7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences!

Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org

Farming System Impacts on Pest and other Arthropods Distribution in Tomato Fields of Palpa District, Nepal
Professor Dr& Dr *laus P& 6& Hebit#! and Sharad Sharma' Abstract A study was conducted to assess the intensity of pest/disease abundance and distribution of arthropod species among different farming practices in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) fields& =wo study sites! s categori#ed as Lowland Sundargaon (LS) and Madanpokhara ighland (M ) are located in Palpa! a hilly district of "epal! and each site composed of three categori#ed farming system types$ mi%ed! integrated and commercial farming systems& "umber of identified ified arthropods samples from LS and M sites were '( and '' respecti)ely! and were fauna of all the categori#ed farming systems& Di)ersity range of arthropod species were found more in mi%ed (subsistence le)el) farming system followed by integrated and commercial commercial (monoculture) farming systems& *onnectance of food web for LS and M sites were +&,(- and +&+./ respecti)ely and a)erage links per species were '&,0 and /&11 for M and LS sites respecti)ely& As per the statistical analysis! pesticide application fre2uency was found to be highest in commercial farms followed by integrated and mi%ed system and was significant (p 3 4+&+/) against specific pest species$ Helicoverpa armigera! whiteflies and diseases$ blight! rot and damping off& 5eside few pesticides! most of them were not significant (P 3 I+&+/) against specific pest and/or disease! which shows the trend of higher application fre2uency for total control rather than specific target orientation& 6ater stress and conditions were responsible for nutrient deficiency deficiency problem (e&g& calcium deficiency) especially in commercial monoculture farming types and small scale farming systems were not affected to that e%tent& 7ffect of ele)ation and geography was not significant for se)erity of pest disease infestation& As per the le)el of pest/disease abundance! hybrid and semi hybrid type8s culti)ars showed higher susceptibility than local culti)ars& *ombination of resistant and susceptible culti)ars in small scale farms showed lower pest/disease problems& Key words Arthropods& Sampling& 9arming systems& Application fre2uency& :esistance !" INT#$D%&TI$N ;ariation at plant species le)el within )egetable farming systems leads to increased di)ersity of interacting organisms and their community structures& Such structures structures are )aried with the nature of production processes! as due to the role of poor farmers in marginal en)ironments (Altieri (++()! holders of professional farming systems as an established enterprise ("epal < =hapa (++.)! and structural comple%ity of plants plants (:andlkofer et al& (+,+)& As compared to cereals and other agricultural commodities! )egetable culti)ation has been cogni#ed beneficial in terms of multifariousness of products within small land area! relati)ely short period of time! micronutrient supplement ement and income generation of small to large scale farming communities& >n most of the Asiatic countries including "epal! peri ? urban )egetable production system with high input agricultural practices has long been settled specially due to perishable nature nature of )egetables and a)ailability of markets as well as ser)ices/supports (Midmore < @ansen (++1)& "epalese agricultural en)ironment is highly encouraging for scattered production of most of the )egetables including tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill&) throughout the agroecological #ones and rele)ant in terms of anthromorphic efforts due to presence of higher degree of farming communities! where proper land use system in sloppy/hilly areas can raise the e%isting le)el of production& (Midmore < Poudel ,..A! ,. Shrestha et al& (++A)& But of commercially grown )egetables! tomato is considered as an important crop grown in spCring and summer rainy seasons in normal conditions& But of fi)e de)elopment regions! western de)elopment region! where the study district is located in! co)ers many industrial to agricultural production #ones that spread o)er plane to )alleys and steep sloppy lands& "atural control system in an ecosystem is to some e%tent disturbed by mankind acti)ities like intensification of agricultural practices including cultural to chemical means of crop management (6ardle et al& ,...)! deforestation (logging)! soil tillage and replacement of )arious old culti)ars by newer high yielding )arieties resulting in altered primary production le)el affecting guild and functional groups of soil as well as abo)eground arthropods (5russaard ,..0)& >ncreased botanical di)ersity due to mi% or intercropping and organic farming practices generally enhances abundance of ground predators! such as hunter beetles (families$ (famil *arabidae! Staphylinidae) and lycosid spiders ( ongDiao et& al& (+,+! Medeiros et al& (++.)& Di)ersification of the agro ecosystem may reduce insect pest infestation using the strategy of companion planting (culti)ation of different species ha)ing mutual ual benefits and less competition) and host plant resistance to insects can be increased by adopting integrated pest managements practices (Medeiros et& al& (++.! Altieri ,...! 7igenbrode < =rumble
, (

Department of Phytomedicine ( ead of the he department)! Eni)ersity of ohenheim! Stuttgart! Fermany Agri 5usiness and =rade Promotion Multipurpose *ooperati)e (A5=:A*B)! "epal! (Fraduate ? Eni& ohenheim)&

