TERAHERTZ TRANSISTOR

A Seminar Report
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree

Of MASTER O TE!HNO"O#$ IN %"SI &ESI#N '(

&I%$A !HA)HAN *+,----.+---./

)TTRA0HAN& TE!HNI!A" )NI%ERSIT$ A!)"T$ O TE!HNO"O#$ )NI%ERSIT$ !AM1)S &EHRA&)N

S)'MITTE& TO2 1RO 3 %ISHA" RAMO"A *H3O3& O M3TE!H %"SI &ESI#N/ MONI0A #)1TA S)'MITTE& '$2 &I%$A !HA)HAN MTE!H %"SI &ESI#N

*SEMINAR !OR&INATOR/

)TTRA0HAN& TE!HNI!A" )NI%ERSIT$ A!)"T$ O TE!HNO"O#$ )NI%ERSIT$ !AM1)S &EHRA&)N

!ERTI I!ATE
This is to certify that the seminar report entitled "TERAHERTZ TRANSISTOR" submitted by Di ya !hauhan in partial fulfillments for the re"uirements for the a#ard of master of technolo$y de$ree in %&SI Desi$n at 'aculty of Technolo$y (ni ersity !ampus Dehradun is an authentic #or) carried out by him under my super ision and $uidance* To the best of my )no#led$e+ the matter embodied in the seminar report has not been submitted to any other (ni ersity , Institute for the a#ard of any de$ree of diploma*

Date-

1RO 3 %ISHA" RAMO"A *H3O3& O M3TE!H %"SI &ESI#N. MONI0A #)1TA /SEMINAR !OR&INATOR/

A!0NO4"E&#EMENT
It is a $reat pleasure and mo ement of immense satisfaction for us to e1press our sense of profound $ratitude and indebtedness to#ards all those #ho directly or indirectly in ol ed them self in the de elopment of this seminar report* 2e are $rateful to our honorable seminar coordinator 3oni)a 4upta for their dili$ent attention to#ards this seminar report throu$hout it5s all sta$es of de elopment *Her comments and criticism ha e been of $reat conse"uence * 2e than)ful ac)no#led$e the co6operation e1tended to#ards us by the staff of department of 3*TE!H %&SI DESI4N faculty of technolo$y+ (T( campus Dehradun and the library staff for pro idin$ facilities for the #or) and study material needed* &ast but not least #e are heartily than)ful to all friends #ho ha e directly or indirectly help us in this seminar report*

DI%7A !HA(HAN ENRO&&* NO*809999:8999: SE3 ;RD

A'STRA!T
In this paper #e ha e defined ne# transistor architecture* The Terahert< transistor pro=ect is a culmination of se eral ad anced research studies* The desi$n #ill probably set the de elopment path for inte$rated circuit technolo$ies throu$h 0989 and beyond* The Terahert< architecture offers increased fre"uency scalin$+ lo# latency+ and si$nificantly impro ed po#er efficiency* Intel is ery e1cited about ha in$ de eloped the Terahert< transistor* >y addressin$ the po#er problem+ it pa es the #ay for the continuation of 3oore?s &a# throu$h the end of the decade+ and this #ill enable end user applications that are beyond our ima$ination today* As #ith any ne# technolo$y+ there are numerous technical issues that need to be resol ed before olume production can be$in* Intel belie es that the Terahert< transistor architecture #ill be become the clear choice for the second half of the decade*

