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Structure and Function of Plants and Animals Plant Structure, Growth and Development
Plasticity- an organisms ability to alter or mold itself in response to local environmental conditions. Tissue: group of cells with a common function, structure, or both Organ: consists of several types of tissues that together carry out particular functions 35.1 The plant body has a hierarchy of organs, tissues and cells Three basic organs: root, stems & leaves Organized into the root system and shoot system. Roots: an organ that anchors a vascular plant, absorbs minerals and water and often stores organic nutrients. Taproot system! consisting of one main vertical root which gives rise to lateral roots(also called branch roots) o Found in eudicots and gymnosperms o In angiosperms, the taproot stores organic nutrients that the plant consumes during flowering and fruit production Fibrous root system ! a mat of thin roots spreading out below the soil surface, with no root standing out as the main one. o Roots arising from the stem are said to be adventitious o Shallower than a taproot system. The entire root system helps anchor a plant, but in most plants the absorption of water and minerals occurs primarily near the root tips, where vast numbers of tiny root hairs increase the surface area of the root enormously. Root hair- extension of a root epidermal cell (protective cell on a plant surface) Modified Roots Prop roots: supports tall, top heavy plants Storage roots: store food and water in their roots Strangling aerial roots: gradually wrap around hosts and objects Buttress roots: support the tall trunks of trees Pneumatophores: air roots produced by trees such as mangroves. Inhabit tidal swamps. By projecting above the surface, they enable the root system to obtain oxygen, which is lacking in the thick waterlogged mud. Stem- organ consisting of an alternating system of nodes (the point at which leaves are attached) and internodes (the stem segments between nodes)

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! Axillary bud! angle formed by each lead and the stem. A structure that has potential to form a lateral shoot, commonly called a branch Terminal bud! consists of developing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes

Modified Stems: Stolons: horizontal stems that grow along the surface. Ex. o Strawberry plant Bulbs: vertical, underground shoots consisting of mostly enlarged bases of leaves that store food o Onion Tubers: enlarged ends of rhizomes specialized for storing food o Red potatoes Rhizomes: horizontal stem that grows just below the surface or emerges and grows along the surface o Ginger Leaves- main photosynthetic organ of most vascular plants. Vary extensively in form but generally consists of a flattened blade and a stalk, the petiole, which joins the leaf to a node of the stem. Monocots have parallel major veins that run the length of the lead blade Eudicot leaves have a multi-branched network of major veins Simple leaf! a single, undivided blade. Compound leaf ! blade consists of multiple leaflets. Double compound leaf ! each leaflet is divided into smaller leaflets. Modified Leaves: Tendrils- cling to things for support Spines- actually leaves and photosynthesis is carried out mainly by the fleshy green stem. Ex. Cacti Storage- leaves modified for storing water Bracts- leaves that surround a group of flowers to attract pollinators Reproductive leaves- leaves fall off and take root in soil The Three Tissue System: Dermal, Vascular, and Ground A tissue system: consists of one or more tissues organized into a functional unit connecting the organs and plant Dermal tissue system: outer protective covering that forms the first line of defense against physical damage and pathogenic organisms o Nonwoody plants ! dermal tissue is a single layer of tightly packed cells called the epidermis o Woody plants ! dermal tissue is a protective layer known as the periderm

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! o Cuticle: helps prevent water loss ! important adaptation to living on land Vascular tissue system: carries out long distance transport of materials between roots and shorts o Xylem: conveys water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the shoots o Phloem: transports organic nutrients such as sugars from where they are made to where they are needed. o Vascular tissue of a root of stem is collectively called the stele Ground tissue systems: tissues that is neither dermal nor vascular o Internal to the vascular tissue is called pith o External to vascular tissue is called the cortex

Common types of Plant Cells: Protoplast ! the cell contents exclusive of the cell wall. Parenchyma cells: have primary walls that are relatively thin and flexible, and most lack secondary walls. Large central vacuole. o Performs most of the metabolic functions of the plant, synthesizing and storing various organic products Collenchyma cells: help support young parts of the plant shoot. o Provide flexible support without restraining growth Sclerenchyma cells: are more rigid. Mature cells cannot elongate and they occur in parts of the plant that has stopped growing. Specialized for support. Two types of cells: o Sclereids:shorter than fibers and irregular in shape. Impart the hardness to nutshells and seed coats. o Fibers: arranged in threads, long and slender. Water conducting cells of the xylem: o Tracheids: found in xylem. Long, thin cells with tapered ends. Water moves from cell to cell mainly through the pits where it does not have to cross secondary walls " Secondary walls of tracheids are hardened with lignin, which prevents collapse under the tension of water transport and provides support o Vessel elements: wider, shorter, thinner walled and less tapered than tracheids. " Found in angiosperms and some other vascular plants. Sugar conducting cells of the phloem: alive at functional maturity. o Sieve tube members: chains of cells in which nutrients are transported through sieve tubes.

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! Meristems generate cells for new organs Meristems! generate cells for new organs Indeterminate growth: growth occurs throughout the plants life. Determinate growth: cease growing after reaching a certain size. Annuals: complete their life cycle ! from germination to flowering to seed production to deed. Biennials: generally live two years, often including an intervening cold period(winter) between vegetative growth(first spring/summer) and flowering(second spring/summer) Example: beets and carrots Perennials: live many years and include trees, shrubs, and grasses. Apical Meristems and lateral meristems Apical meristems: located at the tip of roots and in the buds of shoots Provide additional cells that enable the plant to grow in length(primary growth) o Primary growth ! allows roots to extend throughout the soil and shoots to increase exposed to light and CO2. Lateral meristems: called the vascular cambium and cork cambium Vascular cambium! adds layers of vascular tissue called secondary xylem(wood) and secondary phloem Cork cambium ! replaces the endodermis with periderm, which is thicker and tougher. Herbaceous (nonwoody plants) undergo primary growth Woody plants undergo primary growth the first year only, then secondary growth (growth in width/thickness) N.B: primary growth and secondary growth can occur at same times but in different locations o Primary growth ! branches o Secondary growth ! trunk of tree Initials: cells that remain as sources of new cells Derivatives: continue to divide until the cells they produce become specialized within developing tissues. 35.3 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots Primary growth produces the primary plant body, the parts of the root and shoot systems produced by apical meristems Root tip is covered by a root cap, protects the apical meristem as the root pushes through the abrasive soil during primary growth. o The root cap secretes a polysaccharide slime that lubricates the soil around the root "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

Growth occurs just behind the root tip in three zones of cell: Zone of Cell division: includes the root apical meristem and its derivatives. New cells are produced in this region Zone of Elongation: root cells elongate. Cell elongation is mainly responsible for pushing the root rip farther into the soil Zone of Maturation: cells complete their differentiation and become functionally mature. Endodermis: innermost layer of the cortex, one cells thick, that forms the boundary within the vascular cylinder. Pericycle: outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder. Lateral roots elongate and pushes through the cortex and epidermis until it emerges from the established root. Primary Growth of Shoots Shoot apical meristem! dome shaped mass of dividing cells at the tip of terminal bud. o Leaves arise as a leaf primordial, finger like projections along the flanks of the apical meristem Stomata: allows CO2 exchange between the surrounding air and photosynthetic cells inside the lead Guard cells: regulate the opening and closing of the pore/stomata Ground tissue: sandwiched between upper and lower epidermis! region called mesophyll. Tissue Organization of Roots

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Tissue Organizations of Stems

Dicot stem

Monocot stem

Tissue Organization of Leaves

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Epidermal barrier ! interrupted by the stomata, which allows Co2 exchange between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells inside the lead. Also major for the evaporative loss of water (transpiration) Stomata are covered by two guard cells, which regulate the opening and closing of the pore. Mesophyll ! consists mainly of parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves of eudicots have two distinct areas: o Palisade mesophyll: consists of one or more layers of elongated cells on the upper part of the leaf o Spongy mesophyll: below palisade mesophyll. Cells are more loosely arranged, with air spaces so that CO2 and oxygen circulate around the cells and up to the palisade region Leaf traces ! connections from vascular bundles in the stem, pass through petioles and into leaves. Veins are the leafs vascular bundles, which subdivide repeatedly and branch throughout the mesophyll Each vein is enclosed by a protective bundle sheath, consisting of one or more layers of cells, usually parenchyma cells. 35.4 Secondary growth adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants

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! Secondary plant body consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and cork cambium. Vascular cambium: adds secondary xylem(wood) and secondary phloem Cork cambium: produces a tough, thick covering consisting of cork cells. Vascular Cambium and Secondary Vascular Tissue Vascular cambium! cylinder of meristematic cells one cell thick. It increases in circumference and also lies down successive layers of secondary xylem to its interior, and secondary phloem to its exterior. Fusiform initials! produces elongated cells such as the tracheids, vessel elements, and fibers of the xylem, as well as the sieve-tube members, companion cells and fibers of the phloem. Have ends that are oriented parallel to the axis of a stem or root Ray initials ! shorter and oriented perpendicular to the stem or root axis, produce vascular rays. Radial files consisting mainly of parenchyma cells. Bark! includes all tissues external to the vascular cambium. Its main components are the secondary phloem, the most recent periderm and all the other layers of periderm. Heartwood! the secondary layers of the xylem that no longer transport water and minerals. Closed to the center of a stem or root Sapwood! the outer layers still transport xylem sap. 35.5. Growth, Morphogenesis and differentiation produce the plant body Morphogenesis: development of body form and organization. Growth: cell division and cell expansion Cell division and cell expansion are primary determinants of growth and form. A preprophase band determines where a cell plate will form in a dividing cell The orientation of the cytoskeleton also affects the direction of cell elongation by controlling the orientation of cellulose microfibrils within the cell wall. Morphogenesis and Pattern Formation Development of tissues and organs in specific locations depends on the ability of cells to detect and respond to positional information, such as information associated with polarity Homeotic genes often control morphogenesis. Location and a Cells Development Fate: a cells position in a developing organ determines its pathway of differentiation. Shifts in Development: Phase Changes

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! Internal or environmental cues may cause a plant to switch from one developmental phase to anotherexample: from development of juvenile leaves to development of mature leaves. Such morphological changes are called phase changes Genetic Control of Flowering Research on organ identity genes in developing flowers provides an important model system for the study of pattern formation. The ABC model of flower formation identifies how three classes of organ identity genes control formation of sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.

