3.3.

MethodsofstudyingMangroves

Prof.K.Kathiresan
CentreofAdvancedStudyinMarineBiology AnnamalaiUniversity

his chapter deals with methods of studying mangroves, with some modificationsoftheinternationallyrecognizedscientificmethodsas proposed by the Australian Institute of Marine Sciences (English et al., l997). While studying a mangrove area, baseline data on area map, area description, tidal amplitude, rainfall, evapotranspiration in the study areahavetobecollected. 3.3.1.Tidalflooding/inundation: The frequency and duration of tidal flooding is important in determining the zonation, distribution and species composition of mangrove forests. Some workers have been content to subdivide mangrove areas into low, mid and highintertidal areas. This is somewhat arbitrary division, hard to quantify and makes comparisons difficult between areas with differing tidal regimes. Amorequantitative approach wasusedbyWatson(1928), whodividedmangroveareasinto 5inundationclasses: Class1:inundatedbyallhightides Class2:inundatedbymediumhightides Class3:inundatedbynormalhightides Class4:inundatedbyspringtides;and Class 5: occasionally inundated by exceptional or equinoctial tides In many cases, these inundation classes may be quantified in terms of number of times per month that an area is inundated tidally. However, Watsons classification schemeis still somewhat arbitrary and its use is restricted largely to the mangrove areas of Malaysia, for which it was originally devised. There is a need for more quantitative description of tidal inundation classes that is both ecologically and hydrologicallymeaningfulacrossawiderangeoftidalregimes.

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3.3.2.Foreststructureofvegetation: In spite of numerous papers on mangrove floristics, systematics, phytogeography and related topics, there is only little published information available on mangrove forest structure. The comparative value of many of the available studies is not as great as it could be; authors differing research goals have led to the adoption of non uniformmeasurementtechniques,yieldingresultsthatareoftendifficult tocomparewithothers. Thearchitectureofaforestisinfluencedby the magnitudes and periodicities of such forcing functions as tides, nutrients, hydroperiod, and stressors like hurricanes, drought, salt accumulationandfrost.Becausetheactionofthesefactorsvarieswidely over geographic regions, mangrove stands exhibit wide regional and local variation in structural characteristics. Also, where species diversity ishigh,structuralvariationisevengreater(Englishetal.,1997). In 1974, Lugo and Snedaker developed a classification scheme for mangroves based on tidal and hydroperiod characteristics. Implicit in their scheme was the assumption that this environmental factor was the most important component of the energy signature of a mangrove forest (Lugo and Snedaker, l974). This classification system, further modified by Cintron et al. (1980), serves to identify some common patternsofmangroveresponsetovaryingenvironmentalconditionsand it remains a useful framework for the firstapproximation in classification of mangrove stands. As amended, it recognized three general forest types: riverine, fringe and overwash, and basin. Dwarf, scrub and hammock mangroves are recognized as special subtypes respondingtolocalizedgeologicofedaphicconditions.Asageneralrule, riverine forests exhibit the highest level of structural development, followedbybasin,andfinallybyfringeandoverwashtypes. In 1973, researches began searching for the most meaningful ecosystem parameters to use in rapid characterization of mangrove stands over wide geographic areas; the methods and parameters selected needed to be simple, timecost effective and universally applicable. A survey of some twentyfive mangrove stands in Florida, Puerto Rico and Costa Rica was undertaken to test the methods chosen (Pool et al., 1977). Since then similar techniques have been used to describe Puerto Rican mangroves (Martinez et al., 1979), mangrove stands in Brazil (Novelli etal., 1980) and Costa Rica (Jimenez, 1981). The structural data available as of 1980 have been reviewed by Cintron etal. (1980) and by Cintron and Novelli (1983). By analyzing the forest

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vegetation characteristics to calculate the following (Cintron & Novelli, 1984): Complex Index: It denotes the diversity and abundance of florawithinthe forest community. It is calculated combiningthenumberofspecies,standdensity, basal area andheight. Importance value index (IVI): It indicates the structural importanceofa species within a stand of mixed species. It iscalculatedbysummingup the relative percentages of basalarea,densityandfrequency,each weighed equally for eachspecies,relativetothesamedimensionsforthe entire stand. Datatobecollectedandprocessedinthefollowingsteps: ThestudysitewillbeselectedusingGPS Transactlineisperpendiculartotheshoreline.Thelength depends on the vegetation type (dense and sparse; zonationpattern) Theplotdimensionis10mx10m. Within each plot, counts are made for tree counts; and in 1 m x 1 m subplot counts are made for seedlings and sapling. Counting the numbers of three class of maturity namely, trees,saplingsandseedlingsbyspecieswithintheplot Trees more than 4 m are measured species wise for numbersandGirthatabreastheightof1.3m Saplings between 14 m and seedlings below 1 m are countedspecieswisefornumbers Measureheightofalltheindividualsspecieswise No. of benthic individuals of major groups in 0.25 x 0.25 mquadrateswillbecounted.