TA'"E O !ONTENTS
A!0NO4"E&#EMENTS A'STRA!T TA'"E O !ONTENTS Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................6 Chapter 2: EVOLUTION OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT........................................................................7 Chapter 3: TRANSISTOR....................................................................................................................9-1 3.1 Types............................................................................................................................................9 3.2 What is suitable for Terahertz Transistor?................................................................................10 Chapter !: FUNDA"ENTAL C#ALLENGE FOR T#IS DECADE ........................................11-13 4.1 Transistor Ioff leakage...............................................................................................................11 4.2 Transistor Gate eakage............................................................................................................11 4.3 !oft "rror #ate..........................................................................................................................12 4.4 $igh %perating &oltage.............................................................................................................13 4.' Gate (elay an( )ri*e +urrent....................................................................................................13 Chapter $: TERA#ERT% TRANSISTOR......................................................................................1!-1$ '.1 )eplete( !ubstrate Transistor...................................................................................................14 '.2 Gate )iele+tri+..........................................................................................................................1' Chapter 6: SOLUTION OF &O'ER &RO(LE" 'IT# TERA#ERT% TRANSISTER........16-1) ,.1 !olution of Ioff eakage............................................................................................................1, ,.2 !olution of Transistor Gate leakage by Gate )iele+tri+...........................................................1, ,.3 #esistan+e #e(u+tion.................................................................................................................1,.4 !olution of !oft "rror #ate........................................................................................................1,.' !olution of $igh %perating &oltage..........................................................................................1. Chapter 7: TRANSISTOR &ERFOR"ANCE CO"&ARISON......................................................19 Chapter ): ADVANTAGES OF TERA#ERT% TRANSISTER.......................................................2 Chapter 9: A&&LICATION...............................................................................................................21 Chapter 1 : NON-&LANER TRI-GATE TRANSISTER.................................................................22 Chapter 11: (I(LIOGRA&#* .........................................................................................................23
@

!hapter +2 INTRO&)!TION
Transistors are basic buildin$ bloc)s in analo$ circuit applications li)e ariable6$ain amplifiers+ data con erters+ interface circuits+ and continuous6time oscillators and filters* The desi$n of the transistor has under$one many chan$es since its debut in 8ABC* Not only ha e they become smaller+ but also their speeds ha e increased alon$ #ith their ability to conser e po#er* Transistor research brea)throu$hs #ill allo# us to continue 3oore?s &a# throu$h end of decade* I! Industry is ma)in$ transition from Dlanar to Non6Dlanar Transistors* This de elopment has potential to enable products #ith hi$her performance that use less po#er* Effecti e transistor fre"uency scalin$ is an e er present problem for inte$rated circuit manufacturers as today5s desi$ns are pushin$ the limits of current $eneration technolo$y* As more and more transistors are pac)ed onto a sli er of silicon+ and they are run at hi$her and hi$her speeds+ the total amount of po#er consumed by chips is $ettin$ out of hand* !hips that dra# too much po#er $et too hot+ drain batteries unnecessarily /in mobile applications. and consume too much electricity* This is a ma=or problem* If this po#er problem is not addressed+ 3oore?s &a# #ill be throttled and futuristic applications such as real6time speech reco$nition and translation+ real6time facial reco$nition /for security applications. or rendered $raphics #ith the "ualities of ideo #ill ne er be reali<ed* These types of applications #ill re"uire microprocessors #ith far more transistors than today+ and runnin$ at much hi$her speeds than today also the a$in$ architecture simply is not #ell suited to scalin$ to hi$h fre"uencies* En$ineers are already hard at #or)+ de elopin$ ne# technolo$ies to increase transistor efficiency and scalin$* A recent di e throu$h the Intel technolo$y archi es indicates that researchers are already for$in$ ahead #ith e1citin$ ne# architectures e1pected to deli er transistors capable of Terahert< operation by the end of this decade* Intel?s researchers ha e de eloped a ne# type of transistor that it plans to use to ma)e microprocessors and other lo$ic products /such as chip sets. in the second half of the decade called ETerahert<F transistor* A Terahert< transistor is able to s#itch bet#een its EonF and EoffF state o er 8+999+999+999+999 times per second /e"ual to 8999 4i$ahert<*.* That?s #hy the name Terahert< transistor* The )ey problem sol ed by the Terahert< transistor is that of po#er+ ma)in$ the transistors smaller and faster is not feasible due to the po#er problem* Intel?s ne# Terahert< transistor allo#s for scalin$+ and addresses the po#er problem* The $oal #ith the TeraHert< transistor is that microprocessors #ill consume no more po#er than today+ e en thou$h they #ill consist of many more transistors* The TeraHert< transistor has features+ #hich sol es the problems li)e un#anted current flo# across $ate dielectric+ un#anted current flo# from source to drain #hen transistor is EoffF and Hi$h olta$e needed and thereby increasin$ po#er usa$e* Intel TeraHert< #as Intel5s ne# desi$n for transistors* It uses ne# materials such as <irconium dio1ide #hich is a superior insulator reducin$ current lea)a$es* Accordin$ to Intel+ the ne# desi$n could use only 9*G olts* Intel TeraHert< #as un eiled in 0998* As of 0989+ it is not used in processors*

