Time during which the UPS can supply the rated load with power from its energy storage under nominal conditions when the normal AC source fails. This time depends on the battery. Typical backup times are 6, 8, 10, 15 or 30 minutes. Battery circuit breaker DC circuit breaker that protects the battery circuit of a UPS. Battery, recombination Battery with a gas recombination rate at least equal to 95%. No water need be added over battery life, which is why such batteries are commonly referred to as maintenance free batteries. BMS (Building Management System) System used to control and monitor all building utilities and systems from a central location. It is generally composed of sensors, actuators and programmable controllers connected to a central computer (or several computers) equipped with specific software. Charger Device associated with the rectifier and used to supply the battery with the electrical power (DC current) required to recharge and/or float charge the battery, thus ensuring the availability of backup power. Cos A measure of the phase displacement between the current wave and the voltage wave observed at the terminals of a linear load.
Practically speaking, the lower the MTTR (fast repair) and the higher the MTBF (time without failure), the higher the availability.
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Cos 1 A measure of the phase displacement between the fundamental current wave and the fundamental voltage wave observed at the terminals of a non-linear load. Crest factor (Fc) The ratio between the peak value of a current and its rms value. Fc = Ipeak Irms
Fault tolerance A fault-tolerant system can continue to operate following a fault, but in a down-graded mode. Down-graded operation is generally accompanied by an alarm to signal the fault(s). It is generally possible to repair the system rapidly and return to normal operation, without shutting down the system. UPS operation on the static bypass is a type of faulttolerant operation. Float current DC current that maintains the battery at nominal charge, corresponding to the float voltage. This current compensates for open-circuit losses. Float voltage DC voltage applied to the battery to maintain its charge level. This voltage depends on the type of battery, the number of cells and the manufacturers recommendations. Fourier theorem Theorem stating that any nonsinusoidal periodic function (of frequency f) may be represented as a sum of terms (series) made up of: A sinusoidal term with frequency f, called the fundamental frequency, Sinusoidal terms with frequencies that are wholenumber multiples of the fundamental frequency, i.e. the harmonics, A DC component, where applicable.
Discrimination System whereby a fault trips the protection device of the faulty load circuit only. Protection devices on neighbouring circuits and upstream are not tripped. Distortion factor () Factor measuring the effect of harmonics on the power factor at the terminals of a load supplied with AC power. = cos1
: power factor cos 1 : cos of the fundamental EMC (Electromagnetic compatibility) Possibility of a device to operate normally when installed near other devices, given the disturbances emitted by each device and their mutual sensitivities. EN (European Normalisation) Label used for European standards. These standards are issued by CENELEC. Following acceptance by the member countries, these standards enter into force and replace the national standards.
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The series may be expressed, where n is a whole number, as:
Y(t)=Y0 + Yn 2 sin (nt + n)