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Plant Nutrition and Transport in Vascular Plants Plant Nutrition

Plant require certain chemical elements to complete their life cycle Plants extract mineral nutrients, essential chemical elements from the soil in the form of inorganic ions Example: nitrogen in the form of nitrate ions 80-90% of a plant is water ! plants grow mainly by accumulating water in the central vacuoles of their cells Plants derive most of their organic mass from the CO2 of air, but they also depend on soil nutrients in the form of water and minerals. The branching of root and shoot systems help plants come into contact with the resources that they need from the environment The uptake of nutrients by a plant Roots absorb H2O and minerals from the soil o Take in O2 and expel CO2. Plant uses oxygen for cellular respiration but is a net O2 producer Stomata! leaves expel H20 and O2 and CO2 diffuses in Macronutrients and Micronutrients Macronutrients! elements required in relatively large amounts o Include carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and other major ingredients of organic compounds Micronutrients! elements required in very small amounts typically have catalytic functions as cofactors of enzymes. Hydroponic culture ! plants are grown in mineral solutions instead of soil 37.2. Soil quality is a major determinant of plant distribution and growth Texture and Composition of Soils: Topsoil!mixture of particles derived from rock, living organisms and humus Humus: remains of partially decayed organic material Horizons: A horizon ! topsoil, a mixture of broken-down rock of various textures, living organisms and decaying organic matter. B horizon ! contains much less organic matter than the A horizon and is less weathered

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! C horizon ! composed mainly of partially broken down rock, serves as the parent material for the upper layers of soil.

Acids derived from roots contribute to a plants uptake of minerals when H+ displaces mineral cations from soil particles Cation exchange ! adds H+ to the soil solution. Mineral cations become available for absorption when they enter the soil solution after being displaced from soil particles by cations in the form of H+. Soil Conservation and Sustainable Agriculture: In contrast to natural ecosystems, agriculture Depletes the mineral content of soil Taxes water reserves Encourages erosion Goal of Soil conservation strategies is to minimize this damage A major goal of agricultural researchers is to reduce the amount of fertilizer added to soils without sacrificing high crop yields. 37.3. Nitrogen is often the mineral that has the greatest effect on plant growth Soil Bacteria and nitrogen Availability ! Nitrogen fixing bacteria converts atmospheric N2 to nitrogenous minerals that plants can absorb as a nitrogen source for organic synthesis Improving the Protein Yield of Crops! Research devoted to improving the quality and quantity of crop proteins addresses the most widespread form of human malnutrition: protein deficiency 37.4 Plant nutrition adaptations often involve relationships with other organ The role of bacteria in symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation! The development of nitrogen fixing root nodules depends on chemical dialogue between Rhizobium bacteria and root cells of their specific plant hosts o The bacteria of a nodule obtain sugar from the plant and supply the plant with fixed nitrogen. Mycorrhizae and Plant Nutrition Mycorrhizae are modified roots consisting of mutualistic associations of fungi and roots.

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! The fungal hyphae of both extomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae absorb water and minerals, which they supply to their plant hosts

Epiphytes, Parasitic Plants, and Carnivorous Plants Epiphytes grow on the surfaces of other plants but acquire water and minerals from rain. Parasitic plants absorb nutrients from host plants. Carnivorous plants supplement their mineral nutrition by digesting animals

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Transport in Vascular Plants

Pathways for Survival: Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil and shoots absorb light and atmospheric CO2 for photosynthesis. Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to shoots Phloem transports sugar from where they are produced or stored to where they are needed for growth and metabolism. 36.1 Physical forces drive the transport of materials in plants over a range of distances Transport in vascular plants occurs on three scales 1) Transport of water and solutes by individual cells, such as root hairs 2) Short-distance transport of substances from cell to cell at the levels of tissues and organs such as the loading of sugar from photosynthetic leaf cells into the sieve tubes of the phloem 3) Long distance transport within xylem and phloem at the level of the whole plant An overview of transport in a vascular plant 1. Roots absorb water and dissolved minerals from the soil 2. Water and minerals are transported upward from roots to shoot as xylem sap 3. Transpiration, the loss of water from leaves (mostly through stomata), creates a force within leaves that pulls xylem sap upward. 4. Through stomata, leaves take in CO2 and expel O2. The CO2 provides carbon for photosynthesis. Some O2 produced by photosynthesis is used in cellular respiration 5. Sugars are produced by photosynthesis in the leaves 6. Sugars are transported as phloem sap to roots and other parts of the plant 7. Roots exchange gases with the air spaces of soil, taking in O2 and discharging CO2. In cellular respiration, O2 supports the breakdown of sugars. Selective Permeability of Membranes: The selective permeability of a plant cells plasma membrane controls the movement of solutes into and out of the cell. Passive transport! solutes tend to diffuse down their gradients Active transport ! pumping of solutes across membranes against their electrochemical gradients. The cell must expend energy, ATP, to transport a solute up the concentration gradient. Transport protein! embedded in the membrane. Bind selectively to a solute on one side of the membrane and release the solute on the opposite side. The central role of proton pumps Proton pump: uses energy from ATP to pump hydrogen ions (H+) out of the cell. This results in a proton gradient with a higher H+ concentration outside the cell than inside. "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

! The gradient is a form of potential energy because the hydrogen ions tend to diffuse back into the cell. Also contributes to a voltage, membrane potential, and a separation of opposite charges across a membrane. Cotransport: a transport protein couples the downhill passage of one solute (H+) to the uphill passage of another. Effects of Difference in Water Potential Osmosis: net uptake or loss of water by a cell Water potential: combined effects of solute concentration and physical pressure are incorporated into the measurement. Determines the direction of movement of water. Measured in units of pressure called megapascals. How solutes and pressure affect water potential Solute potential: is proportional to the number of dissolved solute molecules. Solute potential is also called osmotic potential Osmotic potential: solutes affect the direction of osmosis. Pressure potential: physical pressure on a solution. Cell contents press the plasma membrane against the cell wall, producing what is called turgor pressure. N.B: water typically crosses vacuolar and plasma membranes through transport proteins called aquaporins. Three major compartments of vacuolated plant cells Outside the protoplast is a cell wall that helps maintain the cells shape. However, it is the selectively permeable plasma membrane that directly controls the traffic of molecules into and out of the protoplast. Plasma membrane: barrier between two major compartments: Cell wall Cytosol Vacuole (in mature plants) The vacuolar membrane/tonoplast regulates molecular traffic between the cytosol and the vacuolar contents, called cell sap. Its proton pumps expel H+ from the cytosol. The cell walls and cytosol are continuous from cell to cell. Plasmodesmata connect the cytosolic compartments of neighboring cells, thereby forming a continuous pathway for transport of certain molecules between cells. Symplast! cytoplasmic continuum Apoplast! continuum of cell walls plus the extracellular spaces. Vacuole ! is not shared with neighboring cells. Functions of the Symplast and Apoplast in Transport

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! Lateral transport! short distance transport; usual direction is along the radial axis of plant organs, rather than up and down along the length of the plant. Three Routes o Substances move out of one cell, across the cell wall, and into neighboring cell, which may then pass the substances along to the next cell in the path o Via the symplast, requires only one crossing of a plasma membrane. After entering one cell, solutes and water can then move from cell to cell via plasmodesmata o Along the apoplast, pathway consisting of cell walls and extracellular space. Without entering a protoplast, water and solutes can move from one location to another within a root or other organ by the byways provided by the continuum of cell walls. Bulk flow in Long Distance Transport Bulk transport! movement of a fluid driven by pressure In bulk flow, water and solutes move through the tracheids and vessels of the xylem and through the sieve tubes of the phloem. o Transpiration ! reduces pressure in the xylem. This creates a tension that pulls xylem sap upward from the roots. 36.2 Roots absorb water and minerals from soil Water and mineral salts from the soil enter the plant through the epidermis of roots, cross the root cortex, pass into the vascular cylinder and then flow up tracheids and vessels to the shoot system. The roots of Root hairs, Mycorrhizae and Cortical Cells Absorption of water and minerals occurs near root tips: epidermis is permeable to water and root hairs are located. Root hairs, extensions of epidermal cells, increase surface area, Roots and fungi form mycorrhizae, symbiotic structures consisting of plant roots united with fungal hyphae. The hyphae absorb water and selected minerals, transferring much of these resources to the host plant. Lateral transport of minerals and water in roots 1) Uptake of soil solution by the hydrophilic walls of root hairs provides access to the apoplast. Water and minerals can then soak into the cortex along this matrix of walls 2) Minerals and water that cross the plasma membranes of root hairs enter the symplast 3) As soil solution moves along the apoplast, some water and minerals are transported into the protoplasts of cells of the epidermis and cortex and then move inward via the symplast.