,,,

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org ,..')& >n contrast to ecological farming systems! mechani#ed mechani#ed modern farming systems are maDor source of replacement of natural acti)ities like species interaction! natural dispersion of seed materials and genetic di)ersity of the species! primarily due to manipulation of farming practices and technological adoption adopti (Altieri ,...)& igher le)el of monoGcropping cropping system for tomato and or other )egetable crops has increased the consumption of chemical fertili#ers and pesticides by ,/J within last 1 years of duration& (MBA* (+,+)& *omparati)e analysis of intensity of chemicals chemicals use in commercial farms )ersus mi%ed (subsistence le)el) or integrated farming system can illustrate the species di)ersity differentiation as well as impact on pest and predatory arthropod species& =he study has gone through both sample identification identification and data analysis methods in order to inter into such aspects& >nsect and disease suppression with biological acti)ities remain in fa)our of nature and human health perspecti)es! howe)er pest damage losses are out of co)erage in terms of economic aspect ct without use of synthetic chemical pesticides (Letourneau < Foldstein (++,)& igher mortality rate of herbi)ore insects by predation and better abundance of arthropods are e%hibited in polyculture systems and e)en more! where cultural and pre)enti)e practices prac e%ist (Altieri ,../! Hehnder et. al. (++-) >ntensification of agricultural that appeared with increased use of production inputs has resulted in higher producti)ity as well as pest/disease problem when compared to the situation prior 1+ to '+ years (MBA* ( (++0)& Ese of organochlorines has been decreased in recent years! howe)er synthetic pyrethroids and organophosphates are hea)ily in use (Shrestha et& al& (+,+ Atreya (++0)& Pests getting resistant against insecticides like DD=! lindane! and other organochlorines! nochlorines! and reduced population of beneficials (less attraction of pollinators! mortality of predatory beetles! wasps and soil insects) with to%ic field effects and health ha#ard effects like headache! di##iness! irritation and respiratory discomfort are are serious side effects of intensification of agricultural production system i&e& high input monoculture system (Atreya (++0! Palikhe (++()& >n addition! )ariation in insect susceptibility to the applied insecticides has long been noted and continues to be found in e%isting )egetable )arieties including tomatoes (7igenbrode < =rumble! ,..')& Bn the other hand! false identification of certain nutritional and abiotic stresses is responsible for inappropriate rate of chemicals application and distressed arthropod pod community as well as natural imbalance in terms of soil and en)ironmental aspects& *alcium and others minerals as well as water stress cause se)eral problems in )egetable farming which can be falsely diagnosed by rural farmers as pest attack and/or disease disease infestation& *alcium is one of the important essential mineral nutrients for plants! which is a maDor constituent of middle lamellae and its deficiency might show delayed senescence! rate of respiration and transpiration in tomato fruits (5hattarai < Fautam (++A)& 5lossom end rot (where secondary fungi can in)ade )ia rotted tissues)! chlorosis and burning effects are the result of calcium and other minerals deficiencies! likewise! wilt like symptom with insufficient phosphorus and necrotic symptoms with h potassium deficiency are likely to be mimic with pest! disease infestations (Echida (+++! PuDos < Morard ,..-! ansen (++.)& "utrient deficiency is directly linked with the le)el of pest disease infestation due to altered plant defence mechanisms and thus thus becomes a maDor issue of concern for effectual plant protection approaches& ;egetable farming that got a comparable economic wellbeing among common agricultural practices! has achie)ed higher popularity throughout the production #ones spread o)er fi)e de)elopment de)elopment regions of "epal& :ural subsistence le)el production system has widely adopted small to commercial le)el )egetable culti)ation practices in recent years& =he producti)ity and the production le)el of )egetables show an increasing trend and the rate e of area increment in recent years is nearly fi)e percent per annum (Pokhrel! (+,+)& "epal8s entry into 6orld =rade Brgani#ation (6=B) in (++' has widen the opportunities of international trade where there needs maintaining 2uality of the products under SPS SPS (Sanitary and Phytosanitary) agreement and South Asian 9ree =rade Agreement (SA9=A)! which in the long run! can be able to maintain sustainability of national production/protection systems of )egetables including tomato (Shrestha (++/! MBA* (+,+)& Agricultural Agric Perspecti)e Plan (APP)! a twenty years strategic plan under Fo)ernment of "epal! which was set up in ,../ and last until (+,/! has prioriti#ed the aspects regarding integrated farming systems! promoting resistance culti)ars! enhancing natural plant protection and minimi#ing the use of synthetic chemicals in agriculture along with ma%imi#ing the culti)ation of high )alue crops and )egetables& At present condition! use of chemical fertili#ers and pesticides in "epal is not balanced due to lack of proper proper knowledge and farmers8 concentration only toward economic benefit rather than ecological safety and human health perspecti)es& 9or future prospect of promoting ecological farming with reduced e%posure to harmful to%ic effects of chemical residues! there needs to ha)e well maintained biodi)ersity of organisms (e&g& plant! animal! insect and arthropods)& >n such a way! abundance le)el of pest and diseases are 2uite affected by the intensity of cropping and used high yielding culti)ars of tomato and other )egetables! egetables! howe)er there still lack sufficient records and literatures showing field le)el studies in "epal& 7%istence of se)eral culti)able lands within plain and hilly regions (e%cluding )ery high mountains and imalayas) and lower income le)el of the country country and indi)idual! "epal needs to grab the higher possibility of increased le)el of economic de)elopment with intensification of high )alue agricultural commodities& AdDustment in planting time! changing of growing season and special care for natural stresses are further most important ways to build a plant healthier that may ha)e comparati)e tolerant power to pest and diseases& =omato

,,(

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org production inside plastic greenhouses during rainy season has become )ery popular and profitable where there is market access (Pandey et al& (++A)& 9or these! there need broadly based on ? farm e%perimentations regarding biological en)ironments in relation with inputs used and cropping system types analysing direct effects on plants! yield! pest/diseases and the natural control c agents& '" (AT)#IA*S AND ()T+$DS 2.1 Study sites Palpa district lies in the western de)elopment region of "epal& >t is a hilly district ha)ing most of the hills within middle range (/++G,(++ ,(++ amsl) of height with se)eral small )alleys and foothill production #ones& =he district ha)ing an area of ,&1-1 kmK! is situated at 01L/18 longitude and (-L018 latitude& Study sites are located nearby =ansen area ( ead station of the District)& >n warmer months (besides December! @anuary and 9ebruary)! minimum temperature emperature of the area hardly goes below ,+o * and ma%imum temperature remains around (/ to 1(o *& =he area has high humid type of climate especially during rainy season and drops during March! April and May& (adanpo,hara production -one .(+/, denoted by Madanpokhara adanpokhara ighland #one& MaDor trend of production in this region is commercial and monocropping type& owe)er this condition also e%ists in some areas of Sundargaon! the differences during analysis are carried out according to cropping type ranging from mi%ed (small farming) system to integrated (medium scale) farming and mono cropping (intensi)e farming) system& Sundargaon production -one .*S/ was coded as Lowland Sundargaon as due to presence of comparati)e lower ele)ation areas and few saddles& =he site! site! besides few intensi)e commercial farming areas! holds se)eral subsistence le)el farming and culti)ation of local culti)ars in comparison to MS #one& =he area characterises for pre)alence of relati)ely lesser intensification of tomato and other )egetable )egetabl production along with comparati)ely fragile production en)ironment in terms of socioeconomic and technological aspects than that of M #one& =o keep the farming systems as comparable as possible! categori#ation of farming systems was done by general items& s& A categori#ation by details would ha)e led to high number of farming systems which would not allow any meaningful statistical analysis& Defined farming #ones are according to the study dimension and limitations that were designed to facilitate study obDecti)es obDecti)es and analytical outputs rather than e%plaining o)erall agricultural production system& 5oth the study sites are composed of these categori#ed farming systemsM though )ary in proportion of distribution& 9urther! the study was targeted for maDor obser)ations obser)ations on tomato along with mutually grown crop species during the study periods and categori#ations were merely based on general trends& (i0ed farming system Mi%ed farming system in general comprises of being a typical rural farming system where! crop li)estock i)estock and human acti)ities are components of a complete system& 5ased on such aspects! farming systems with more subsistence type ha)ing more or less combination of se)eral species of crops within defined area are considered as mi%ed farming in this study& study& Small )illage le)el selling of li)estock products as well as )egetables can take place in this system howe)er does not go through the commercial acti)ities in medium to large scale& 5oth M and LS areas consist of such production system& Integrated production system >ntegrated production system for this study! was categori#ed as a semi commercial farming system where subsistence le)el of production in integrated with commercial one& Slow adoption of technologies! alteration of culti)ars! intermediate use of chemicals against pest and diseases are salient features in the areas& 9armers change their cropping pattern by replacing low yielding cereals with high yielding )arieties! e%tending )egetable growing areas instead of cereals& (onoculture commercial l system *ategori#ation of commercial faming system in this study included intensi)e production system! where tomato is grown year round with special management for e%ample$ use of plastic tunnels for temperature adDustment! alteration of )arieties according according to planting time& 9armers are using higher amounts of chemicals and fertili#ers for mass production& Such farmers produce more )egetable crops than cereals and follow more or less monoculture system& Leader farmers and trained personals are being in)ol)ed in)o in culti)ation& Madanpokhara site has higher influence with such production trend rather than in Sundargaon site& 2.2 Sampling of arthropods >n order to collect the species of arthropods in the study field sites! different sampling methods were used& used Sampling time was arranged in repeated manner whereas locations were randomi#ed within field areas& Samples were separated as per the field site characteristics where both L and M #ones consisted )aried production systems& Arthropods were collected within within the entire tomato field using the e2uipments$ (a) >nsect sweep net! (b) and collection! and (c) =raps and hand made aspirators& >nsect sweep nets are useful to trap insect species that are difficult to trap with hand or by other means& 9lies! butterfly/moths butter and other flying insects. were efficiently collected with this procedure& 9or immediate killing of trapped insects! an insecticide with +&+(J deltamethrin! +&,1J allethrin and +&,/J dichloromethane was used& and collection method followed more or less a cultural method of insect sampling& and collection method was 2uite easy and effecti)e for the day time sampling and few nocturnal insects like mole cricket (Gryllotalpa orientalis 5urmeister)! white grubs and lar)ae feeding on leaf and fruits& Light traps were effecti)e for nocturnal insect species which are hard to catch during day time&