n=1
Harmonic distortion, individual Ratio between the rms value of an nth order harmonic and the rms value of the fundamental. Hn% = 100 Yn Y1
n = 1 corresponds to the fundamental, n > 1 corresponds to the nth harmonic. Free-frequency chopping Chopping technique where the frequency increases or decreases depending on the variation of a reference value. Contrary to fixedfrequency chopping, this technique increases regulation during major variations and reduces it when variation is low. This improves regulation with respect to the reference value. Harmonic Sinusoidal term of the Fourier series expansion of a periodic function. The harmonic (or harmonic component) of the nth order is characterised by: Hn(t) = Hn2 sin(nt + n) Hn is the rms value of the given harmonic component, is the angular frequency of the fundamental, related to the fundamental frequency by = 2 f, n is the phase displacement of the given harmonic component at t = 0.
Harmonic distortion, total (THD) Ratio between the rms value of all harmonics of a non-sinusoidal alternating periodic value and that of the fundamental.
D%=100
Y n=2
Y1
This value may also be expressed as a function of the individual distortion of each harmonic Hn = Yn /Y1 by:
D%=100
n=2
For current and voltage, these values are called THDI and THDU respectively. Harmonics, current and voltage Any periodic current (frequency f) that is not sinusoidal is made up of a set of sinusoidal currents (see Fourier), including a fundamental (frequency f) and harmonics at various frequencies nf (where n is a whole number). A voltage harmonic corresponds to each current harmonic. The instantaneous and rms values are related by Ohm's law, where the terms are both sinusoidal. If Zsn is the voltage source output impedance at frequency nf (angular frequency n), then Un = Zsn x In. Consequently, for each current harmonic, there is a voltage harmonic that depends on the source output impedance at the corresponding frequency.
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HF interference High-frequency parasitic current that is either conducted (electrostatic origin) or radiated (electromagnetic origin) by a device. (IEEE) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Assists ANSI (American National Standards Institute) in defining standards for electric and electronic equipment. IIK A protection index indicating the degree of protection against mechanical shocks as defined by European standard EN 50102. The IK code includes 11 values from IK01 to IK10, corresponding to different energy levels expressed in Joules. This code is complementary to the IP code. Inrush current Transient currents observed in an electrical installation when devices are energised. These currents are generally due to the magnetic circuits of the devices. The effect is measured by the currents maximum peak value and the rms current value it generates during the time it lasts. Inverter UPS subassembly that recomposes a sine-wave output (regulated and without breaks) using the DC current supplied by the rectifier/charger or the battery. The main elements of the inverter are the DC/AC converter, a regulation system and an output filter.
IP (International Protection) A protection index defining the ability of electrical equipment to withstand certain environmental conditions. It is composed of two digits (e.g. IP 20) defined by standard IEC 529 and included in standard EN60529. Each digit corresponds to a certain degree of protection with respect to a given external influence. First digit (0 to 6): degree of protection against penetration of solid bodies, Second digit (0 to 7): degree of protection against penetration of liquids, Additional letter (A to D): safety of persons. The IP code may receive an additional letter (A to D) when the protection provided persons against dangerous parts is better than that indicated by the first digit. A - protection against access by the back of the hand, B protection against access using a finger, C - using a tool with a diameter of 2.5 mm, D - using a tool with a diameter of 1 mm. When the protection of persons is the only relevant factor, the two IP digits may be replaced by X (e.g. IP XXB). Example. IP 30D 3 = protection against solid bodies larger than 2.5 mm. 0 = no protection against water. D = protection against access using a tool with a diameter of 1 mm.
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ISO 9000 Standard defining procedures and systems used to attain an internationally recognised level of production quality. ISO 9000 certification is recognition that the quality system effectively complies with the standard. Certification is carried out by an official organisation (e.g. AFAQ), unaffiliated with either clients or suppliers or the company itself. The certificate is valid for a three-year period with yearly audits and checks. IT system System earthing arrangement in which the neutral is isolated from the earth or connected to the earth via a high impedance and the various exposed conductive parts are connected to the earth via individual earthing circuits. An alarm (generally an insulation-monitoring device IMD) must signal the appearance of a first insulation fault. The installation must be de-energized immediately in the event of a second insulation fault. Load, linear Load for which the input voltage and current are both sinusoidal, with possible phase displacement (inductive and/or capacitive loads). Linear loads include only resistances, inductors or capacitors. The Ohm law applies to both the instantaneous and the rms values. U = Z I, where Z is the equivalent impedance of the load (constant during each period). Examples of linear loads: lighting systems, motors, transformers.