!hapter ,2 E%O")TION O INTE#RATE& !IR!)IT

The I! #as in ented in 'ebruary 8A@A by Hac) Iilby of Te1as Instruments* The planner ersion of I! #as de eloped independently by Robert Noyce at 'airchild in Huly 8A@A* Since then+ the e olution of this technolo$y has been e1tremely first paced* One #ay to $au$e the pro$ress of the field is to loo) at the comple1ity of the I!s as a function of time* 3oore5s la# describes a lon$6term trend in the history of computin$ hard#are* The number of transistors that can be placed ine1pensi ely on an inte$rated circuit has doubled appro1imately e ery t#o years* The trend has continued for more than half a century and is not e1pected to stop until 098@ or later* The capabilities of many di$ital electronic de ices are stron$ly lin)ed to 3oore5s la#- processin$ speed+ memory capacity+ sensors and e en the number and si<e of pi1els in di$ital cameras* All of these are impro in$ at /rou$hly. e1ponential rates as #ell* This has dramatically increased the usefulness of di$ital electronics in nearly e ery se$ment of the #orld economy* 3oore5s la# describes a dri in$ force of technolo$ical and social chan$e in the late 09th and early 08 st centuries* The la# is named after Intel co6founder 4ordon E* 3oore+ #ho described the trend in his 8AG@ paper* The paper noted that number of components in inte$rated circuits had doubled e ery year from the in ention of the inte$rated circuit in 8A@C until 8AG@ and predicted that the trend #ould continue "for at least ten years"* His prediction has pro ed to be uncannily accurate+ in part because the la# is no# used in the semiconductor industry to $uide lon$6term plannin$ and to set tar$ets for research and de elopment*

The history of I!s can be described in terms of different eras+ dependin$ on the components count* Small6scale inte$ration /SSI. refers to the inte$ration of 8689 0 de ices+ medium6scale inte$ration /3SI. to the inte$ration of 890689; de ices+ lar$e6scale inte$ration /&SI. to 89;689@ de ices+ ery lar$e6scale inte$ration /%&SI. to the 89@689G de ices+ and no# (ltra lar$e scale inte$ration /(&SI. to the inte$ration of 89G689A de ices* Of course+ these boundaries are some#hat fu<<y* The ne1t $eneration has been dubbed $i$a6scale inte$ration /4SI.* 2a$s ha e su$$ested that after that #e #ill ha e RS&I or Eridiculously lar$e6scale inte$rationF*

!hapter 52 TRANSISTOR
The name transistor is a portmanteau of the term "transfer resistor"* A transistor is a semiconductor de ice used to amplify and s#itch electronic si$nals* It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material+ #ith at least three terminals for connection to an e1ternal circuit* A olta$e or current applied to one pair of the transistor5s terminals chan$es the current flo#in$ throu$h another pair of terminals* >ecause the controlled /output. po#er can be much more than the controllin$ /input. po#er+ the transistor pro ides amplification of a si$nal* Today+ some transistors are pac)a$ed indi idually+ but many more are found embedded in inte$rated circuits* The transistor is the fundamental buildin$ bloc) of modern electronic de ices+ and is ubi"uitous in modern electronic systems* 'ollo#in$ its release in the early 8A@9s the transistor re olutioni<ed the field of electronics+ and pa ed the #ay for smaller and cheaper radios+ calculators+ and computers+ amon$st other thin$s*

53+ T(pes
Transistors are cate$ori<ed by Semiconductor material- $ermanium+ silicon+ $allium arsenide+ silicon carbide+ etc* Structure- >HT+ H'ET+ I4'ET /3OS'ET.+ I4>T+ "other types" Dolarity- NDN+ DND />HTs.J N6channel+ D6channel /'ETs. 3a1imum po#er ratin$- lo#+ medium+ hi$h 3a1imum operatin$ fre"uency- lo#+ medium+ hi$h+ radio fre"uency /R'.+ micro#a e /The ma1imum effecti e fre"uency of a transistor is denoted by the term fT+ an abbre iation for "fre"uency of transition"* The fre"uency of transition is the fre"uency at #hich the transistor yields unity $ain.* Application- s#itch+ $eneral purpose+ audio+ hi$h olta$e+ super6beta+ matched pair

 Dhysical pac)a$in$- throu$h hole metal+ throu$h hole plastic+ surface mount+ ball $rid array+ po#er modules Amplification factor hfe /transistor beta.