,,1

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org Similarly! water container and sticky traps were efficient for collection and direct counting of the tiny arthropod species& =raps used by farmers were taken under under obser)ation time to time and collected periodically& Aspirator prepared locally was also used for tiny insects like whiteflies! aphids etc& >t was made locally using a plastic tube! cork and fle%ible pipes& Samplings were carried out during the period of 'th week of April to 1rd week of @une (+,, (=able ,)& Differentiation in time of sampling within two regions was due to )arying le)el of abundance of insect and non insect arthropods in the area as well as time of pesticide application by farmers& Lower Lowe number of sampling times represents the close days of pesticides application and fewer numbers of a)ailable arthropods in the field area& Table ! Sampling time and repetition in the study areas Number of samplings Area 1ee, April (ay 4une + ( ( M , LS , + , 1 M ( + , 1 LS ( + ( , M 1 + , , LS 1 + , , M ' , ( + LS ' , ( + >nsects and nonGinsect insect arthropods! after collection from field! were preser)ed in micro tubes with flip caps of different si#es& 9or larger si#ed arthropods! sampling plastic tubes ()aried in si#es) were used& >nsect number and location code were gi)en to each sample and were preser)ed in absolute 7thanol& Preser)ed samples were safely handled for further identification to the laboratory of department department of phytomedicine! uni)ersity of ohenheim& Samples were ta%onomically identified up to species le)el during the period of August to "o)ember (+,,& 5asis of identification was special traits and morphological features in reference with se)eral literatures! literatur guides and in)ol)ed professionals& >dentification of pest population in relation to their predators and other beneficial is 2uite )ital to get into a community structure and guild composition& All the identified species! besides ta%onomical classification! classifica were further categori#ed to se)eral parameters like feeding habit (herbi)ore to omni)ore)! host preference and specific role in community structure& =he connectance within identified arthropods was calculated according to the formula$ *onnectance (&/ 2 *3S'& 6here! L 3 number of trophic links and S 3 "umber of trophic elements in the food web& 2.3 Field survey and statistical analysis 5esides collection! preser)ation and identification of insects! 9ield le)el sur)eys were also carried out in the study areas! where samplings were made& 9armers8 2uestionnaires were made in order to know the common trend of production! tomato culti)ars grown! insecticide/ pesticide use pattern and others related farm le)el information on maDor problems! support and ser)ices! ser)ices! producti)ity etc& ', households were inter)iewed randomly from both the study areas for obtaining primary data& Sur)ey procedure co)ered more or less all the farming system types from two study sites co)ering lower foot hills to high altitudes (ranging from '++ to ,+++ m)& Data from 2uestionnaire were analysed for different effects on depended )ariables like pesticide use fre2uency! abundance le)el of pest species! maDor problems! disease incidence le)el and resistance against farming type! location and d tomato )arieties& Application fre2uency against farming system types was analy#ed in order to check the intensity of )aried input use against the specific pest/disease& Problem faced by farmers were compared among different scales of farming practices within within categori#ed farming systems in order to identify interrelations between pest/disease occurrence and maDor problems faced by farmers! and e)en within the problems themsel)es& Si% tomato culti)ars were taken for analysis and orthogonal contrast tests were we made to find out )arietal performance against specific pest/disease& >n the same way! )arietal resistant trait was also compared with specific and o)erall pest species and disease types& Different on farm and off farm records from 2uestionnaire were arranged anged in nominal as well as ordinal datasets in order to assess different tests and effects& Bne way and two way analysis of )ariance (A"B;A) were used for statistical test with @MP -&+&( ((++-) software& Different nonGparametric parametric and parametric testes were carried out with /J le)el of significance& Feneral Linear Model (FLM) and 6ilco%on/NruskalG6allisG=ests 6ilco%on/Nruskal =ests were used to check le)el of significance for the different effects&

,,'

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org 5" #)S%*TS 3.1 Direct observation method Sampling procedures carried out as described described in study methodology! ha)e been able to collect and identify more than '+ species per site& Since! tiny insects were hard to collect in their real state without morphological disturbancesM fine sorting was made from the huge mass of mi%ed samples& Direct Direct obser)ation of the arthropods and crop species grown! has found following le)el of abundance density in both the study sites& Table ' Distribution of maDor species o)er the study sites and farming systems& systems& (Specifications$ 1 3 higher le)el of occurrence! nce! ( 3 medium le)el! , 3 lower le)el and + 3 not obser)ed) (i0ed &ommercial Particulars (+ *S farming farming 6hite flies 1 ( + 1 Helicoverpa armigera ( 1 , 1 Frasshoppers , 1 ( ( Aphids 1 ( , 1 Leaf feeding beetles ( ( ( ( Spiders/ predatory insects ( 1 1 , 5light 1 ( , 1 6ilt ( ( ( ( =omato sole 1 ( + 1 =omato mi%ed with )egetables ( ( 1 ( Local culti)ars ( ( 1 + 5"' &onnectance and trophic structure 5oth the study sites contained a comple% connectance patterns due to presence of se)eral omni)ore species& Species also show reciprocal feeding relations where species A can feed on species 5! 5 on * and * on A& But of '( sample species from Sundargaon (LS) study site! ((' trophic links are found within arthropod communities! hence the connectance tance will be +&,(- and in Madanpokhara (M ) site! out of total '' species! ,0' are the trophic links! therefore connectance is +& +./& Similarly a)erage links per species are '&,0 and /&11 for M and LS study sites respecti)ely& Arthropods community structures ctures of the study areas showed a mi%ture of pest! predators and other beneficials (pollinators! decomposers and others ha)ing independent effect)& >nsects like may fly Hexagenia spp! *ockroaches and some flying insects ha)e independent effect on trophic le)el relationship in the community structures& Among the collected species! di)erse le)els of arthropod orders containing less harmful tomato pests were found in Sundargaon production site (LS)! where the proportion of mi%ed farming systems was more& M site ite comprised se)eral species of arthropods including tomato specific pest species! where monoculture commercial farming system was in higher proportion& 9amilies within an order of insects and non insect arthropods were 2uite )aried within the locations/study locations/study sites& 6ithin! order *oleoptera! chrysomelidae families were more fre2uently distributed o)er M region together with herbi)ore insect families like "octuidae! Aphididae! 9ormicidae and 9orficulidae of orders Lepidoptera! omoptera! ymenoptera and Dermaptera De respecti)ely! showing more trophic relation of insect and plants& >n contrast! Sundargaon study site contained families of different orders like Mantodia! Diptera! =hysanura and Araneae which showed trophic relation among the arthropod species as well as sca)enger and saprotrophic nutrition! beside e%isting plantGinsect plant relationship& More species interaction in LS site was due to presence of more carni)ore species which can feed on most of the sampled species (either herbi)ore or omni)ores)& >n the same way! presence of flies like long legged fly! syrphid flies and robber flies can indicate a continuous trend of predation o)er the di)ersified species of herbi)ore insects& Areas where there is se)erity of mi%ed farming systems ha)e shown higher species speci le)el interaction&

,,/

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org Figure ! =rophic community of pest and predator and other arthropods (others include sca)engers! decomposers and independent of predator prey relations)$
25 Number of species 20 15 10 5 0 Herbivores Ominivores Carnivores Trophic behaviour Pollinators Others

MH (44) LS (42)

3.3 Statistical analysis of field data Analysis of pesticide use fre2uency against farming system types! specific pests and diseases was done in order to assess the impact and efficiency of application against target organisms& 9ollowing results were obser)ed with different tests& Figure '$ application fre2uency by cropping systems syst