Load, non-linear Load drawing an input current that is periodical, but not sinusoidal, with a harmonic component. For this reason, the input voltage is also distorted by harmonics. Generally speaking, nonlinear loads comprise active electronic components that vary the load impedance over each period. The Ohm law applies to the instantaneous values, but the equivalent impedance of the load is variable. As a result, there is no simple law for the rms values, as is the case for linear loads. Examples of non-linear loads: switchmode power supplies for computers, rectifier bridges using SCRs, variablespeed drives, fluorescent lighting. Load power Apparent power Su (kVA) that a UPS inverter supplies under given load conditions. It is less than or equal to the rated output Sn (kVA). The ratio Su/Sn defines the percent load of the inverter. Magnetic-susceptibility level Level of electromagnetic emission starting at which a nearby device or system malfunctions. Management-Pac (software) Intended for network administrators, this totally SNMP-compatible software can manage and supervise an entire park of UPS. Micro-outage Total absence of power for a duration of less than one half cycle (< 10 ms at 50 Hz). MLVS (Main low-voltage switchboard) The low-voltage switchgear assembly used to distribute power immediately downstream of the HV/LV transformer.
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MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) Expected value of the duration (expressed in hours) of normal operation of a repairable device between failures. The MTBF is an indication on the reliability of a device. MTTF (Mean Time To Failure) Expected value of the duration (expressed in hours) of normal operation of a non-repairable device (i.e. one for which an MTBF cannot be calculated). The MTTF is an indication on the reliability of a device. MTTR (Mean Time To Repair) Expected value (or statistical average if available) of the time required to repair a device. This includes the time required to detect the cause of the failure, repair it and start the system up again. Noise level Acoustic decibel level (dBA) representing the sound power of a source measured according to standard ISO 3746. Off-line A UPS where the inverter is off during normal mode. On-line A UPS where the invert is on in normal mode. Percent load The ratio Su (kVA) / Sn (kVA) between the load power Su and the rated power Sn of a UPS.
PFC (Power Factor Correction) (rectifier) PFC is an electronic regulation device for the UPS input rectifier that maintains the input current sinusoidal and in phase with the utility voltage. It avoids drawing harmonic currents upstream of the rectifier and thus the need for a filter. Power factor () Ratio between the active power P (kW) supplied to a load and the apparent power S (kVA) supplied to said load by an AC power supply. = P S
Power, primary Power normally continuously available which is usually supplied by an electrical utility company, but sometimes by the user's own generation. Primary power is connected to the normal AC input of the UPS. Power, rated Apparent power Sn (kVA) that a UPS can deliver under given load conditions defined for cos = 0.8. Power, standby Power intended to replace the primary power in the event of primary-power failure. When standby power is available, it is connected to the bypass AC input of the UPS. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) A high-frequency chopping technique for UPS inverters using a means of regulation enabling rapid modification of pulse widths over a single period. It is thus possible to maintain the inverter output voltage within tolerances, even for non-linear loads.
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Rectifier/charger UPS component that draws utility power to supply the inverter and to float charge or recharge the battery. The alternating input current is rectified and then distributed to the inverter and the battery. Redundancy, active redundancy N + 1, N + 2, etc. Parallel UPS configuration in which several UPS units (N + 1, N + 2, etc.) with equal outputs are parallel connected and share the load. In the event one UPS unit (N + 1 redundancy) or more fail (N + 2, N + 3, etc.), the other units pick up its share without any interruption in the supply of power to the load. The remaining units are sufficient to continue supplying the load as long as there are at least N units. Redundancy, isolated UPS configuration in which one or several UPS units operate on standby, with no load or only a partial load, and can immediately back up a faulty UPS unit by no-break transfer of the load, carried out by a static switch. Reliability Probability that a device will accomplish a required function under given conditions over a given period of time.
Short-circuit voltage of a transformer (Uscx %) Relative measurement (%) of the internal impedance of a transformer. This short-circuit impedance is commonly called the short-circuit voltage because it is measured during a short-circuit test (shorted secondary winding subjected to a current set to In). For most common three-phase transformers, the value ranges between 3 and 6%. Source impedance It is possible to consider that a load is supplied by a perfect voltage generator Uo, in series with an internal impedance Zs, where: Uo is the voltage measured across the load terminals, if the load is equal to zero (load terminals in an open circuit), Zs is the source impedance, i.e. the equivalent impedance as seen from the load terminals (open circuit), obtained by shortcircuiting the upstream voltage generator(s). Static switch Power-electronics device that can be used to switch from one source to another without interruption in the supply of power. In a UPS, transfer is from normal AC power to bypass AC power and back. Transfer without interruption is possible due to the fact that there are no mechanical parts and the ultra-fast switching capabilities of the electronic components.
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Static Transfer Switch (STS) An STS carries out transfer, automatically or manually, of one or more three-phase loads, from a preferred source to an alternate or reserve source without interruption. If the preferred source fails, transfer is automatic. Subtransient reactance of a generator set (Uscx %) Relative measurement (%) of the internal impedance of an AC generator during harmonic phenomena. This reactance, also called the longitudinal subtransient reactance of the generator, is sometimes identified as X"d. For most common generators, the value ranges between 15 and 20%. It can drop to 12% for optimised systems and to 6% for special devices. System earthing arrangements (SEA) Standardised system for the interconnection and earthing of exposed conductive parts and the neutral of a low-voltage electrical installation. There are three standardised arrangements: TN system, with the TN-C and TNS versions (exposed conductive parts connected to the neutral), TT system (earthed neutral), IT system (isolated neutral).