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! 4) Within the transverse and radial walls of each endodermal cell is the Casparian strip, a belt of waxy material that blocks the passage of water and dissolves minerals Only minerals already in the symplast or entering that pathway by crossing the plasma membrane of an endodermal cell can detour around the Casparian strip and pass into the vascular cylinder 5) Endodermal cells and also parenchyma cells within the vascular cylinder discharge water and minerals into their walls (apoplast) The xylem vessels transport water and minerals upward into shoot system Endodermis! the innermost layer of cells in the root cortex, surround the vascular cylinder and functions as a last checkpoint for the selective passage of minerals from the cortex into the vascular tissue. Minerals already in the symplast when they reach the epidermis continue through the plasmodesmata until they reach the vascular cylinder. 36.3 Water and minerals ascend from roots to shoots through xylem Leaves depend on transpiration for their supply of water Transpiration! the loss of water vapor from leaves and other aerial parts of the plant. The upward flow of xylem sap also brings mineral nutrients to the shoot system. Pushing Xylem Sap: Root Pressure When transpiration is low, root cells continue to pump mineral ions into the xylem. Endodermis prevents the ions from leaking out. Water flows in from the root cortex, generating root pressure, an upward push of xylem sap. Sometimes causes more water to enter the leaves than transpired! leads to guttation, the exudation of water droplets that can be seen in the morning. o Guttation is different from dew ! more condensed moisture Root pressure cannot keep pace with transpiration o Therefore it occurs in the nighttime Pulling Xylem Sap: Transpiration-Cohesion Tension Mechanism Transpiration provides the pull and the cohesion of water due to hydrogen bonding transmits the upward pull along the entire length of the xylem. Stomata, pores on the surface of the leaf, lead to the spongy mesophyll! this exposes airspaces to the CO2. Air spaces are saturated with water vapor because it is in contact with the moist walls of the cells.

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! Different environmental conditions Air outside the leaf is drier than inside the leaf. o Water vapor in airspaces of a lead diffuses down its water potential gradient and exits the lead via the stomata. Water is brought to the leaves via the xylem and drawn into mesophyll cells and into their cell walls. Movement depends on adhesion of water to cellulose microfibrils. First, water evaporates from a thin water film lining the airspaces surrounding mesophyll cells At first, the water vapor is lost by transpiration is replaced by evaporation from the water film that coats mesophyll cells o The increasingly negative pressures at the air water interface causes xylem cells to lose water to mesophyll cells, which lose water to airspaces ! lose water to stomata. Cohesion and Adhesion of the water transmit the pulling force down to the roots. Xylem Sap Ascent by Bulk Flow The movement of xylem sap against gravity is maintained by transpiration 36.4 Stomata help regulate the rate of transpiration Effects of Transpiration on Wilting and lead temperature ! plants lose an astonishing amount of water as a result of transpiration. If this water is not replaced by water absorption from the roots, the plant will gradually lose water and wilt Stomata: Major Pathway for Water Loss Stomata support photosynthesis by allowing CO2 and O2 exchange between the leaf and atmosphere. Stomata are also the main avenues for transpirational loss of water from the plant. Turgor changes in guard cells, which depend on K+ and water exchange, regulate the size of stomatal openings. Xerophyte Adaptations that reduce transpiration Protection of stomata within leaf indentations and other structural adaptations enable certain plants to survive arid environments 36.5 Organic nutrients translocate through the phloem Movement from sugar sources to sugar sinks Mature leaves are the main sugar sources. Developing roots and shoot tips are some examples of sugar sinks. Phloem loading and unloading depend on the active transport of sucrose. The sucrose is cotransported along with H+ "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

! Sugar source- plant organ that is a net producer of sugar, by photosynthesis or by breakdown of starch o Mature leaves Sugar sink- organ that is a net consumer of sugar o Growing roots, buds, stems, and fruits Transfer cells- companion cells that have ingrowths of their walls, enhancing transfer of solutes between apoplast and symplast.

Pressure Flow: Mechanism of Translocation in Angiosperms Loading of sugar at the source end of a sieve tube and unloading at the sink end maintain a pressure difference that keeps the sap flowing through the tube, Pressure flow in a sieve tube 1) Loading of sugar into the sieve tube at source reduces water potential inside the sieve tube members. This causes the tube to take up water by osmosis. 2) The uptake of water generates a positive pressure that forces the sap the flow along the tube 3) Pressure is relieved by the unloading of sugar and the consequent loss of water from the tube at the sink 4) Lead to root translocation ! xylem recycles water from sink to source

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Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology, and Photosynthesis Angiosperm Reproduction and Biotechnology
Pollination enables gametes to come together within a flower Alternation of Generations ! haploid and diploid generations take turns producing each other. The diploid plant, sporophyte, produces haploid spores by meiosis. These spores divide by mitosis, giving rise to the gametophyte Gametophyte : male and female haploid plants that produce gametes(sperm and eggs) Fertilization will result in diploid zygotes, which divide by mitosis and form new sporophytes. In angiosperms! the sporophyte is the dominant generation in the sense that it is the largest, most conspicuous and longest living plant we see Angiosperm gametophytes are the most reduced of all plants, consisting of only a few cells. Angiosperm sporophytes develop a unique reproductive structure! the flower Flower Structure! Flowers are the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm sporophyte. Determinate shoots ! cease growing after the flower and fruit are formed Flower organs: sepals, petals, stamens and carpels. o Attached to a part of the stem called the receptacle Stamens and Carpels are reproductive organs Sepals and Petals are sterile. o Sepals: enclose and protect the floral bud, are usually green and more leaf like. Stamen: consists of a talk called the filament and a terminal structure called the anther Anther: consists of chambers called pollen sacs! pollen is produced. Carpel: Ovary: at the base o Within the ovary, are one or more ovules. Style: long, slender neck. o At the top is a sticky structure called the stigma that serves as a landing platform for pollen Complete flowers: have all four basic floral organs "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

! Incomplete flowers: lack one or more of these organs Gametophyte Development and Pollination Anthers and ovules beat sporangia! structures where spores are produced by meiosis, and gametophytes develop. Pollen grains each consisting of a mature male gametophyte surrounded by a spore wall. o Formed within pollen sacs of anthers In angiosperms! pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma If successful, the pollen grain will produce a pollen tube o Pollen tube: grows and guides pollen its way down into the ovary via the style and discharges sperm in the vicinity of the embryo sac, resulting in fertilization of egg Development of a male gametophyte (pollen grain) 1) each of the microsporangia contains diploid microsporocytes(2n) 2) Each microsporocyte (2n) divides by meiosis, producing 4 haploid microspores (n), each of which develop into a pollen grain 3) a pollen grain becomes a mature male gametophyte(n) when its generative nucleus divides and forms two sperm. This usually occurs after a pollen grain lands on the stigma of the carpel and the pollen tube begins to grow.

Development of a female gametophyte(embryo sac) 1) Within the ovules mega sporangium is a large diploid cell called the megasporocyte (2n) 2) The megasporocyte divides by meiosis and gives rise to 4 haploid cells. In most species only one of these survives as the megaspore (n) 3) Three mitotic divisions of the megaspore form the embryo sac, a multicellular female gametophyte. The ovule now consists of the embryo sac along with the surrounding integuments. The survive megaspore has divided into o 3 antipodal cells o 2 polar nuclei o egg o 2 synergids " " Each ovule contains a mega sporangium, which forms within the chambers of the ovary. # Megasporocyte, One cell in the mega sporangium of each ovule, grows and through meiosis, produces 4 haploid megaspores. "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

Photosynthesis
Autotrophs: self feeders! they sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms Heterotrophs: obtain their organic material by the second major mode of nutrition! unable to make their own food; they live on compounds produced by other organisms. Photosynthesis converts light energy to chemical energy of food Chloroplasts: the site of photosynthesis Chlorophyll! green pigment located within chloroplast Mesophyll- chloroplasts are found in these cells Stomata! microscopic pores that allow carbon dioxide and oxygen to enter and leave Stroma! the dense fluid within the chloroplast. Thylakoids! contain chlorophyll. Can be stacking into columns called grana. Chloroplasts split water into hydrogen and oxygen, incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into sugar molecules. Photosynthesis is a redox process: water is oxidized and carbon dioxide is reduced. There are two stages of photosynthesis Light reactions (in the thylakoids) ! split water and release oxygen, produce ATP and NADPH o Uses photophosphorylation Calvin cycle (in the stroma) ! forms sugar from carbon dioxide, using ATP and NADPH. The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH Nature of Sunlight: light is a form of electromagnetic energy. Travels in waves Electromagnetic spectrum: the entire range of radiation Visible light- radiation that can be detected as various colors. Photons- light behaves as though it consists of discrete particles. Photosynthetic Pigments: pigments are substances that absorb visible light and different wavelengths. Wavelengths that are not absorbed are reflected or transmitted Spectrophotometer: measures a pigments ability to absorb various wavelengths. This machine sends light through pigments and measures the fraction of light transmitted at each wavelength. Absorption Spectrum: plots a pigments light absorption versus wavelength. Action Spectrum- profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a process.