Application fre2uency of insecticides/pesticides were statistically significant different among cropping systems according to analysis of )ariance (9 3 /1&+1! df 3 (! 10M p 4 +&++,! followed by a =ukeyGNramer =ukey Nramer SD test at p 3 +&+/ le)el)& >n this way! mono cropping (commercial) farming system uses higher amount of chemical pesticides whereas integrated system uses medium le)el and mi%ed farming system has used minimal (9ig& ()& Similarly! test on application fre2uency by pest number , (ranking of pest as a maDor problems among the population! which range , to 1! where , is higher problematic) was significant& A"B;A (9 3 1&(A! df 3 '! 1AM p 3 +&+((1)& 6hitefly infestation caused higher application fre2uency (A) and grasshopper lesser (5) while other pests ts are found to be near to both le)els (A5)& =here is no significant effect of diseaseGdependent disease dependent fre2uency of pesticide application (oneGway way A"B;A$ 9 3 (&/(! df 3 '! 1/M p 3 +&/0-)& Since application fre2uency is taken both for insecticides and all the pesticides! pesticides! the effect may not be crystal clear howe)er nearby statistical significant label shows that there is effect& ;iral! damping off and blight diseases show higher application fre2uency than rot and wilt& MaDor problem faced by farmers in the study sites sites were ranked as ,! ( and 1 according to se)erity le)el& Problem number ,(Problem O,) was ranked as higher le)el of se)erity in different farming systems& According to sur)ey data! water and disease problem were found more in medium to small scale farming farming types whereas *aGdeficiency *a and insect problems were se)ere in large scale farming systems& Large scale farming systems normally are well managed with irrigation system and application rate is higher for disease control thus field information showed

,,A

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org such phenomenon& Large scale systems lack internal nutrient cycles which may promote degradation of micronutrients& Problem of water were mostly found in east facing sloppy lands where farmers at least could supply with pipe water in the stress condition& =he study period was during spring season planting and faces more dry conditions than rainy season planting& 9ruit set problem was obser)ed to be more with local culti)ars though they were resistant against pest and diseases than other hybrids& 6ater stress also al influences the a)ailability of micronutrients (eg& calcium deficiency) in soil and plant health (strength) against pest/diseases& Disease problems were e2ually distributed o)er all the farming system types& igher curati)e action in commercial farming systems ystems against pest and diseases might ha)e affected pest species mo)ing towards nearby integrated or mi%ed farms carrying diseases (as )ectors)& Figure 5$ Problem O, by farming types

=aking under consideration for the trend of random field application of pesticides due to improper knowledge among growers! selecti)e application of insecticides against problematic insects was tested& According to the Feneral Linear Model (FLM) test! cypermethrin and mi%ed insecticides were found significant while testing against the problematic fields with H. armigera. Table 5 H. armigera by insecticides applied& Insecticides )stimator Std"=)rror t=>alue P *hlorpyrifos +!+-0-,'A +!(..''' +!(A +!-.'1 7ndosulfan +!,.1.,,A +!,-/0+/ ,!,+ +!(-0+ &ypermethrin 6,7'896:' 6,'87868 ',95 6,6!7' Phorate +!(1+0(+. +!,.A,-( ,!,0 +!('-0 (i0ed 6,8!'5;:< 6,!<!'8 ','< 6,6';9 "eem +!+(A.-A1 +!,/,.+. +!,0 +!0A+, MaDor tomato diseases in the area were seems to be caused by fungus and bacteria and to some e%tent )iruses& =o check efficiency ncy and target specific application le)el in the area! maDor diseases were tested against fungicides with FLM procedure& Manco#eb and copper sulphate are significant against rot disease& *opper sulphate is generally applied against fungal diseases! thus is nearly significant against rot disease& *arbenda#im against damping off is highly significant as farmers may apply it as specific fungicide against damping off& Table 8 Diseases by fungicides$ Disease Fungicide )stimator Std"=)rror t=>alue P #ot manco-eb 6,:!6'!'9 6,'!9788 5,'; 6,66'5 :ot copper suphate +!/+/+++, +!(/A0',!.+!+/-/ Damping off carbenda-im 6,86:89<9 6,!7'9<5 ',9! 6,6!:' 6hiteflies population le)el! while analy#ed with 6ilco%on/NruskalG6allis 6ilco%on/Nruskal 6allis and = test! was found se)ere in Madanpokhara ara study site (M ) than in Sundargaon site with almost two times se)erity& Presence of high yielding culti)ars (hybrid susceptible) and monocropping of tomato crops in M area may ha)e shown such results& A factorial test! chiGs2uare appro%imation test ha)e ha shown significant result (*hi( 3 '&/0! df 3 ,M P 3 +&+1(1) and was also found significant different with normal appro%imation test (H test)& 5eside these! effect of location and ele)ation on le)el of resistance were tested! where resistance were statistically statistically not significant with location while testing with "ominalGlogistic logistic model (*hi( 3 '&(110! df 3 /M p 3 +&/,A)& Similar effect was found for the resistance