53, 4hat is suitable for Terahert6 Transistor7

2e ha e >HT and 'ETs* >ut 'ET has hi$her input resistance than that of >HT* 'ET is less noisy than >HT* 'ET is faster than >HT* 'ET is thermally more stable than the >HT sue to absence of minority carrier* 4ain6>and#idth product is $reater for 'ET* As Terahert< Transistor is a speedy de ice so+ 'ET is the most suitable de ice for terahert< operation due to abo e parameters*

89

!hapter 82 )N&AMENTA" !HA""EN#E OR THIS &E!A&E

'undamental challen$e for this decade is to continue 3oore?s &a# #ithout e1ponential increase in po#er consumption* This e1ponential rise in po#er consumption is dri en by Transistor I off &ea)a$e+ Transistor 4ate &ea)a$e+ Hi$h Operatin$ %olta$e+ Soft Error Rate+ hi$h source and drain resistance+ hi$h source and drain capacitance*

83+ Transistor Ioff lea9age

Ideally+ current only flo#s across the channel /directly beneath the $ate. from source to drain #hen the transistor is turned ON* As transistors $et smaller+ current flo#s bet#een the source and drain e en #hen it shouldn?t* If current flo#s under the channel #hen the transistor is turned O''+ it is called Off6state lea)a$e* Sub6threshold lea)a$e consumes po#er in the standby or off state* A lea)y de ice re"uires a hi$her operatin$ olta$e*

83, Transistor #ate "ea9age

A $ate dielectric is the material that separates a transistor5s $ate for its acti e re$ion and controls the on and off s#itch* !urrent $eneration !3OS $ate controllers operate #ith only a three atom thic) dielectric layer for s#itchin$ control* Thinner $ates produce faster s#itchin$ but are also responsible for current lea)a$e+ thus slo#in$ the o erall transistor efficiency due to capacitance issues* 2e ha e reached the 88

limit of 4ate O1ide /SiO0. scalin$* ;9nm transistor had 9*Cnm $ate o1ide Thinner o1ides lea) more* 4ate o1ide can $et so thin it no lon$er acts as a $ood insulator*

835 Soft Error Rate

Alpha particles /from atmosphere or pac)a$e. stri)es silicon* Impact causes ioni<ation of char$e carriers* This une1pected char$e can cause a Ksoft error in the lo$ic or memory cells* Smaller transistors are more susceptible to soft errors* Stray radioacti e particles arri e from atmosphere or pac)a$e #hich can lod$e under transistor and affect its beha ior* This is called Alpha Darticle effect* Also char$e can $et trapped bet#een the $ate dielectric and the buried o1ide layer+ affectin$ beha ior of the transistor* This is called Efloatin$ bodyF effect*

80

838 High Operating %oltage

A hi$h source and drain =unction capacitance ta)es lon$er for the transistor to build up enou$h ener$y to s#itch on and off* !urrent Ecro#dsF throu$h thin source and drain re$ions+ so they ha e more resistance* 2e can?t lo#er the resisti ity because Silicon dopin$ density is at its saturation limit* 2hen source and drains ha e hi$h resistance+ hi$her olta$es are needed to mo e current carriers* A hi$h source and drain =unction capacitance ta)es lon$er for the transistor to build up enou$h ener$y to s#itch on and off*

83: #ate dela( and &ri;e <urrent

4ate delay is the time it ta)es for current to tra el from the source to the drain /across the channel.* Dri e current is the amount of current that flo#s #hen the transistor is turned on* Smaller $ate delay and lar$er dri e current translates into 'ASTER transistors and circuits* To minimi<e $ate delay and increase dri e current hi$h operatin$ olta$e is re"uired*