Dataprocessing: Density is measured species wise and total in each plot as follows:

119 Methods of studying Mangroves

o o

Density of each species (no/ha)= no. x 10,000 m2/ area of plotinm2 Totaldensityofallspecies=sumofallspeciesdensities

Basal area is measured species wise and total in each plot as follows: o o Basalarea(m2)ofeachspecies=0.005xDBH Total basal area of all species (m2/ha)= sum of all species basalarea/areaofplotinm2x10,000m2

Relative density = no. of individuals of a species / total no. of individualsofallspeciesx100 Relative dominance = total basal area of a species / basal area of allspeciesx100 Relative frequency = frequency of species/ total frequency of all speciesindifferentplotsx100 Importance value of a species = relative density + relative dominance+relativefrequency ComplexIndex=numberofspecies+standdensity + basal area +height. Species diversity is described according to the Shannon index (H) based on importance value of a species (Ni) and sum of importancevalueforallthespecies(N). H=Ni/NlogNi/N

3.3.3.Forestleafareaindex,netcanopyphotosynthesisandbiomass Measurements of light absorption by the forest canopy are used to estimate leaf area index (m2 leaf area m2 ground area). The leaf area index may then be converted to net canopy photosynthesis using the average rate of photosynthesis per unit leaf area. The method is useful for comparisons between forests over a wide range of forest types and distributions, and for monitoring changes in a particular forest. However, it does not provide a reliable estimate of the net primary productivity(Englishetal.,1997). The method described by Bunt etal. (1979) has been used widely in recent years to estimate potential primary productivity in mangrove forests.ThemethodwasbasedonthatoriginallydescribedbyKiritaand Hozumi (1973) in studies of oak forests, where the amount of light

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absorbed by the mangrove canopy is related to the total canopy chlorophyll content. Canopy chlorophyll concentration was then multiplied by a rate of carbon fixation per unit of chlorophyll to give an estimate of potential primary productivity. However, recent work suggests that figures calculated using the method of Bunt et al. (1979) significantlyunderestimatepotentialprimaryproductivity. English et al., (1997) proposed uses of the same techniques to collect data, and the same primary dataset as the method of Bunt et al. (1979), but a different, and theoretically more robust, method of calculation to provide an estimate of canopy leaf area index. This index can be multiplied by the average rate of canopy photosynthesis (if it is known) to provide an estimate of net canopy according to the relationship: I=IoekL where:I=photonfluxdensitybeneaththecanopy Io= photon flux density incident on the top of the canopy (in this case at ground level in a fully exposed position outside thecanopy) L=leafareaindex(m2leafaream2groundarea) K=canopylightextinctioncoefficientthatisdetermined bytheangleandspatialarrangementoftheleaves This relationship is used widely in agriculture and forestry. The equationcanberewrittenasL=loge(I/Io)(m2leafaream2groundarea) k This equation allows the direct estimation of leaf area index from the ratio of light flux density below and above the canopy (I/Io), and the canopylightextinctioncoefficient,k. The ratio, I/Io, is measured using the same techniques as that described by Bunt et al. (1979). However, English et al. (1997) recommends that the value of k used to obtain an estimate of leaf area index should be 0.5. This is based on a number of studies that have shownthatkcommonlyliesbetween0.4and0.65inmangrovecanopies, with an average about 0.5. Using a value fork of 0.5, and values for I/Io obtained from field measurements, it is possible to obtain an estimate of leafareaindex(L.)Netcanopyphotosynthesisperunitleafarea(A)and daylengthvaluesforleafareaindexvarywithspecies,soilsalinity,and

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climatic conditions: in harsh conditions (hot, dry, and cloudless climate and a high soil salinity of 25 ppt). Ais usually about 0.216 g C m2 leaf hour1; under favourable conditions (cloudy and humid climate and a lowsoilsalinityof20ppt)Amayreach1.0gCm2leafhour1(Andrews and Muller, 1985; Clough and Sim, 1989; Cheeseman et al., 1991). While it is desirable to measure the actual rate of photosynthesis at each site, approximate rates of 0.216 g C m2 leaf hour1 can be used for harsh conditions, and 0.648 g C m2 leaf hour1 for favourable conditions (Englishetal.,1997). Action: Measure light intensity above canopy or in open space (Io) and under canopy (I) between 10 a.m 2 p.m , using a lux meter to measureleafareaindex(inunituE/m2/sec) Dataprocessing: Leafareaindexandnetcanopyphotosynthesisarecalculatedasfollows: Leafarea index= loge(I/Io)/km2leafarea /m2 areaofground(wherek valueis0.5) Leaf area index correction = Leaf area index x Cos (O x 3.141593/180) (where 0 is zenith Angle of the sun for a given latitude, longitude,dateandtimeofdayfrominternet). Net canopy photosynthesis = Leaf area x rate of photosynthesis (0.216 g C/m2)xdaylength Measurements of Girth at Breast Height (GBH) or Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) can be used to calculate above ground biomass using allometric relationships between GBH (or DBH) and the biomass of individual plant parts (Ong etal., 1984; Putz and Chan, 1986; Clough and Scott, 1989). Coefficients for these allometric relationships for a number of species are summarized by Clough (1992). Recently a common allometric equation for estimating the tree weight of mangroveshasbeenproposed(Komiyamaetal.,2005)asfollows. Leafweight=0.126p(D2B)0.848 Abovegroundweight=0.247p(D2)1.23 Rootweight =0.196p0.899(D2)1.11