,,-

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org le)el against the ele)ation according to the same model (*hi( 3 '&(110! df 3 /M p 3 +&/,A)& Bnly Bnl whiteflies infestation were found more in M location which may be due to presence of se)eral monoculture commercial farming system for tomato rather than effect of geography and ele)ation& >n the sur)ey areas! maDor )arieties grown were statistically tested tested for their resistance le)el against insect and diseases& :esistance traits of culti)ars were categori#ed in a range of , to 1 (, 3 susceptible! ( 3 semi susceptible and 1 3 resistant or not significant damage with pest and diseases)& MaDor tomato culti)ars culti)ars taken for analysis were$ Manisha! SriDana! =hims P ,! Sirish! Local cherry and Lapsigede (medium si#ed fruits)& >n order to analyse the differences among culti)ars in terms of occurrences of whiteflies infestation! adaptation generali#ed linear model was used& Differences were found significant during o)erall analysis (*hi( 3 (1&A,! df 3 ,,! p 3 +&+,'/)& 6hile contrasting local cherry with Manisha! SriDana and combinations (Manisha P Lapsigede) and (SriDana P Lapsigede) differences were highly significant cant (*hi( 3 ,,&+.! df 3 ,! p 3 +&+++0-)& Likewise! *ombinations of hybrids with local cherry were contrasted with combination of hybrids where local cherry grown together with SriDana! Manisha and Sirish were contrasted with combination of (Manisha PSriDana)! PSriDana)! (Manisha P Lapsigede) and (SriDana P Lapsigede)! and the differences were significant (p 3 +&++,)& 6hitelfly infestation differences among combinations of hybrid culti)ars were not significant different as they all were susceptible to whiteflies& *ombinations inations of hybrids with local cherry was found se)ere in subsistence le)el farming where! farmers grow for family use and/or for )illage le)el selling only when they get ade2uate yield& *ombination of susceptible culti)ars with different crop species and/or or resistant culti)ars like local cherry has shown lower le)el of whiteflies abundance whereas growing commercial hybrid )arieties (sole or combination of hybrids) were found se)erely infested& 5light resistance characters against occurrence of disease was was significant (9 3 1&A-! df 3 (! 1-M p 3 +&+1/) as per the one way analysis of )ariance test& H. armigera resistance traits of )ariety and le)el of infestation were significant while tested with one way analysis of )ariance (9 3 -&(/! df 3 (! 10M p 3 +&++(()& +&++(()& Susceptible culti)ars (mainly hybrid )arieties A) were se)erely attacked and semi susceptible (combination effects A5) with medium le)el while resistant (local culti)ars 5) were almost not infested& 6hile analysing all insect infestation condition as per the resistance le)el of )arieties with one way analysis of )ariance and 6ilco%on/NruskalG6allisGtests! 6ilco%on/Nruskal special tomato pests were significant while others were not found significant which are due to mi%ed cropping systems& 5utterflies! grasshoppers and leaf feeding beetles collected in the study areas were seasonal pest on tomato and others were non pest species which were found in tomato field due to mi%ed di)ersified crops within small fields& *ommercial production fields were mainly affected with specific specific pests like H. armigera! whiteflies! aphids etc& Statistical analysis has pro)en that the resistance ranks were significant against specific pests rather than occasional pest species (=able /)& Pieris species are more specific pest for 5rassicaceae family fa rather than tomato and other )egetables& Abundance of these species might ha)e been due to presence of other )egetables (crucifers)& Table 9 All insects abundance by insect resistance traits of culti)ars Degree of Insects Sum of s@uares (ean s@uares F Aalue Pr" B F freedom H. armigera ' !!,766666 9,<6666 :,'966 6,66'' 1hiteflies ' 7,!;;6'8 5,6;;9! 8,8<<7 6,6!:< ?rasshopper ' :,!8<7!< 5,9:85! 5,5;:; 6,685; Leaf beetles ( +!.//''+!'---( +!1+-( +!-1-1 Pieris spp& ( '!0((-A' (!',,10 ,!-.., +!,-.1 Aphids ( 1!-.,((+ ,!0./A, (!(1.0 +!,(+1 Specific tomato pest Myzus persicae Sul#er was obser)ed in Lapsigede and hybrid tomatoes (Manisha and SriDana) in commercial systems& ence! specific tomato pests/diseases are found to be highly affected by resistance ance le)el of )ariety! micro climate and location! whereas application fre2uency and management practices were more for high yielding hybrid culti)ars where resistance de)elopment of insects and disease causing organisms might ha)e been de)eloped& 8" DIS&%SSI$NS =he study! primarily based on the field le)el sur)ey and direct sampling within the tomato field along with in)ol)ement of few additional crop species under specified limitations! has used obser)ational! appraised and analytical methods& Selection of study district and field was set as due to the preliminary conte%t analysis that hilly areas in "epal has future potential of )egetable culti)ation increment due to microclimatic )ariability as well as percentage of land a)ailability o)er the country& =here are se)eral national and international organisations in)ol)ed in building up agricultural enterprises utili#ing marginal areas ha)ing challenges and opportunities for de)elopment acti)ities! where sloping agriculture land technology (SAL=) and other se)eral approaches are being proposed (Shrestha et al& (++A)& =he approach of splitting the farming systems into three categories has supported more prQcised analysis and e%traction of intra location (sites) information& Agricultural areas with minimal or e)en

,,0

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org no use of e%ternal chemical pesticides more or less follow organic by default practices rather than medium to high input use agriculture& =raditional multiple cropping systems in place of ad)anced intensi)e single cropping systems are rele)ant in terms ms of efficient utili#ation of land! labour and local resources! and such traditional farms still pro)ide ,/G(+J (+J of the worlds8 food supply (Altieri! ,...)& *ultural practices and pre)enti)e pest management techni2ues support pest suppression and natural control control within defined ecosystems and less intensification can balance soil and en)ironmental degradation (Hehnder et al& (++-)& 5eside theses! concept of production trend and inno)ations can be keyed out with continuous research and de)elopment acti)ities within a study area by partitioning it into se)eral classes according to the goal of the study& =he study can ha)e positi)e approaches to gear up de)elopment programs for hill agriculture e%ploring e%isting practices and further potential production sites! utili#ing a)ailable local resources and adopting sustainable protection measures& >nstruments used for insect and non arthropods collection )aried in order to facilitate the procedure& 9lying insects in the tomato field were easier to trap with insect sweep sweep nets rather than hand collection methods& *ollection with sweep nets is a most effecti)e way of collecting a huge mass of small bugs! beetles! spiders and other insect species in grass and dense )egetated agricultural areas (Millar et al& (+++)& Manual collection is an efficient way of sampling by which the number of species counted per unit time can be predicted in different fields (:>*! ,..0)& =he method also became effecti)e for collection of non insect arthropods like daddy long legged har)estman (Bpilliones)! illiones)! rough woodlouse (>sopoda) etc& Since arthropods ha)e ability to e%ploit a )ariety of habitats as per their di)ersified beha)iours! e)en fewer numbers of traps are efficient to capture different groups (:>* ,..0)& =ime and fre2uency of the samplings ngs were designed in a manner that abundance le)el can be )aried during the sampling period according to the manipulation in crop growth stage of tomato! type and growth stage of adDacent crop species and application of pesticides& Palikhe ((++() stated that that persistent pesticides create problem for en)ironment and ecological organisms especially non target beneficials as they ha)e more chance to recei)e to%ic le)els due to higher mobility in search of preys& :epeated samplings in both the areas were found effecti)e e for capturing di)ersified species of different orders within the period of field study and thus were 2uite practical for interpreting connectance and species interaction& 7%traction of features from images at )aried suitable poses either manually or with e2uipments is an effecti)e method of insect identification (6en et al& (++.)& ence the study recommend to de)elop technical ad)ancement in field le)el samplings and identification using F>S mapping! computer based e2uipments and laboratory facilities facilities that can ha)e higher efficiency for further researches& Agricultural changes are more or less a role of natural as well as technological factors and farmers are the nearer obser)er of field le)el acti)ities& According to Flendenning et al& ((+,+)! marginal marginal and smallholder farmers! who do not access information more fre2uently! may lack di)erse range of information to support their farm enterprises and also presenting the issues and constraints to the related sectors& 9ield sur)ey information gathered in the study supported the agro ecological di)ersity assessment and prediction of general trend for a longer period rather than confined information within the field )isit period& Such combination of study methods can pro)ide more detailed information opening g additional issues for future assessments& >n agroecosystems! modifications of en)ironments are mainly concerned with the e%ternal man made efforts on production process together with the natural ad)erse factors& Loss of arthropods in intensi)e agricultural agricultu fields happens not only with direct effect of chemical but also with the loss of habitat and food (e&g& weed suppression with herbicides! crop species loss with single cropping and less population of organisms disturbing trophic relations) along with intensification ntensification of agriculture (6ardle et al& ,...! Medeiros et al& (++.)& :egulation of natural resource management for food security empowering rural communities (where marginal growers li)e) reflects the role of agroecosystem in sustainable de)elopment (Altieri (Altieri (++()& 7ffort of this study for differentiating the production systems and their di)erse outcomes )ia obser)ation! sampling and analysis made study meaningful and ad)ocates for more confined and comparati)e studies in wideGranging wide ranging production #ones of "epal& abitat manipulation and di)ersification of plant species in time and space are maDor ways of pest management in organic tomato fields (Medeiros et al& (++.)& According to Letourneau < Foldstein ((++,)! comparison of pest damage le)els between organic ganic )ersus con)entional tomato fields did not differ significantly! but community structure was found )aried& A comple% of different species not only shows the general community structure and species interaction! but there e%ist se)eral hidden facts within within the system where role of other nonGarthropods non and crop species ha)e significant role like chemical comple%ity of plants affecting herbi)ores and carni)ores (:andlkofer et al& (+,+)! soil terrestrial food web (5russaard ,..0)! and susceptibility of plants plants against herbi)ores and arthropods against control measures (=heiling < *roft ,.00)& Sundargaon (LS) site8s samples consisted soil arthropods (sca)engers! decomposers etc) and wideGranging wide ranging species of predators& "ot only interactions among arthropod communities ities suffice the o)erall ecosystem regulation! howe)er there are )ital role of nonGarthropod non predators (like birds! reptiles and others)! which in few cases are found to be more efficient than arthropod predators (Philpott et al& (++')& A worthy di)ersity of nonGarthropods arthropods (predating on arthropods or independent) were obser)ed in both the study sites due to dense planted surrounding areas! grass lands and forests& Such factors are to be considered for the detailed studies in the future&

,,.