8;

!hapter :2 TERAHERTZ TRANSISTOR

Intel?s researchers ha e de eloped a ne# type of transistor that it plans to use to ma)e microprocessors and other lo$ic products /such as chip sets. in the second half of the decade* The so6called ETeraHert<F transistors #ill allo# the continuation of 3oore?s &a#+ #ith the number of transistors doublin$ e ery t#o years+ each one capable of runnin$ at multi6TeraHert< speeds+ by sol in$ the po#er consumption issue* This #ill allo# t#enty6fi e more transistors than today5s microprocessors+ at ten times the speed* The transistors #ill also decrease in si<e #ith no additional po#er consumption* There #ill be appro1imately one billion transistors+ #hich #ill be small enou$h to apply around ten million of them on the head of a pin* This transistor uses t#o brand ne# concepts* The TeraHert< transistor uses a depleted substrate transistor and a hi$h ) $ate dielectric*

:3+ &epleted Substrate Transistor

The depleted substrate transistor is ne# !3OS de ice #here the transistor is built into a layer of silicon on top of a layer of insulation* This layer of silicon is depleted to create a ma1imum dri e current #hen the transistor is turned on+ #hich allo#s the s#itch to turn on and off faster* This ability to turn on and off faster ma1imi<es the top cloc) speed of the processor and depletes po#er lea)a$e by one hundred times* Addition of the o1ide &ayer in the depleted substrate transistor increases resistance in the source and drain* The Terahert< processor uses the hi$h ) $ate dielectric*

8B

:3, #ate &iele<tri<

All transistors ha e a $ate dielectric* A $ate dielectric is the material that separates a transistor5s $ate for its acti e re$ion and controls the on and off s#itch* The hi$h ) $ate dielectric is planned to replace the silicon dio1ide #hich is currently the material used for the $ate dielectric* This reduces $ate lea)a$e by more than ten thousand times+ #hich is a ma=or source of po#er consumption* This transistor #ill enable ne# applications sure as real6life oice and face reco$nition+ computin$ #ithout )eyboards+ and more compact de ices*

8@

!hapter =2 SO")TION O 1O4ER 1RO'"EM 4ITH TERAHERTZ TRANSISTER

=3+ Solution of Ioff "ea9age
>y placin$ an insulation barrier /o1ide. bet#een the !3OS $ate and the base substrate #e can reduce the po#er problem in to a si$nificant amount* The insulator pro ides a boundary layer* No lea)a$e path throu$h substrate+ i*e* the transistor is built into a layer of silicon on top of a layer of insulation* This layer of silicon is depleted to create a ma1imum dri e current #hen the transistor is turned on #hich allo#s the s#itch to turn on and off faster* This ability to turn on and off faster ma1imi<es the top cloc) speed of the processor and depletes po#er lea)a$e by one hundred times*

=3, Solution of Transistor #ate lea9age b( #ate &iele<tri<

Terahert< transistors propose the introduction of a ne# $ate layer comprised of a hi$h ) dielectric material* The ne# material #ill replace today5s silicon dio1ide #ith a nano6fabricated dielectric material comprised of a Zirconium dio1ide* The o1ide layer bloc)s the path of this un#anted current flo#* Ne# material has same desired electrical properties but is physically thic)er* ZrO0 is e1pected to offer se eral thousand times $ate less olta$e lea)a$e+ thus leadin$ to lo#er po#er and hi$her fre"uency desi$ns*

8G

=35 Resistan<e Redu<tion

An increase in the thic)ness of the electrical passa$e layer offers massi e reduction in resistance+ up#ards of ;9L in some situations* Thin passa$e #ays ha e hi$h resistance alues due to electrons literally "cro#din$" the path+ thus causin$ an electrical bottlenec)* Hi$her olta$es can be used to push the electrons throu$h+ but this also ser es to increase the po#er demands of the transistor circuit* >y increasin$ the transfer area+ more electrons can pass throu$h #ith less restriction+ thus leadin$ to decreases in resistance+ s#itchin$ latency+ and po#er consumption*