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! Photosynthetic Pigments: Chlorophyll!main photosynthetic pigment Accessory pigments! broaden the spectrum used for photosynthesis o Ex. Chlorophyll. Carotenoids! absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll. Photosystem: consists of a reaction center surrounded by light harvesting compounds. Each light harvesting complex consists of pigment molecules bound to particular proteins ! funnel the energy of photons to the reaction center Reaction center is a protein complex that includes two special chlorophyll a molecules and molecules called primary electron acceptor. o Primary electron acceptor accepts an excited electron from chlorophyll a Solar powered transfer of an electron from a chlorophyll a molecule to the primary electron acceptor is the first step in light reactions. Photosystem II: functions first! absorbs a wavelength of 680nm Photosystem I: absorbing wavelength of 700nm These two photosystems work together to use light energy to generate ATP and NADPH Noncyclic Electron Flow! produces NADPH, ATP and oxygen Cyclic Electron Flow !employs only photosynthesis I, produces ATP. Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria: Mitochondria transfer chemical energy from foot to ATP Chloroplasts transform light energy into chemical energy of ATP The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert Carbon Dioxide to SUGAR. Calvin Cycle: regenerates its starting material. Builds sugar by using energy from ATP and reducing power of electrons on NADPH. Carbon enters as carbon dioxide and leaves as a sugar named glyceraldehyde3-phosphate Net synthesis of one G3P, the cycle must take place 3 times, fixing three molecules of carbon dioxide. Three phases: o Carbon fixation o Reduction o Regeneration of the carbon dioxide acceptor. Tradeoffs in Photosynthesis: Dehydration is a problem for plants! on hot and dry days, plants close stomata; this conserves water but also limits photosynthesis ! Reduces access to carbon dioxide and causes oxygen to build up

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Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot arid climates Photorespiration: oxygen substitutes for carbon dioxide in the active site of rubisco. This consumes organic fuel and releases carbon dioxide without producing ATP or sugar. In most plants, initial fixation of CO2 forms a three-carbon compound. Rubisco adds oxygen to the Calvin cycle instead of carbon dioxide. o This consumes oxygen and organic fuel and releases carbon dioxide without producing ATP or sugar On a hot and dry say, it can drain as much as 50% of the carbon fixed in the Calvin cycle. C4 Plants: C4 plants minimize the cost of photorespiration by incorporating carbon dioxide into four carbon compounds in mesophyll cells. Exported to bundle-sheath cells, where they release carbon dioxide CAM Plants: Open their stomata at night, incorporating carbon dioxide into organic acids which are stored in mesophyll cells. During the day, the stomata close and the carbon dioxide is released from the organic acids for use in the Calvin cycle.

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Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function and Animal Nutrition Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function
Anatomy: study of the structure of an organism Physiology: study of the function an organism performs Physical laws and the environmental constrain animal size and shape Evolutionary convergence reflects different species adaptations to a similar environmental challenge Exchange with the environment: exchange of energy and materials between an animal and its surroundings occurs as substances dissolved in the aqueous medium diffuse and are transported across the cells plasma membrane A flat body shape maximizes exposure to the surrounding medium Animal form and function at levels of organization Atom! molecule or compound ! organelle ! cell ! tissue ! organ ! organ system ! organism Tissues: are groups of cells with a common structure and function Epithelial Tissue: covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body. Occurring in sheets of tightly packed cells. Glandular epithelia: absorb or secrete chemical solutions. A mucus membrane: lines the lumen of the digestive tract and respiratory tract ! secretes mucus and lubricates the surface and keeps it moist simple epithelium- single layer of cells stratified epithelium- multiple tiers of cells. Shape of cells: cuboid(cube), columnar(column), squamous(squares) Connective Tissue: functions mainly to bind and support other tissues. Sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix o Collagenous fibers: made of collagen! nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise. o Elastic: long threads made of protein called elastin ! provide a rubbery quality that complements collagenous fibers. o Reticular: very thin and branched. Composed of collagen and continuous with collagen fibers. ! form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissue. Fibroblasts: secrete the protein ingredients of that extracellular fibers

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! macrophages: amoeboid cells that roam the fibers, engulfing foreign particles and the debris of dead cells.

Muscle Tissue: composed of long cells called muscle fibers! capable of contracting. Myofibrils! made of protein and myosin. Three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac and smooth. Nervous Tissue: sense stimuli and transmits signals in the form of nerve impulses from one part of the animal to another. Function unit = neuron or nerve cell ! transmits nerve impulses Nervous tissue is concentrated in brain !function as control center Organs and Organ Systems Different tissues are organized into organs. Mesenteries: sheets of connective tissue in moist of fluid filled body cavities Thoracic cavity: housing the lungs and heart Abdominal cavity: diaphragm Organ Systems: carry out the major body functions of most animals. Animals use the chemical energy in food to sustain form and function: all organisms require chemical energy for growth, repair, physiological processes, regulation and reproduction. Animals use energy to make ATP o Remaining food molecules are used in biosynthesis Bioenergetics: flow of energy through an animal o Metabolic rate: amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time. ! Measured by amount of oxygen consumes and carbon dioxide produced. Endotherms: bodies are warmed by heat generated by metabolism. Have higher metabolic rates. Includes mammals Ectotherms: gain heat mostly from external sources. Have lower metabolic rates. Includes reptiles and amphibians. Basal metabolic rate(BMR) metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest Standard metabolic rate (SMR) metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest

Many animals regulate their internal environment within relatively narrow limits Interstitial fluid: fluid fills the spaces between vertebrate cells o exchanges nutrients and wastes with blood contained in vessels called capillaries. o Internal environment of vertebrates. Homeostasis: ability of a living organism to adjust its internal environment to maintain an equilibrium "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

! o Two strategies to maintain a stable equilibrium " Regulator: uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external fluctuations # ENDOTHERMS " Conformer: allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes # ECTOTHERMS o Three components: " Receptor: detects a change in some variable of internal environment " Control center: processes information it received from receptor and directs appropriate response by the effector " Effector: the response Feedbacks: o Negative feedback: buildup of end product shuts system off. Will regulate after a change. " Normal range!beyond range!back to normal " Ex. Glucose levels, body temperature o Positive feedback: a change in a variable triggers amplification rather than turning off system " Blood clotting " Child birth

Thermoregulation contributes to homeostasis and involves anatomy, physiology and behavior. Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range. Critical to survive. Helps keep body temperature within an optimal range, enabling cell to function most effectively. o Poikilotherm- refer to animals whose internal temperature vary widely. o Homoeothermic- refers to animals that maintain stable internal temperatures. Ectotherms tolerate greater variation in internal temperature than endotherms Modes of Heat Exchange: Four physical processes: conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation Insulation: reduces the flow of heat between an animal and its environment and lowers the energy cost of keeping warm. o Integumentary system: outer covering of the body consisting of the skin, hair, and nails. Circulatory Adaptations: alter the amount of blood flowing between the body core and the skin. o Vasodilation: increase in the diameter of blood vessels. "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

! In mammals, this warms the skin, increasing the transfer of body heat to a cool environment by radiation, conduction and convection. Blood flow increases, facilitating heat loss o Vasoconstriction: reduced blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of vessels. Blood flow in the skin decreases, lowing heat loss Evaporative Heat loss o Evaporation through skin (swearing) and breathing/panting. o Fluttering and shaking ! some birds and bees o Spreading saliva on body surfaces !kangaroos and rodents. Behavioral responses o Postures that can maximize or minimize heat absorption of solar heat " Snakes go on dark surfaces Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production o Many species of flying insects use shivering to warm up. "

Feedback Mechanisms in Thermoregulation: Mammals regulate body temperature by negative feedback involving several organ systems: Hypothalamus: contains nerve cells that function as thermostat. Torpor and Energy Conservation: Torpor: physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases o Hibernation: long term torpor. Adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity Estivation: summer torpor. Enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water supplies.

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Animal Nutrition
Herbivores: eat mainly autotrophs (plant and algae) Carnivores: eat other animals Omnivores: regularly consumes animals as well as plant or algal matter. An adequate diet must satisfy three needs: Fuel for all cellular work Organic raw material for biosynthesis Essential nutrients, substances that the animal cannot make for itself. Main feeding mechanisms Suspension feeding: whales Substrate feeding: caterpillars Fluid feeding- mosquitos Bulk feeding- snakes Homeostatic mechanisms manage an animals energy budget Animals store excess calories as fat, and glycogen in the liver and muscles. o Glucose! major fuel for cells Hormones regulate glucose metabolism; regulate long term and short term appetite by affecting a satiety center in the brain o When fewer calories are taken in than are expended, fuel is taken from storage and oxidized. Undernourishment: diet is chronically deficient in calories. In this condition, storage of glycogen and fat are used up and the body begins to break down its own proteins for fuel, muscles begin to decrease in size, and the brain can become protein-deficient. Over nourishment: excessive food intake. Leads to obesity. Body hoards fat and tends to story any excess fat molecules instead of using it for food. An animals diet must supply carbon skeletons and essential nutrients Animal most obtain organic precursors (carbon skeletons) from its food to build complex molecules. Animals can fabricate organic molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids o Organic carbon (sugar) + organic nitrogen (amino acids) Essential nutrients: materials that must be obtained in preassembled form because the animals cells cannot make them from any raw material. Malnourished: an animal whose diet is missing one or more essential nutrients. Four classes of Essential nutrients:

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! Essential Amino Acids: must be obtained from food in prefabricated form. Eight amino acids are essential in the adult human diet. o Protein deficiency: a diet that provides insufficient amounts of one or more essential amino acids. o Reliable source of amino acids: meat, eggs, cheese and other animal products. Essential Fatty Acids: the fatty acids that an animal cannot make. (Also unsaturated) o Animals can synthesize most of the fatty acids they need. Vitamins: organic molecules required in the diet in amounts that are quite small. o Fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. " Vitamin A- visual pigments " Vitamin D- aids in calcium absorption and bone formation. " Vitamin E- protect the phospholipids in membranes from oxidation " Vitamin K- required for blood clotting Minerals: simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts. o Humans and other vertebrates require large quantities of calcium and phosphorous for the construction and maintenance of bone " Calcium is also necessary for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles " Phosphorous is also an ingredient of ATP and nucleic acids " Iron is involved in cellular respiration and of hemoglobin.