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org *onnectance le)el found ound for both study sites were at intermediate le)el and difference between two communities were not that much identical& According to 9owler ((++.)! stable communities )ary with the number of species and increased le)el of comple%ity and connectance can ha)e ha)e direct effects on reduction and enhancement of stability! which are more fle%ible in smaller communities& =he study sites were distributed o)er a large area but the maDor samplings were from specific tomato fields& Bnly mi%ed farms were more or less sufficient su to e%press micro climatic species di)ersity due to integration of se)eral crop species in particular field& 6ardle et al& (,...)! in their study stated that higher arthropods were obtained with higher weed biomass! howe)er *oleopteran di)ersity was s more in mulching and stubble biomass and not significantly correlated with weed biomass& Fenerally! subsistence le)el farming types in the study hold higher stubble biomass! manures and dense plantations of di)ersified species within small areas& igher abundance of Dipterans and predatory arthropods in LS study site reflects encouraging result and in contrast! M site (where commercial farms were more in number) contained more coleopterans& ongDiao et al& ((+,+) found higher predatory arthropods (11&-,J) (11&-,J followed by neutral (indifferent) species and herbi)ores in cabbage field that intercropped with garlic and lettuce& Plant species di)ersity affects )egetation comple%ity (structural and chemical) which ha)e direct effect on herbi)ores and carni)ore arthropods ropods (:andlkofer et al& (+,+)& 9ew serious pests in tomato ha)e always been an issue of discussion since they can cause se)ere damage in fa)ourable conditions and also can transmit diseases (eg& aphids and whiteflies)& Such species management becomes problematic problematic in large scale farming system where risk of pre har)est loss causes se)eral economic misbalances& MaDority of the )egetable production trend in "epal represents subsistence le)el farming specially in the hilly remote areas (ESA>D! (+,,)& *ulti)ation *ulti)ation of tomato can benefit growers and suppliers from different points of )iews like supplements of micronutrients! fresh selling! and processed products marketing& Statistical records showed higher yield le)el of tomato and )egetables in the study district than that of the country and western hilly regions =able A& Table 7 ;egetable and tomato production pattern in "epal and the study district ((++./,+)& Production region &ommodity Area .ha/ Production .metric tons, mt/ Cield .mt3ha/

Palpa )egetables ,../ (/.1/ !5 6estern hills )egetables (,!A/' (+-!+(/ .&/A "epal )egetables (1(!(./ (!0(+!/(,(&,'( Palpa tomato ,(+ (!(/+ !<":9 6estern hills tomato ,!,+. ,0!-11 ,A&0. "epal tomato ,.!-(' 1,-!A/,A&,+/, Data sources$ *5S (+,+! ESA>D (+,, =aking under consideration for inade2uate supply of per capita )egetable supply in "epal (Ali < =sou ,..-)! there needs policies and approaches to disseminate knowledge! maintain scale and 2uality of production (Pokhrel (+,+) and plant protection techni2ues (pre)enti)e and curati)e)& De)elopment of agricultural sector should undertake the comparati)e ad)antage of )egetables production through out the potential production #ones focussing on periGurban urban to rural production system undertaking e%plicit policy changes! including includ pri)ate sector in)estments (@ohnson et al& (++0)! where! there necessitate participatory identification of integrated agricultural technologies in sloppy lands of nepal (Shrestha et al& (++A)& =ogether with production efforts! concentrated o)er different nt regions of the country! there needs simultaneous attempts for the protection approaches as pre and post har)est losses for agricultural commodities still e%ist around (+ G 1/J (MBA* (+,+)& >n comparison to other countries! per hectare consumption of pesticides pesticides in "epal is relati)ely less (MBA* (++.)! howe)er with increment of commerciali#ation of agriculture and area e%pansion of )egetable crops! the rate is gradually increasing& Among all the farmers of "epal! '0J of them were found using pesticides (*5S ( (+,+)& 6ithin pesticide use periphery! there are se)eral misuses! residual effects on food materials! higher doses of application causing natural misbalances and monetary losses with lower production efficiency (Palikhe (++(! :anabhat < F* (++/)& 9ungicides cides ha)ing high resistant risks like metala%yl! carbenda#im! streptomycin etc (9:A* (++0) are being used since long time where mi%ing of such groups can de)elop more resistance against diseases causing loss of beneficial organisms eg& *opper fungicides may may disrupt fertility status of lady beetles (Michaud < Frant (++1)& >nformation obtained through field le)el sur)ey of ', households randomi#ed o)er two study sites were mainly confined to the tomato fields of different culti)ars& A)ailable information were were efficient source of comparati)e e)aluation of pest damage assessment! impacts of pesticides use structure and effecti)eness on control among all the farming system types& 9ield le)el sur)eys! in general should comply research obDecti)es according to the th agricultural production/protection system in terms of manpower! resource and technologies& Ad)antage of :apid :ural Appraisal (::A) o)er Participatory :ural Appraisal (P:A) is that 2uerier/researcher can get more