=38 Solution of Soft Error Rate

No# the total substrate is in t#o re$ions* The upper re$ion of the o1ide layer is fully depleted* So+ no chance for char$e builds up in this re$ion* 'or the other re$ion belo# the o1ide layer+ alpha particles are absorbed deep into silicon #here impact causes ioni<ation of char$e carrier* >ut this re$ion is isolated from the transistor* So+ ultimately soft error eliminates usin$ DST technolo$y*

8:

=3: Solution of High Operating %oltage

Due to nullify the off6state lea)a$e+ $ate lea)a$e+ floatin$ body effect and lo# resistance re"uired olta$e is no# ery small about 9*G%*

8C

!hapter .2 TRANSISTOR 1ER ORMAN!E !OM1ARISON

8A

!hapter >2 A&%ANTA#ES O TERAHERTZ TRANSISTER

8* Reduces lea)a$e current by 89+999M for the same capacitance 0* Reduces un#anted current flo# by 899M ;* Increased electron mobility B* Increased reliability @* Hi$h speed G* Ease of circuit desi$n :* No lea)a$e path throu$h substrate C* &o#est =unction capacitance A* &ess olta$e re"uired to turn ON transistor 89* Eliminates subsurface lea)a$e 88* Sol es hi$h resistance 80* Eliminates floatin$ body effect 8;* 3inimi<es soft error rates 8B* @9L lo#er =unction capacitance than that of Dartially Depleted SOI

09

!hapter ?2 A11"I!ATION

Due to its ery difficult fabrication process the cost is hi$h* So+ these types of transistors are not used in $eneral purpose* Intel launched #orld first TH< transistor of speed 0TH< in 0998*Also A3D+ I>3 made their first terahert< transistor in their lab of speed ;*;TH</A3D. and 0TH</I>3.*Intel launched 894H< processor in 099@ and their ne1t processor of speed 094H< #ill launched in upcomin$ year* Today they are used in Radio6telescopy and Sub63illimeter Astronomy De ices 3edical Ima$in$ De ices Security De ices 3anufacturin$+ Nuality !ontrol+ and Drocess 3onitorin$*

08

!hapter +-2 NON@1"ANER TRI@#ATE TRANSISTER

The basic en$ineerin$ approach to the Terahert< pro=ect is planar transistor architecture+ meanin$ it has a sin$le $ate control mechanism per transistor* A non6planar tri6$ate transistor #or)s ia a three6 dimensional desi$n #ith three $ate controllers per !3OS comple1* Tri6$ate transistors do not e1hibit the substrate or $ate layer thic)ness concerns presented earlier in for the planar Terahert< pro=ect* 2ith more $ates per transistor+ the system is capable of sustainin$ hi$her olta$e loads if re"uired for specific implementations* A tri6$ate arran$ement allo#s for more electrons to be pushed throu$h the transistor comple1 #ith further decreases in resistance+ electrical lea)a$e+ and po#er consumption* Hust thin)+ Intel processors may attain fre"uencies #ell into the hundreds of 4i$ahert<+ thus once a$ain establishin$ the continuance of 3oore5s &a# for at least another $eneration of upcomin$ semiconductor products*

00

!hapter ++2 'I'"IO#RA1H$

'OO0S2 I* D* !hattaopadhyay+ D*! Ra)shit Electronics 'undamental and Applications Ninth Edition+ Ne# A$e International Dublishers* II* >en 4* Streetman+ San=ay Iumar >aner=ee Solid State Electronics De ices Si1th Edition+ DHI &earnin$ Dri ate &imited

4E'I* II* III* I%* %* %I* %II* %III* IM* M* http-,,ne#s*soft;0*com,closer6to686terahert<6transistorO;9;:*html http-,,###*techimo*com,articles,inde1*plPphotoQ0B http-,,###*there$ister*co*u),0998,80,9;,ibmOamdOun eilOterahert<Otransistor en*#i)ipedia*or$,#i)i,IntelOTeraHert< en*#i)ipedia*or$,#i)i,Transistor ott*#eb*ari<ona*edu,techs,terahert<6transistor http-,,###*pctech$uide*com,08ArchitectureOTeraHert<Otechnolo$y*htm ari<ona*technolo$ypublisher*com,technolo$y,0:;9 ###*intel*com,rearch ###*scribd*com,terahert<

0;