The main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination. Ingestion- act of eating Organic material in food consists of proteins, fats, and carbs in the form of starch and other polysaccharides, Animals cannot use these macromolecules directly for two reasons o Polymers are too large to pass through membrane and enter cells o Macromolecules that make up an animal are not identical to those of its food Digestion: process of breaking down food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb. Digestion cleaves macromolecules into their monomers, which the animal then uses to make its own molecule or fuel for ATP production. Polysaccharides and disaccharides ! simple sugars Fats ! glycerol and fatty acids Proteins! amino acids Nucleic acids ! nucleotides

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Absorption- uptake of nutrients by body cells Take up small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars Elimination: passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment Digestive Compartments Intracellular Digestion: food particles are engulfed by endocytosis and digested within food vacuoles Extracellular Digestion: breakdown of food particles outside of cells. o Occurs in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animals body. o Allows animals to devour much larger prey than can be ingested by phagocytosis and digested intracellular. Simple Animals: Gastrovascular cavity: functions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients throughout the body. o Process food and reduce risk of self- digestion Complex Animals: Complete Digestive Tract or Alimentary Canal. Has two openings: mouth and anus. o Specialized regions that carry out digestion and absorption in a stepwise function.

Each organ of the mammalian digestive system has specialized food-processing functions Consists of the alimentary canal and various accessory glands that secrete digestive juices into a canal through ducts. Food is pushed along by peristalsis, rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the canal. N.B: sphincter-ring like valves which close off the tube, regulating the passage of materials between chambers of the canal The Oral Cavity, Pharynx and Esophagus: food is lubricated and digestion begins. Teeth chew food into smaller particles Oral cavity triggers a nervous reflex that causes the salivary glands to deliver saliva through ducts to the oral cavity. o Salivary amylase- an enzyme that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen. Initiates breakdown of glucose polymers " End products: smaller polysaccharides and the disaccharide maltose. o Contains mucin, a slippery glycoprotein, which protects the lining of the mouth from abrasion and lubricates food for easier swallowing Pharynx: junction that opens to both the esophagus and the windpipe (trachea).

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! o Epiglottis: cartilages flap. Esophagus: conducts food from the pharynx down to the stomach by peristalsis.

The Stomach: stores food and performs preliminary steps of digestion Stores food and secretes gastric juices which converts a meal to acid chyme. Mechanical Breakdown by churning and peristalsis. Chemical Breakdown o Gastric juice (digestive juice)- mixes with food by the churning action of the smooth muscles in the stomach wall. " Addition of hydrochloric acid, gastric juice has pH 2-acidic. " This gastric juice disrupt extracellular matrix that binds cells together in plant and meat material. Also kills most bacterial. " Pepsin- an enzyme that begins the hydrolysis of proteins. " Pepsinogen is secreted by chief cells " Hydrochloric acid is secreted by parietal cells o 1. Pepsinogen and HCL are secreted by into the lumen o 2. HCl converts pepsinogen to pepsin o 3. Pepsin then activates the release of more pepsinogen starting a chain reaction o 4. Pepsin begins the chemical breakdown of protein. The Small Intestine: longest section of the alimentary canal Most of the enzymatic hydrolysis of food macromolecules and most of the absorption of nutrients into the blood Duodenum- acid chyme (nutrient rich broth) from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder and gland cells of the intestinal walls. Pancreas- produces proteases! protein digesting enzymes which neutralizes stomach acid Liver- produces bile ! a mixture of substances stored in the gallbladder till needed. Aids in digestion and the absorption of fats Brush boarder- lining of the duodenum! produces several digestive enzymes Also, hormones help coordinate the secretion of digestive juices. Absorption: The intestine has a huge surface area due to villi and microvilli. This increases the rate of nutrient absorption Villi- fingerlike projections Microvilli- microscopic appendages on the villi that are exposed to intestinal lumen. Each villus contains blood vessels (capillaries) and a small lymphatic vessel called a lacteal. o Nutrients (amino acids and sugars) are absorbed across the intestinal epithelium and then cross the unicellular epithelium of the capillaries or lacteals.

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! o Transport can be passive (facilitated diffusion) " Amino acids and sugars are carried away form the intestine via the bloodstream " Glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed by epithelial cells and are recombined into fats within those cells-! fats are mixed with cholesterol and protein, forming chylomicrons! transported into lacteals ! then drains from the lymphatic system into large veins that return blood to heart. o Hepatic portal vein! veins that carry nutrient rich blood away from the Villi converge into this: a blood vessel that leads directly to the liver. Large Intestine/Colon: connected to the small intestine at T shaped junction where a sphincter controls the movement of material Recover water from the alimentary canals as the solvent of the various digestive juices. Wastes of digestive tract, the feces becomes solid as it moves through colon. o This exits through the anus. o Colon has bacteria E. Coli which helps in the breakdown of complex carbohydrates Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems are often associated with diet Dentition: an animals assortment of teeth. o Nonmammalian vertebrates are less specialized " Exception: poisonous snakes, have fangs (modified teeth) that inject venom into prey " Snakes! swallow prey whole due to loosely hinged lower jaw via elastic ligament. o Mammals: specialized dentition. Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations o Herbivores and omnivores are longer alimentary canals " Vegetation is more difficult to digest than meat because of cell walls. A longer tract furnishes more time for digestion and more surface area for absorption Symbiotic Adaptations: Herbivores: Symbiotic bacteria and protists in fermentation chambers. These microorganisms have enzymes that can digest cellulose to simple sugars and other compounds that the animal can absorb.

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The Immune System, Hormones and the Endocrine System

The Immune System

Innate immunity! present before any exposure to pathogens. Consists of external barriers: skin, mucous membrane and internal cellular and chemical defenses that combat infectious diseases that breach the external defenses. o Internal defenses: macrophages and other phagocytic cells, which ingest and destroy pathogens. Acquired immunity! develops after exposure to inducing agents. Highly specific; they can distinguish one inducing agent from another. lymphocytes- white blood cells o Humoral response- cells derived from B lymphocytes secrete antibodies that bind to microbes and mark them for elimination o Cell mediated response- directly destroy infected body cells Innate immunity provides broad defenses against infection External defenses: intact skin and mucous membranes form physical barriers that bar the entry of microorganisms and viruses. Mucous membranes line the digestive, respiratory tracts. Cells produce mucus; this traps microbes and other particles. The low pH of the stomach, and degradation by lysozyme also deter infection by pathogens o lysozyme: an enzyme that digests the cell walls of bacteria. Can destroy susceptible bacteria. Internal and Chemical defenses: these defenses depend on phagocytosis Phagocytosis: the ingestion of invading microorganisms by certain types of white blood cells. Produce certain antimicrobial proteins and help initiate inflammation. Phagocytes attach to prey via surface receptors that bind to structures and then engulfs the microbes o Microbes are destroyed by lysosomes in two ways " 1. Nitric oxide and other toxic forms of oxygen poison the engulfed microbes " 2. Lysozyme and other enzymes degrade microbial components. Four types of WBC are phagocytic o Neutrophils!70% of all white blood cells. Attached and then enter infected tissue, engulfing and destroying the microbes there. They selfdestruct in the process of phagocytosis.

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! o Macrophages: 5% of white blood cells. Internal signaling pathways activate the macrophages, increasing the defensive abilities in various ways. o Eosinophils! low phagocytic activity. Critical in defense against multicellular parasites. Instead of engulfing, they position themselves against the parasites body and then discharge enzymes that damage the invader o Dendritic cells! ingest microbes, but primary role is to stimulate the development of acquired immunity. Antimicrobial proteins Complement system: in the absence of infection, these proteins are inactive. Substances on surface of many microbes can trigger and activate the complement system. ! Leads to lysis of invading cells. o Interferons- provide innate defense against viral infections by inhibiting viral reproduction. Inflammatory responses: damage to tissue leads to the release of numerous chemical signals that triggers a localized inflammatory response. Histamine: stored in mast cells(in connective tissue). Histamine triggers dilation and increases permeability in capillaries. Blood flow increases towards the injured site--> this causes redness. This allows fluid and more phagocytes and antimicrobial proteins to enter the tissue. Natural Killer Cells: patrol the body and attack virus infected body cells and cancer cells. NK cells recognize general features on the surface of its targets and then releases chemicals that lead to the death. Apoptosis! programmed cell death. In acquired immunity, lymphocytes provide specific defenses against infection Cytokines! proteins that help activate lymphocytes and other cells of the immune system. Antigen! any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits a response Epitope/Antigen determinant: small, accessible portion of antigen that the lymphocyte recognized. Antigen Recognition by Lymphocytes: B and T cells recognize antigens by receptors embedded in plasma membrane. Each lymphocyte displays specificity for a particular epitope/antigen determinant. B Cells: b cell receptor for an antigen is Y shaped molecule. Immunoglobins! structurally similar to B cell receptors but lack transmembrane regions that anchor receptors in the plasma membrane. T cells: recognize small antigen fragments (peptide antigens) that are complexed with cell surface proteins called major histocompatibility molecules (MHC). "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