K. Kathiresan 122

Treetrunkweight=0.687p(D2H)0.931

Where D Trunk diameter at breast height at 30 cm above ground in Rhizophoraceaemembers. DBTrunkdiameteratthelowestlivingbranch Htreeheight Pwooddensityoftrunk 3.3.4.MangroveSoilanalysis Soil characteristics are one of the most important environmental factors directly affecting mangrove productivity and structure. The major physical and chemical properties of the mangrove soils are pH (hydrogenionconcentration),Eh(Redox,potential),salinityandparticle size. The acidity of the soil influences the chemical transformation of most nutrients and their availability to plants. Most mangrove soils are wellbuffered,having apHintherangeof6to7,butsomehavea pHas lowas5.MeasurementoftheacidityoralkalinityofsoilsusingpHmust bedonewithfreshsamplestoavoidoxidationofironpyrites(acommon constituent of mangrove soils) to sulphuric acid, thus giving a much lowervalueofpHthannormallyoccursinsitu(Englishetal.1997). Since mangrove soils are typically waterlogged, and hence anaerobic, microbial decomposition takes place through a series of oxygenreduction (redox) processes. The redox potential (Eh) is a quantitative measure of reducing power which provides a diagnostic index of the degree of anaerobiosis or anoxia (Patrick and Delaune, 1977). Totally anoxic sediments have redox potentials below 200 mV, while typical oxygenated soils have potentials of above +300 mV. The measurement of Eh has been used as a rapid means of assessing the potential impact of additional organic input to marine sediment (Pearson and Stanley, 1979). Reliable measurements of redox require great care to minimize exposure of the soil sample to air (English et al., 1997). The salinity of mangrove soils has a significant effect on the growth and zonation of mangrove forests. The majority of mangrove species grow best in low to moderate salinities (25 ppt), although there appear to be marked differences in the ability of species to tolerate very

123 Methods of studying Mangroves

high salinities. In the past, soil salinity was measured in pore water that drained into a hole made by removing a sediment core. This is not a reliable measure of soil salinity because of uncertainly about the source of water filling the core hole. The method, in which pore water is physically squeezed from the soil sample, is preferred (English et al., 1997). Twomethodsarepresentedfortheanalysisofsoilparticlesize:a hydrometer method (after Bouyoucos, 1962) and pipette method (after Buchanan, 1984). All soils and sediment (unconsolidated or loose deposits)arecomposedofparticleswithawiderangeofsizes.Theseare generally divided into 3 major groups: gravel (greater than 2 millimetres), sand (0.062 2 millimetres) and mud (silt and clay). The mud fraction is further divided into coarse silt (6215.6 m), fine silt (15.63.9m) and clay (less than 3.9 m). A graded scheme for soils is given by the Wentworth Grade Scale (Folk, 1974). The species composition and growth of mangroves is directly affected by the physicalcompositionofmangrovesoils.Theproportionsofclay,siltand sand, together with the grain size, dictate the permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) of the soil to water, which influences soil salinity and water content. Nutrient status is also affected by the physical composition of the soil with clay soils, which are generally higher in nutrientsthansandysoils(Englishetal.,1997). Action: Ifitissoftsoil,acorerof50cmheightand5cmdiameterisused. Ifitishardsoil,digaholeat50cmusingacrowbar. The soil at 2 depths namely 10 cm and 40 cm will be measured fortemperatureusingathermometerwith0.5accuracyandfor pHandredoxpotentialusingapH/millivoltmeterwithplatinum electrode. Thesoilcollectedatthetwodepthwillbestrainedusinga20ml syringe to collect pore water for analysis of salinity using a refractometer. The soil samples collected at the two depth will be transferred to laboratory immediately in sterile polythene bags and analysed for moisture, nutrients, trace elements and microbial counts as wellassoilcompositionanalysis. Foreachsite,threereplicatesfromeachsamplingplotareused.

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