THDI THD for Total Harmonic Distortion and I for current. This is the ratio between the rms value of current harmonics and the rms value of the fundamental.
THDI%=100
I n=2
I1
This value may also be expressed in terms of the individual harmonics, e.g. Ihn = In / I1 using the equation: THDI%=100
Ih n=2
2 n
THDU THD for Total Harmonic Distortion and U for voltage. This is the ratio between the rms value of the voltage harmonics and the rms value of the fundamental.
THDU%=100
U n=2
U1
This value may also be expressed in terms of the individual harmonics, e.g. Uhn = Un / U1 using the equation:
THDU%=100
Uh n=2
2 n
Tolerances (%) Permissible limits to the variation of a quantity around its nominal or rated value, expressed as a percentage.
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TN system System earthing arrangement in which the exposed conductive parts are interconnected and connected to the neutral, the latter being connected to the earth. The installation must be de-energized immediately in the event of an insulation fault. There are two TN systems, TN-S in which the neutral (N) and the protective conductor (PE) are separate, and TN-C in which the two conductors are combined to form a single conductor (PEN). TT system System earthing arrangement in which the neutral and the exposed conductive parts are directly earthed via individual earthing circuits. The installation must be de-energized immediately in the event of an insulation fault. Ultracapacitors An ultracapacitor (double-layer electrochemical capacitor) is made up of two porous, metal-carbon electrodes placed in a non-aqueous organic electrolyte. This technology offers very high capacitances (> 1 000 farads). UPS (Uninterruptible Power System) An electrical device providing an interface between the normal source of power, usually the utility, and an elec trical installation generally including sensitive loads (computers, instrumentation, etc.). The UPS supplies sinusoidal AC power free of disturbances and within strict amplitude and frequency tolerances.
It is generally made up of a rectifier/ charger, an inverter, an energy storage for backup power in the event of utility outages, a static bypass and a maintenance bypass. The bypasses make it possible to supply the load directly with standby power, bypassing the rectifier/charger and inverter line. Transfer to the static bypass is automatic and without a break in power to the load if the inverter fails or a downstream overload exceeds UPS capacity. Transfer to the maintenance bypass is carried out using manual switches. UPS operating in double-conversion mode A UPS in which the inverter is connected in series between the normal AC source and the load. All power supplied to the load flows through the inverter which completely regenerates the voltage and isolates the load from disturbances on the utility. This type of UPS can also supply the load with utility power directly via a static bypass following no-break transfer to a separate AC input. This function ensures the continuity of supply if an internal fault occurs. What is more, this type of UPS is systematically equipped with a maintenance bypass. UPS operating in line-interactive mode A UPS in which the inverter is connected in parallel to the AC input and also charges the energy storage (interactive operation in reversible mode).
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UPS operating in passive-standby mode The UPS is connected in parallel to the normal AC source to provide a standby power source. This configuration, a cost-saving compromise, is used only for low power ratings ( 3 kVA) because it does not isolate the load from the source and lets through inrush currents. What is more, it requires a relatively high transfer time ( 10 ms) to inverter power in the event of a power outage or a major disturbance on the utility.
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Bibliography
Standards
IEC 60529 / EN 60529: Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP index). IEC 60417: Graphical symbols for diagrams. IEC 60742: Isolating transformers and safety isolating transformers. IEC 60947: Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear. IEC 60950-1 / EN 60950-1: Information technology equipment - Safety - Part 1: General requirements. IEC 62040-1/ EN 62040-1: Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) - Part 1: General and safety requirements for UPS. IEC 62040-2/ EN 62040-2: Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) - Part 2: Electromagnetic compatibility requirements. IEC 62040-3 / EN 1000-3: Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) - Part 3: Method of specifying the test and performance requirements. IEC 61000-2-2 / EN 610002-2: Compatibility levels for lowfrequency conducted disturbances and signalling in public lowvoltage power supply systems. IEC 61000-3-2 / EN 61000-3-2: Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current 16 A per phase). IEC 61000-3-4 / EN 61000-3-4: Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current > 16 A per phase). IEC 61000-3-5 / EN 61000-3-5: Limitation of voltage fluctuations and flicker. EN 50091-2: UPS Electromagnetic compatibility. EN 50160: Voltage characteristics of public networks. IEEE 519: Recommended practices and requirements for harmonic control in electrical power systems. EMC Directive 2004/108/EC: For equipment liable to cause or be affected by electromagnetic disturbances. European LV directive: 2006/95/EC, ISO 3746: Determination of sound power levels of noise sources. ISO 7779 / EN 27779: Measurement of airborne noise emitted by computer and business equipment.
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A P P L I C AT I O N A N D I N S TA L L AT I O N G U I D E