Lymphocyte Development: arise from stem cells in the bone marrow and complete their maturation bone marrow (B cells) or in the thymus (T cells) Humoral and cell mediated immunity defend against different types of threats Helper T cells: a response to nearly all antigens. ! make CD4, a surface protein that enhances binding to class II MHC molecule-antigen complexes. Activated helper T cells secrete different cytokines that stimulate other lymphocytes. B cells: Responds to extracellular pathogens Clonal selection of B cells generates antibody secreting plasma cells. Binding of antibodies to antigens on the surface of pathogens leads to elimination of microbes by phagocytosis and complement-mediated lysis. Active and Passive Immunization: Active immunity: develops naturally in response to an infection. Developed artificially by immunization o A nonpathogenic form of a microbe or part of a microbe elicits an immune response to and immunological memory for that microbe. Passive immunity: provides immediate, short-term protection. The immune systems ability to distinguish self from nonself limits tissue transplantation Blood Groups and Transfusions: Certain antigens on red blood cells determine whether a person has type A, B, AB or O blood. Antibodies to nonself blood antigens already exist in the body, transfusion with incompatible blood leads to destruction of the transfused cells. Tissue and Organ Transplants: MHC molecules are responsible for stimulating the rejection of tissue grafts and organ transplants. Chances of successful transplantation are increased if the donor and recipient MHC tissue types are well matched and if immunosuppressive drugs are given to the recipient. Lymphocytes in bone marrow transplants may cause a graft verses host reaction in recipients Exaggerated, self-directed or diminished immune responses can cause disease Allergies: localized allergies, IgE antibodies produced after first exposure to an allergen attach to receptors on mast cells. When the allergen enters the body again, it binds to mast cell associated IgE, inducing the cell to release histamine and other mediators that cause vascular changes and typical symptoms. Autoimmune diseases: loss of the immune systems normal self-tolerance can lead to autoimmune diseases "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

Immunodeficiency Diseases: Inborn (primary) result from hereditary defects that prevent proper functioning of innate/humoral and or cell mediated defenses. AIDS! acquired immunodeficiency caused by the HIV virus. HIV infection leads to destruction of helper T cells, leaving patient prone to opportunistic diseases owing to deficient humoral and cell mediated immune responses

2nd line of defense Anti-microbial proteins: Inflammatory Response: damage to tissue triggers local non specific inflammatory response Release histamine and prostaglandins Capillaries dilate, more permeable (leaky) o Increase blood supply o Delivers white blood cells, red blood cells, platelets, clotting factors o Fight pathogens o Clot formation o Accounts for swelling, redness and heat of inflammation and infection Fever: when a local response is not enough Systematic response to infection Tells the hypothalamus Activates macrophages release interleukin-1 o Triggers hypothalamus in brain to readjust body thermostat to raise body temperature Higher temperatures help defense o Inhibits bacterial growth o Stimulates phagocytosis o Speeds up repair of tissue 3RD line of defense- ACQUIRED (Active) immunity Specific defense- lymphocytes o B lymphocytes/cells develop in bone marrow " Plasma cells makes antibodies o T lymphocytes/cells- develop in thymus o Antibodies-immunoglobins Responds to o Antigens! antigenic determinant o Specific pathogens and toxins

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! o Abnormal body cells How are invaders recognized? Antigens Antigens: proteins that serve as cellular name tags. o Foreign antigens cause response from white blood cells. B and T cells responds to different types of antigen They do not react on the bodys self cells. o B cell ! recognize intact antigens " Pathogens in blood & lymph o T cells recognize antigen fragments " Pathogens, which have already infected cells. Pieces of antigens fragments are displayed. o Autoimmune disorders! body attacks its own self/cells. B cells Humoral response in fluid ; defense against attackers circulating freely in blood and lymph Specific response: produces specific antibodies against specific antigen. Types of B cells: will reproduce, some will become plasma cells; the remaining will be memory cells. o Plasma cells-immediate production of antibodies; rapid response, short term release o Memory cells- long-term immunity. Helper T cell- help with humoral response

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Hormones and the Endocrine System

Osmoregulation: the regulations of solute concentrations and the balance of water loss and gain. Based on the controlled movement of solutes between internal fluids and the external environment Also regulates the movement of water, which follows solutes by osmosis. Excretion: how animals get rid of nitrogen-containing waste products of metabolism. Osmolality: total solute concentration expressed as molarity Isosmotic: solutions separated by a permeable membrane have the same osmolality! no net movement Hyperosmotic: the solution with the greater concentration is hyperosmotic to the other solutions o Fresh water animals are hyperosmotic to their environment (solute concentration is greater in fish than in water) Hypoosmotic: the solution with the lower concentration is hypoosmotic to the other solution. o Marine bony fishes are hypoosmotic to seawater. (Solute concentration is greater in water than in fish) Osmotic Challenges: Osmoconformers: do not regulate their osmolality. No tendency to gain or lose water. o Live in water that has a stable composition Osmoregulators: must control its internal osmolality because its internal osmolality is not isosmotic with external environment. o Expend energy to control water uptake and loss. Stenohaline: animals that cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolality. Euryhaline: animals that can survive large fluctuations in external osmolality. Anhydrobiosis: adaptation that allows aquatic invertebrates in temp ponds to lose almost all body water and survive in dormant state. Transport Epithelia: specialized cells that regulate solute movement joined by tight junctions. Nitrogenous Wastes: nitrogenous breakdown products of proteins and nucleic acids ! can be toxic. Different animals excrete nitrogenous wastes in different forms: ammonia, urea, and uric acid. Animals that excrete ammonia need lots of water: (aquatic animals) Mammals and most amphibians convert ammonia to less toxic urea. o Brought to the kidneys for excretion. "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

! Insects, land snails and reptiles and birds excrete uric acid.

Ammonia: a very toxic molecule. Some animals excrete ammonia directly, but many species first convert the ammonia to other compounds that are less toxic but that require energy in the form of ATP to produce. Ammonia: very soluble!can only be tolerated at very low concentrations. Need access to lots of water. Most common in aquatic species. o Ammonia molecules easily pass through membrane and are readily lost by diffusion to the surrounding water. Urea: a substance produced in a vertebrate liver by a metabolic cycle that combined ammonia with carbon dioxide. Circulatory system carries urea to the excretory organs (the kidneys). Permits animals to transport and store urea safely at high conc. o Disadvantage: animals must expend energy to produce it from ammonia. Uric Acid: relatively non-toxic. Large insoluble in water and can be excreted as a semi solid paste with very little water loss. o Great advantage with animals with little access to water

Excretory Systems: regulate solute movement between internal fluids and external environment! produce urine by refining a filtrate derived from body fluids. Filtration: pressure filtering of body fluids! forced by blood pressure across selectively permeable membranes of a cluster of capillaries and into the excretory tubule. Reabsorption: the transport epithelium reclaims valuable substances from the filtrate and returns them to blood Secretion: other substances are extracted from body fluids and added to the contents of excretory tubule Excretion: the filtrate leaves the system and body. Paired Kidneys: serviced by renal artery and renal vein. Mammalian Kidney: outer renal cortex and inner renal medulla Nephron: single long tubule and a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus. o Juxtamedullary nephronin both the cortex and medulla. o Proximal Tubule " Secretion and reabsorption alters filtrate volume and composition. Salt and nutrients are pumped out and hydrogen ions are pumped in. o Loop of Henley

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! Reabsorption of water continues as filtrate moves into the descending loop, and in the ascending loop, salt diffuse from the permeable tubule. o Distal Tubule " Regulates potassium and salt concentrations of body fluids. Some ions and water move out. Lower solute concentration than blood plasma because there is Urea rather than salt. o Collecting duct: carries filtrate through the medulla to the renal pelvis and reabsorbs salt. Countercurrent multiplier system enables the kidney to maintain a high salt concentration in kidney and to form concentrated urine. Regulation of Kidney Function: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) ! increases water reabsorption in distal tubules and collecting ducts in kidney Renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) ! functions in homeostasis. Detects blood pressure. Blood pressure will drop and water and salt reabsorption will increase. ! "

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Nervous System and Sensory and Motor Mechanisms Nervous system

Neurons: each neuron may communicate with thousands of other neurons in complex information processing circuits. Nervous system consist of circuits of neuron and supporting cells All animals except sponges have some type of nervous system. Cnidarians: have radially symmetrical bodies organized around a gastro vascular cavity. Neurons controlling the contraction and expansion of the gastrovascular cavity are arranged in a diffuse nerve net. Echinoderms: Sea stars-have a nerve net in each arm connected by radial nerves to a central nerve ring. Better suited for controlling more complex movements. Planarian (flatworms): have a central nervous system Annelids and arthropods have segmentally arranged clusters of neurons called ganglia that connect to the central nervous system and make up the peripheral nervous system.