,(+

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org prQcised information! but adoption of ser)ices! ser)ices! technologies and other facilities by clients will be more effecti)e with P:A (Ling (+,,)& Another most important aspect to be considered will be the community structure of respondents where there is a comple% of combination of differences in knowledge! knowledge! practices! problem faced! facilities! technologies and biophysical en)ironments (5handari (++1! 5raunschweig et al& (++,)& =he study was focussed on collection of information regarding arthropod community structure! pest infestation and problems faced in contrast of farmers8 practices of input use (type! amount and fre2uencies) and purposes& 9or these! household sur)eys made a)ailable first hand information as well as obser)ational outputs and discussions on problem faced! production en)ironments and mitigation mitigation strategies were effecti)e with participatory approaches& Pesticide application fre2uency that has been found highest in commercial tomato farming systems was found )ery less in subsistence le)el production system& Multiple agricultural technologies technologies for 2uality and 2uantity of production may depend on farmers8 self sufficiency! e%tension input and le)el of farmers8 e%pertise (9loyd (++1)& Similarly! pestO, (ranked as most problematic) was significance against pesticide application fre2uency! where Helicoverpa armigera and whiteflies infestation were getting more application fre2uencies than other butterflies and grasshoppers& Such analytical outcomes showed the se)erity of tomato specific pest species in commercial fields where higher control measures res are applied& =omato crop is one of the high input crops which also consume higher degree of insecticides followed by fungicides and herbicides (Letourneau < Foldstein (++,)& But of maDor problem faced by farmers! calcium deficiency was se)ere in commercial commercial tomato fields! which may be due to continuous loss of micronutrients and le)el of water supply& 5lossom end rot occurs fre2uently when plants face long drought condition during the early stages of fruit de)elopment! and also can occur after hea)y rainfall rain ( ansen! (++.)& Leaf disorders due to calcium deficiency also pro)oke illusion of disease infestation due to browning! young leaf twisting! necrosis and fruit rots (Echida (+++)& *ommercial areas with low moisture in fields were suffering form *a& deficiency iciency problem howe)er! similar problems were obser)ed in the wet land areas with high moisture and poor sun shine conditions& Application of insecticides against specific pest species are not found significant only e%cept for cypermethrin and mi%ed insecticides against Helicoverpa armigera& *ypermethrin! though being moderately ha#ardous according to 6orld ealth Brganisation ranking (6 B! (++/)! past e)ident has shown that elicoAerpa armigera from cotton growing areas of South Sulawesi! >ndonesia in ,.0,.0- and early ,.00 were resistant to cypermethrin (Mc*affery ,..,)& Since resistance risk may happen upon continuous hea)y use of pesticides! there needs alteration of chemical control agents as well as adoption of integrated pest management (>PM) approach which hich uses chemicals as a final option& Participatory work in >PM can establish networks and connections among stakeholders in)ol)ed in production! protection and support for safer plant protection acti)ities (:aini et al& (++/)& Bn the other hand! mi%ed pesticides pesticides ha)e synergistic action that their combined effect is greater than the sum of their indi)idual effects causing significant harm to humans and wildlife ( ol#man (+++) along with integrated risk of pest resistance& Significance le)el of applied fungicides icides against diseases shows that manco#eb! carbenda#im and metala%yl are applied more against rot! damping off and blight respecti)ely& 6 B ha#ardous le)el for manco#eb and carbenda#im is lesser than that of metala%yl& oe)e)er! resistant risk and persistent persistent nature in ecosystem are other important factors to be undertaken for the areas with incredible use trend of pesticides& Such aspects are 2uite essential for "epalese food security system where more emphasis is needed for standardi#ation of pesticide registration and supply system! pesticide residue limits on food materials maintaining waiting periods (Lama! (++0)! regular monitoring and awareness programs and restricted use of highly to%ic pesticides& M study site was found with more se)erity of whiteflies whiteflies than LS site& *ulti)ation of high yielding culti)ars and presence of large scale tomato fields were responsible for this factor& Areas where application fre2uencies were higher were more prone to whiteflies infestation probably due to disturbance of natural control systems and less effect of insecticides against whiteflies& >n such condition! use of most efficient pesticide against specific species can reduce higher fre2uency and doses of multiple pesticides& =heiling < *roft (,.00) in their study on pesticide side effects on arthropod natural enemies found out that susceptibility to pesticides were obser)ed most with predatory arthropods followed by parasitoids! where most common arthropod orders as per the hierarchy of susceptibility were$ ymenoptera! ra! *oleoptera! emiptera! Diptera! Araneae and others& ere in the study! with obser)ational records it was found that there were )ery less to none hymenopterans in commercial farms of M site howe)er in subsistence le)el farms within this site they were se)erely spread& Loss of ymenopterans due to hea)y use of pesticides and/or their mo)ements towards safe places might be effecti)e reason behind this& :esistance le)el of local culti)ars were found significant different with hybrids (single or in combination)& combinat Such resistance properties of culti)ars were also significant for harmfull pest species and diseases of tomato like Helicoverpa armigera! whiteflies and blight disease& Accoding to Lamichhane et al& ((+,+)! Manisha! SriDana and Lasigede showed higher susceptibility against bacterial speck disease while local culti)ars and =hims type showed )ery less susceptibility& >n this study such susceptible culti)ars ha)e shown poor resistance against maDor pest and diseases& =hims P, was found susceptible only against against whiteflies& =he study outcomes ha)e worthily found out se)eral facts regarding pest/disease infestation! problem faced in different farming systems! commonly

,(,

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org grown tomato culti)ars8 performance and their combination effects against each other in terms ter of pest/disease occurrence and effects on other beneficial arthropods& Such aspects can act as preconditions for further studies based on issues and mitigation of production/protection process in the long run& 9" #)F)#)N&)S Ali! M&! and S& *& S& =sou& ,..-& *ombating micronutrient deficiencies through )egetables a neglected food frontier in Asia& 9ood Policy ((! ,-G10& ,Altieri! M& A& ,...& =he ecological role of biodi)ersity in agroecosystems& @& Agriculture! 7cosystems and 7n)ironment -'! ,.G1,& Altieri! ri! M& A& (++(& AgroecologyR$ the science of natural resource management for poor farmers in marginal en)ironments& @& Agriculture! 7cosystems and 7n)ironment! .1! ,G('& , Altieri! M& A&! ,../& 5iodi)ersity and biocontrol$ Lessons from insect pest management& management @& Ad)ances in plant pathology! ;olume ,,! ,../& Atreya! N& (++0& ealth costs from shortGterm short term e%posure to pesticides in "epal& @& Social Science < Medicine! A-! /,,G/,.& 5handari! 5& 5& (++1& (Module ')& Participatory :ural Appraisal (P:A)& >nstitute for Flobal 7n)ironmental Strategies (>F7S)! Nanagawa! ('+G+,,/! ('+ @apan& 5hattarai! D& :&! and D& M& Fautam& (++A& 7ffect of har)esting method and calcium on post har)est physiology of tomato& @& "epal Agric& :es& @&! -! 1-G',& 15raunschweig! =&! 6& @anssen! and P& :ieder& (++,& >dentifying criteria for public agricultural research decisions& @& :esearch Policy! 1+! -(/ G -1'& 5russaard! L& ,..0& Soil fauna! guilds! functional groups and ecosystem processes& @& Applied Soil 7cology! .! ,(/ ? ,1/& 7igenbrode! S& & D&! and =rumble! @& =& ,..'& ost plant resistance to insects in integrated pest management in )egetable crops& @& Abrric& 7nlomol& ,,(1)$ (+, ? (('& 9loyd! *&! A& & arding! N& *& Paudel! D& P& :asali! N& Subedi! and P& P& Subedi& (++1& ousehold adoption adop and the associated impact of multiple agricultural technologies in the western hills of "epal& @& Agricultural Systems -A! -,/G-10& 9owler! M& S& (++.& >ncreasing community si#e and connectance can increase stability in competiti)e communities& @& @ournal of =heoretical 5iology! 5iology (,! ,-. ? ,00& Flendenning! *& @& (+,+& :e)iew of agricultural e%tension in >ndia$ Are farmers8 farmers8 information needs being metRU >nternational 9ood Policy :esearch >nstitute (>9P:>)! discussion paper +,+'0& ansen! M& A& (++.& 5lossom end rot of tomato& ;irginia *ooperati)e 7%tension! publication '/+G-+1& '/+ ol#man! D& *& (+++& *hemical *ocktails$ are mi%ed pesticides more potentU @& 7n)iron ealth Perspect! ,+0$ A,,'GA,,'& ongDiao! *&! S& Minsheng! and L& *ui& (+,+& 7ffects of intercropping systems on community composition and di)ersity of predatory arthropods in )egetable fields& @& Acta 7cologica 7cologica Sinica 1+! ,.+?,./& ,.+ @MP -&+&( ((++-) SAS >nstitute >nc&! SAS *ampus Dri)e! *ary! "*! ESA (-/,1 @ohnson! F& >&! N& 6einberger! and M& & 6u& =he ;egetable >ndustry in =ropical Asia& A;:D* G =he 6orld ;egetable *enter& A;:D* publication$ +0G-,(! +0 >S5" .(G.+/0G,A.G-& Lama! @& P& (++0& Standard setting on pesticide residues to ensure food safety& @& Agriculture and 7n)ironment! )ol$ .! 'AG/1& Lamichhane! @& :&! F& M& 5alestra! and L& ;ar)aro& (+,+& :esponse of commonly culti)ated tomato culti)ars in "epal l to bacterial speck& @& Phytopathol& Mediterr&! '.! '+AT',1& Letourneau! D& N&! and 5& Foldstein& (++,& Pest damage and arthropod community structure in organic )s& con)entional tomato production in *alifornia& @& Applied 7cology )ol& 10! issue 1! //-G/-+& //Ling! :& S& @& (+,,& =he P:A tools for 2ualitati)e rural tourism research& @& Systems 7ngineering Procedia (+,,! ,! 1.(G1.0& Mc*affery! A& :&! A& @& 6alker! and *& P& =opper& ,..,& >nsecticide resistance in the bollworm! elico)erpa armigera from >ndonesia& esia& @& Pestic& Sci&! 1($ 0/?.+& Medeiros! M& A&! 7& :& SuDii! < & *& Morais& (++.& 7ffect of plant di)ersification on abundance of South American tomato pinworm and predators in two cropping systems& @& orticultura 5rasileira! (-! 1++G 1++ 1+A& Michaud! @& P&! and A& N& Frant& (++1& SubGlethal Sub lethal effects of a copper sulphate fungicide on de)elopment and reproduction in three coccinellid species& @& >nsect Science! 1$,A& Midmore! D& @&! and D& D& Poudel& ,..A& Asian )egetable production systems for the future& @& Agricultural Systems! /+! /,GA'& Midmore! D& @&! and & F& P& @ansen& (++1& Supplying )egetables to Asian cities$ is there a case for periGurban peri productionU @& 9ood Policy! (0! ,1G(-& ,1