Double Conversion UPS

Application and Installation Guide

Key factors in UPS installations Introduction

Using this guide

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Application and Installation Guide

UPS in electrical installations

Figure 1: Functions of the components in installations with UPS..

Application and Installation Guide

Sources of information in setting up installation specifications

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Application and Installation Guide

Mono or multisource architecture and configuration of UPS sources

Page 111 Page 140 Page 153

UPS make-up and operation.

Elimination of harmonics in installations. Page 24 Harmonics.

Sec. 3 Page 157

System earthing arrangements

Upstream and downstream protection using circuit breakers

Energy-storage solutions and batteries.

Preliminary work (if any) Standards

Page 58 Electromagnetic compatibility.

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Application and Installation Guide

Basic notions on installations with UPS

Double-conversion static UPS

The Operating Principle (Figure 2)

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Application and Installation Guide

Figure 2: Double-conversion static UPS..

Power quality of UPS

Voltage quality for linear loads

Application and Installation Guide

Figure 3: Voltage and current for linear loads..

Voltage quality for non-linear loads

Figure 4: The current drawn by non-linear loads is distorted by the harmonics..

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Application and Installation Guide

2010 Caterpillar All rights reserved.

Application and Installation Guide

2010 Caterpillar All rights reserved.

Application and Installation Guide

UPS power availability

Application and Installation Guide

.Figure 6: Evolution in the level of availability required by applications...

How can availability be improved?

Key factors to the availability of installations with UPS

2010 Caterpillar All rights reserved.

Application and Installation Guide

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Application and Installation Guide

Selection of the configuration

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Application and Installation Guide

2010 Caterpillar All rights reserved.

Application and Installation Guide

Single-phase v(t) = V 2 sin t

Current with harmonics

Current total harmonic distortion

Apparent power Active power Power factor

S (kVA) = UI 3 P (kW) = UI 3 = S (kVA) = P(kW) S(kVA)

7 to 8% 10% H5, H7 0.95 1 * *** * * * *

7 to 8% 10% H5, H7 0.95 1 * * * * *

7 to 8% 10% H5, H7 0.95 1 * * * * *

4% 5% H2 to H25 0.94 0.94 * * *

4% 5% H2 to H25 0.95 1 * * * * *** yes

0.8 0.8 * *** * yes