Information Processing: Sensory input ! integration ! motor output Sensory neuron: transmit information from sensors that detect external stimuli and internal conditions. Interneurons! integrate/analyze the information from the sensory output Motor neurons ! leaves the CNS via motor neurons which communicate with effector cells (muscle or endocrine cells) This produces reflexes: bodys automatic response to stimuli. Neuron Structure: Most organelles are in the cell body Dendrites: highly extensions that receive signals from other neurons Axon: a much longer extension that transmits signals to other cells, which may be neurons or effector cells. o The conical region of an axon where it joins the cell body is called the axon hillock o Axon usually divides into several branches! synaptic terminal. Myelin sheath: covers the axons. Synapse: Site of communication between a synaptic terminal and another cell. o Information passed from the transmitting neuron (presynaptic cell) to the receiving cell (postsynaptic cell) by means of neurotransmitters. Supporting Cells: Glia "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

! Glia is supporting cells that are essential for the structural integrity of the nervous system and for the normal functioning of neurons. In Central nervous system: astrocytes provide structural support for neurons and regulate the extracellular concentrations of ions and neurotransmitters. o Induce the formation of tight junctions between cells that line the capillaries in the brain and spinal cord. ! Blood-brain barrier, which restricts the passage of most substances into the CNS. o Radial glia form tracks along which newly formed neurons migrate from the neural tube! gives rise to the CNS. Oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) and Schwann cells (in the PNS) are glia that forms on the myelin sheath around the axons of vertebrate neurons. o Provides electrical insulation of the axon. Ion pumps and ion channels maintain the resting potential of a neuron All cells have an electrical potential difference across their plasma membrane. This voltage is called the membrane potential. Resting potential: membrane potential of a neuron that is not transmitting signals. Depends on the ionic gradients that exist across the plasma membrane. Gated Ion channels: Resting potential results from the diffusion of K+ and Na+ through ion channels that are always open; these channels are said to be ungated. Gated ion channels (neuron) which open or close in response to one of three kinds of stimuli. o Stretch-gated ion channels! found in cells that sense stretch and open when the membrane in mechanically deformed o Ligand gated ion channels ! found at synapses and open or close when a specific chemical binds to a channel o Voltage gated ion channels! found in axons and open or close when the membrane potential changes. Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons: Hyperpolarization: an increase in the magnitude of the membrane potential. (The inside of the membrane becomes more negative. o May be caused by the opening of gated K+ channels. Depolarization: a reduction in the magnitude of the membrane potential. o May be due to the opening of gated Na+ channels. Graded potentials: these changes in membrane potential ! the magnitude of the hyperpolarization or depolarization varies with the strength of the stimulus. Production of Action Potentials Threshold: depolarization is graded only up to a certain membrane voltage. When the depolarization passes the threshold this triggers a different response called the action potential

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! Transmission of a nerve signal: all or noting response; one first one is opened, the rest open in succession. A Wave action travels along the neuron. Have to reset the channels so neuron can react again. Cells are surrounded by charged ion Anions (negative) ! more concentrated within the cell. Ca Cations (positive) ! more concentrated in the extracellular fluid. Na+ Cells have voltage: membrane is polarized o Negative inside, positive outside o Stored energy Conduction of Action Potentials: at the site when an action potential is initiated, Na+ influx during the rising phase creates an electrical current that depolarizes the neighboring region of the axon membrane. Immediately behind the traveling zone of depolarization, due to Na+ influx, is a zone of repolarization due to K+ efflux. Salutatory conduction: action potential appears to jump along the axon from node to node. How does a nerve impulse travel? Stimulus: nerve is stimulated o Reaches threshold potential o Opens Na+ channels and Na + ions diffuse into cell " Cell becomes depolarized: positive inside, negative outside. Wave: nerve impulses travel down neuron o Change in charge opens next Na+ gates: voltage gated channels o Wave moves down neuron=action potential Re-set: 2nd wave travels down neuron o K+ channels open up slower than Na+ channels o K+ ions diffuse out of cell " Charge reverses back: negative inside, positive outside o Flow of K+ out of cell stops activation of Na+ channels inwards. o Sodium potassium pump: active transport protein in membrane that requires ATP " 3 Na+ are pumped out, 2 K+ are pumped in Neurons communicate with other cells at synapses Impulse jumps the synapse: junction between neurons Chemical signal from presynaptic neuron opens ligand-gated channels in postsynaptic neuron A chemical synapse: 1) Action potential depolarizes the plasma membrane of the synaptic terminal 2) This opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels, triggering influx of Ca2+

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! 3) Elevated Ca2+ concentration in the terminal causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane (exocytosis) 4) Vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. 5) Neurotransmitter binds to a receptor portion of ligand gated ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane, opening the channels. 6) Both Na+ and K+ diffuse through the channels 7) The neurotransmitter releases from the receptors and the channels close. Synaptic transmission ends When the neurotransmitter diffuses out of the synaptic cleft Is taken up by the synaptic terminal or another cell Or is degraded by an enzyme

Neurotransmitters: weak point of nervous system: any substance that affects neurotransmitters or mimics them affects nerve function Acetylcholine: one of the most common neurotransmitters o Transmit signal to skeletal muscle. o Can be either inhibitory or excitatory Epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepinephrine- fight or flight response. Dopamine- affects sleep, mood, attention and learning Serotonin- affects sleep, mood, attention and learning Acetyl cholinesterase o Enzyme which breaks down acetylcholine neurotransmitter ! competitive inhibitor o Acetyl cholinesterase inhibitors! neurotoxins " Snake venom, insecticides. The Vertebrate Nervous system is regionally specialized Nervous system shoes cephalization and distinct CNS and PNS components. The vertebrate CNS: derived from a nerve cord. o Adult, this feature persists as the narrow central canal of the spinal cord and the four ventricles of the brain o Brain: integrative power that underlies the complex behavior o Spinal cord: integrates simple responses to certain kinds of stimuli and conveys information to and from the brain o White matter: bundles of axons within the CNS o Grey matter: dendrites, unmyelinated axons, and neuron cell bodies.

Peripheral Nervous System: transmits information to and from the CNS and plays a large role in regulating a vertebrates movement and internal environment. o Cranial nerves originate in the brain and terminate mostly in organs of the head and upper body

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! o Spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord and tend to parts of the body below the ear. o Mammals have pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Somatic nervous system carries signals to and from skeletal muscles, mainly in response to external stimuli. o Carries signals to skeletal muscles. Considered as voluntary because it is subject to conscious control. Autonomic Nervous System regulates the internal environment by controlling smooth and cardiac muscles and the organs of the digestive, cardiovascular, excretory and endocrine systems. Considered as involuntary!3 divisions: sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric. o Sympathetic division corresponds to arousal and energy generation (the fight or flight response) o Parasympathetic division promotes a return to self maintenance functions o Enteric division controls activity of the digestive tract, pancreas and gallbladder.

Embryonic Development of the Brain 3 embryonic region: forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain Regions of the brain: Brainstem: o Medullar oblongata: contains centers that control several visceral functions including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, vomiting and digestion o Pons: participate in some visceral functions; all the information to and from the brain passes through. o Midbrain: contains centers for receipt and integration of sensory information o Reticular formation: containing over 90 clusters of cell bodies, in the core of brainstem. Reticular activating system (RAS) regulates sleep and arousal. Cerebellum: o Important for coordination and error checking during motor, perceptual, and cognitive functions. o Involved in learning and remembering motor skills. o Receives sensory information about the position of the joints and the length of muscles. Integrates sensory and motor information as it coordinated movements and balance. Diencephalon: o Epithalamus: pineal gland and choroid plexus.

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! o Thalamus: main input center for sensory information going to the cerebrum. Main output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum, o Hypothalamus: regulates homeostasis and basic survival behaviors o Biological clock! involved in maintaining circadian rhythms. Regulate a variety of physiological phenomena, including hormone release, hunger, and heightened sensitivity to external stimuli. Cerebrum: o Right and left hemispheres o Each cerebral hemisphere consists of an outer covering of grey matter, the cerebral cortex, internal white matter, and groups of neurons collectively called basal nuclei. o Thick band of axons called the corpus callosum provides communication between the right and left cerebral cortices. o The cerebral cortex has 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. " Each lobe contains primary sensor areas and associate areas. " Neocortex forms the outermost part of the mammalian cerebrum

The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions Information processing in the cerebral cortex: Most sensory information coming into the cortex is divided via the thalamus to primary sensory areas. Visual information!occipital lobe Auditory information ! temporal lobe Somatosensory information! parietal lobe Lateralization of Cortical function: Left hemisphere: more adept at language, math, logic, and processing of serial sequences Right hemisphere: stronger at pattern recognition, nonverbal thinking and emotional processing. Language and Speech Portions of the frontal love, brocas area and Wernickes area, are essential for the generation and understanding of language Emotions Limbic system is a ring of structures around the brainstem o Includes three parts of cerebral cortex: the amygdala hippocampus and olfactory bulb which interact with the neocortex to mediate primary emotions

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! Memory and Learning Frontal lobes: site of short term memory o Interacts with the hippocampus and amygdala to consolidate long-term memory. Long term potentiation (LTP) involves an increase in the strength of synaptic transmission CNS injuries and diseases are the focus of much research Nerve Cell Development: Responsive region at the leading edge of the growing axon is called the growth cone Signal molecules direct an axons growth by binding to receptors on the plasma membrane of the growth cone o Triggers a signal transduction pathway, may cause an axon to grow toward of away from the signal source. Schizophrenia: severe mental disturbance characterized by psychotic episodes in which patients lose the ability to distinguish reality. Include hallucinations, and delusions as well as blunted emotions, distractibility, lack of initiative and poverty of speech. Depression: Bipolar disorder: swings of mood from high to low Major depression: low mood most of the time. Alzheimers disease (AD) Mental deterioration, characterized by confusion, memory loss and a variety of other symptoms including personality changes. Patients lose their ability to recognize people, including immediate family and may act toward them with suspicion and hostility Parkinsons Disease: Motor disorder characterized by difficulty in initiating movements slowness of movement and rigidity. Masked facial expression, muscle tremors, poor balance, flexed posture, shuffling gait.