,((

7uropean @ournal of Agricultural Sciences! Sciences ;ol&,+ (+,1 >SS" (paper) (AA0G1('/ >SS" (online) (AA0G1/'www&5ellPress&org Millar! >& M&! ;& M& Eys! and :& P& Erban (editors)& (+++& *ollecting *ollecting and preser)ing insects and arachnids (A manual for 7ntomology and Arachnology)& A:* ? Plant Protection :esearch >nstitute! >S5" , G0A0G '.,''G-& "epal! :&! and F& 5& =hapa&(++.& Determinants of agricultural commerciali#ation and mechani#ation in the hinterland rland of a city in "epal& @& Applied Feography! (.! 1--G10.& 1-Palikhe! 5& :& (++(& *hallenges and options of pesticide use$ >n the conte%t of "epal& LandschaftsXkologie und Emweltforschung 10! ,1+G,',& ,',& Pandey S& :&! A& 5& Pun! and N& P& Epadhyay& (++A& Participatory rticipatory )arietal e)aluation of rainy season tomato under plastic house condition& @& "epal Agric& :es& @&! -! ,,G,/& ,, Philpott! S& M&! :& Freenberg! P& 5ichier! and >& Perfecto& (++'& >mpacts of maDor predators on tropical agroforest arthropods$ comparisons isons within and across ta%a& Becologia ,'+! ,'+G,'.& ,'+ Pokhrel! D M& (+,+& *omparison of farm production and marketing cost and benefit among selected )egetable pockets in "epal& @& Agriculture and 7n)ironment (+,+! ,+G(/& ,+ PuDos! A&! and P& Morard& ,..-& 7ffects ffects of potassium deficiency on tomato growth and mineral nutrition at the early production stage& @& Plant and Soil ,0.$ ,0.?,.A! ,0. ,.A! Nluwer Academic Publishers& :aini! :&! ;& offmann < *& P& 6& Hebit#& (++/& >ntegrated pest management (>PM) and information informati flow$ *ase study tomato stakeholders8 practices in Nenya& (http$//www&tropentag&de/(++//proceedings/node,/'&html http$//www&tropentag&de/(++//proceedings/node,/'&html) :anabhat! 5& and F*! S& D& (++/& 7ffect of Melia azedarach on aphid (Brevcorinae revcorinae brassicae) of organic cabbage farming& >nternational scientific conference on organic agriculture! Adelaide! Australia! September (,G(1& :andlkofer! 5&! 7& Bbermaier! M& ilker! and =& Meiners& (+,+& ;egetation comple%ityY comple%ityY=he influence of plant species di)ersity and plant structures on plant chemical comple%ity and arthropods& @& 5asic and Applied 7cology ,,! 101G1./& 1./& Shrestha! "& (++/& "epal8s entry in 6=BM A challenge to fulfil the obligations in phytosanitary measures& >n Proceedings! >ntegrated ted Pest Management and Plant Protection Strategy De)elopment in "epal& Plant Protection Society "epal! .G,+ . ,+ May! (++/! Nathmandu! isi Publications! Lalitpur! "epal& Shrestha! P& N&! N& P& Aryal! 5& :& :egmi! :egmi and 5& 5& =amang& (++A& ow can research and de)elopment help upland farmers impro)e their farming systemsU 7%periences in participatory technology de)elopment& Sustainable sloping lands and watershed management conference! December December ,( G ,/! (++A! Luang Prabang! Lao PD:& Shrestha! P&! P& Noirala! and A& S& =amrakar& (+,+& Nnowledge! practice and use of pesticides among commercial )egetable growers of Dhading district! "epal& @& =he @ournal of Agriculture and 7n)ironment ,,! ./G,++& =heiling! N&M&! and 5&A& *roft& ,.00& Pesticide sideGeffects side effects on arthropod natural enemies$ a database Summary& @& Agriculture! 7cosystems and 7n)ironment! (,! ,.,G(,0& ,., Echida! :& (+++& 7ssential nutrients for plant growth$ nutrient functions and deficiency deficiency symptomsR& *ollege of =ropical Agriculture and uman :esources! Eni)ersity of awaii at Manoa! 1,G//& 1, //& 6ardle! D& A&! N& S& "icholson! N& >& 5onner! and F&6& Seates& ,...& 7ffects of agricultural intensification on soil G associated arthropod population population dynamics! community structure! di)ersity and temporal )ariability o)er a se)enGyear year period& @& Soil 5iology and 5iochemistry 1,! ,A.,G,-+A& ,A., ,-+A& 6en! *&! D& 7& Fuyer! and 6& Li& (++.& Local featureGbased feature based identification and classification for orchard insects& insects @& 5iosystems engineering ,+'! (.. ? 1+-& Hehnder! F&! F& M& Furr! S& NVhne! M& :& 6ade! S& D& 6ratten! and 7&6yss& (++-& Arthropod pest management in organic crops& @& Annu& :e)& 7ntomol! /(! /-G0+& /(*5S) *entral 5ureau of Statistics& (++.! (+,+& Statistical Statistical records on agriculture& "ational Planning *ommission ("P*)! "epal& (9:A*) 9ungicide :esistance Action *ommittee& (++0& 9:A* code list$ 9ungicides sorted by mode of action (including 9:A* code numbering)! updated )ersion of (++-& (MBA*) Ministry of agriculture riculture and *ooperati)e& (++0! (++.! (+,+& Searly progress report on plant protection program ("epali)& Plant Protection Directorate! "epal& (:>*) :esource >n)entory *ommittee& ,..0& >n)entory methods for terrestrial arthropods& ,..0& Standards for components nents of 5ritish *olumbiaWs biodi)ersity! no& '+! >S5" +G--(AG1/A1G1& + (ESA>D) Enited States Agency for >nternational De)elopment& (+,,& ;alue chain / market analysis of the offG off season )egetable subGsector sector in "epal& *ontract "o& A>DG1A-G=BG,,G++++,& A>D (6 B) 6orld orld ealth Brgani#ation& (++/& =he 6 B recommended classification of pesticides by ha#ard and guidelines to classification! >S5" .( ' ,/'AA1 0

,(1