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Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system Function performed by Sensory receptors: Sensory receptors are usually specialized neurons or epithelial cells that detach environmental stimuli Exteroreceptors detect external stimuli Interoreceptors detect internal stimuli Sensory transduction is the conversion of stimulus energy into a change in membrane potential called a receptor potential o Signal transduction pathways in receptor cells often amplify the signal; this causes the receptor cell either to produce action potentials or to release neurotransmitter at a synapse with a sensory neuron Types of Sensory Receptors Mechanoreceptors: respond to stimuli such as pressure, touch, stretch, motion and sound. Chemoreceptors detect either total solute concentrations or specific molecules Electromagnetic receptors: detect different forms of electromagnetic radiation Thermo receptors: signal surface and core temperatures of the body Pain is detected by a group of diverse receptors that respond to excess heat, pressure, or specific classes of chemicals The mechanoreceptors involved with hearing and equilibrium detect settling particles or moving fluid Sensing Gravity and Sound in invertebrates: Most invertebrates sense their orientation with respect to gravity by means of statocysts. Many arthropods sense sounds with body hairs that vibrate and with localized ears consisting of a tympanic membrane and receptor cells. Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals: Tympanic membrane (eardrum) transmits sound waves to three small bones of the middle ear (stapes, incus, malleus) ! transmit the waves through the oval window to the fluid of the coiled cochlea of the inner ear. Pressure waves in the fluid vibrate the basilar membrane depolarizing hair cells in the organ of corti and triggering action potentials that travel via the auditory nerve to the brain. Each region of the basilar membrane vibrates more vigorously at a particular frequency and leads to excitation of a specific auditory area of the cerebral cortex. "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

! The utricle, saccule and three semicircular canals in the inner ear function in balance and equilibrium.

Hearing and Equilibrium in other vertebrates: The detection of water movements in fishes and aquatic amphibians is accomplished by a lateral line system containing clustered hair cells. The senses of taste and smell are closely related in most animals Taste in humans: Taste and smell both depend on the stimulation of chemoreceptors by small, dissolved molecules that bind to proteins on the plasma membrane. In humans, taste receptors are organized into taste buds on the tongue and in the mouth. o Five taste perceptions: sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami. Smell in humans: Olfactory receptor cells line the upper part of the nasal cavity and send their axons to the olfactory bulb of the brain. More than 1000 genes code for membrane proteins that bind to specific classes of odorants and each receptor cell expressed only one or at most a few of those genes Similar mechanisms underlie vision throughout the animal kingdom Vision in Invertebrates: light detectors of invertebrates include the simple, light eyespots of planarians. The image forming compound eyes of insects, crustaceans and some polychaetes, and the single lens eyes of some jellies, polychaetes, spiders and many mollusks. Vertebrate Visual System: Main parts of the vertebrate eye are: o Sclera ! includes cornea o Conjunctiva o Choroid ! includes the iris. o Retina ! contains photoreceptors o Lens ! which focuses light on the retina Photoreceptors (rods and cones) contain a pigment, retinal, bonded to a protein (opsin). o Absorption of light by retinal triggers a signal transduction pathway that hyperpolarizes the photoreceptors, causing them to release less neurotransmitter.

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! Synapses: transmit information from photoreceptors to bipolar cells and then to ganglion cells, whose axons in the optic nerve convey action potentials to the brain. Other neurons in the retina integrate information before it is sent to the brain Most axons in the optic nerves go to the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus, which relay information to the primary visual cortex. Several integrating centers in the cerebral cortex are active in creating visual perceptions.

Animal skeletons function: support, protection and movement. Types of skeletons: Hydrostatic skeleton! consists of fluid under pressure in a closed body compartment o Found in most cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes and annelids Exoskeletons! hard coverings deposited on the surface of an animal o Found in most mollusks, and arthropods Endoskeleton! hard supporting elements embedded within an animals body o Found in sponges, echinoderms and chordates. Physical support on land: muscles and tendons help support large land vertebrates Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscles, (often in antagonistic pairs) provide movement by contracting and pulling again the skeleton Vertebrate skeletal muscle consists of a bundle of muscle cells (fibers) each of which contains myofibrils composed of thin filaments of actin and thick filaments of myosin. Myosin heads energized by the hydrolysis of ATP, bind to the thin filaments, forming cross bridges. Bending of the myosin head exerts force on the thin filament. When ATP binds to the myosin heads, they release, ready to start a new cycle Repeated cycles cause the thick and thin filaments to slide past each other! shortens the sarcomere and contracting the muscle fiber A motor neuron initiates contraction by releasing acetylcholine, which depolarizes the muscle fiber. Action potentials travel to the interior of the muscle fiber along the T tubules, stimulating the release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The calcium ions reposition the tropomyosin-troponin complex on the thin filaments, exposing the myosin-binding site on acting and allowing the cross bridge cycle to proceed.

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! o Tetanus is a state of smooth and sustained contraction produced when motor neurons deliver a volley of action potentials.

Other types of muscle: Cardiac muscle (hear) consists of striated cells that are electrically connected by intercalated disks and can generate action potentials without neural input Smooth muscle! contractions are slow and may be initiated by the muscles themselves or by stimulation from neurons in the autonomic nervous system Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity Swimming: overcoming friction is a major problem for swimmers. Gravity is less of a problem for swimming animals than those that move on land or fly Locomotion of land: walking, running, hopping, crawling, on land requires an animal to suppose itself and to move against gravity Flying: requires that wings develop enough life to overcome the downward force of gravity Comparing costs of locomotion: Animals that are specialized for swimming expend less energy per meter traveled than animals specialized for flying or running

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Animal Reproduction and Circulation and Gas Exchange Animal Reproduction

Asexual- creation of new individuals whose genes all come from one parent without the fusion of egg and sperm Offspring all have same genes No variation Sexual- creation of offspring by the fusion of haploid gametes to form a zygote (fertilized diploid egg). Gametes (sperm and egg) ! fertilization Mixing of genes ! variation Mechanism of Asexual reproduction: Fission ! separation of a parent into two or more individuals of about the same size. Budding ! two new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones. Example: hydras. Fragmentation: breaking of the body into pieces, some or all, of which develop into adults. Example: starfish o Accompanied by Regeneration: regrowth of lost body parts Reproductive Cycles and Patterns: most animals exhibit reproductive controlled by hormones and environmental cues. May reproduce asexually or sexually or may alternate other methods Parthenogenesis: a process in which an egg develops without being fertilized. o Haploid adults can produce eggs without meiosis Hermaphroditism: each individual has both male and female reproductive systems. o Although some hermaphrodites fertilize themselves, most must mate with a member of the same species o Sequential hermaphroditism: individual reverses its sex during its lifetime. Fertilization depends on mechanisms that help sperm meet eggs of the same species Fertilization: the union of sperm and egg play an important part in sexual reproduction. Requires critical timing, often mediated by environmental cues, pheromones and/or courtship behavior External: eggs are released by the female into a wet environment, where they are fertilized by a male Internal: sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract and fertilization occurs within the tract. "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

! o Requires behavioral interactions and compatible copulatry organs Ensuring the survival of offspring: egg shells, retention of the embryo inside the female and parental care. External fertilization o Species with external fertilization usually produce enormous numbers of zygote because the proportion that they survive and develop further is small. o Protection: eggshells " Fish and amphibians: soft eggs! easy exchange across membrane " Birds and Reptiles: hard shell amniotic eggs ! structures for exchange of food, oxygen and waste. Internal fertilization usually produces fewer zygotes. o Placenta: exchange food and waste o Live births. Gamete Production and Delivery: Gonads: the organs that produce gametes in most animals. Reproductive hormones: Males: testosterone o From testes o Functions in sperm production o LH and FSH trigger spermatogenesis o Testosterone levels remain constant Females: estrogen o From ovaries o Function in: " Egg production " Prepares uterus for fertilized egg Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes: focus on humans Female Reproductive Anatomy: Ovaries: in abdominal cavity. Each ovary is enclosed by a tough protective capsule and contains many follicles o Follicle- consists of one egg cell surrounded by one or more layers of follicle cells o Ovulation: Egg is expelled from the follicle o Corpus luteum: remaining follicular tissue then grows within the ovary and forms a solid mass Oviduct/Fallopian tube: has a funnel like opening and cilia on the epithelium lining the duct help collect the egg cell by drawing fluid from the body cavity into the duct

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! Uterus: womb thick muscular organ that can expand during pregnancy to accommodate fetus o Endometrium: lining of uterus; richly supplied with blood vessels o Cervix: opens into the vagina Vagina: thin walled chamber that is repository for sperm during copulation and that serves as the birth canal through which a baby is born o Vulva: collective term for the external female genitalia. o Hymen: thin piece of tissue that partly covers the vaginal opening in humans o Bartholins glands: located near the vaginal opening secrete mucus into the vestibule, keeping it lubricated and facilitating intercourse.

Male Reproductive Anatomy: Testes: consist of many highly coiled tubules surrounded by several layers of connective tissue o Seminiferous tubules: where sperm is formed o Leydig cells: scattered between the seminiferous tubules. Produce testosterone and other androgens o Scrotum: fold of the body wall that holds the testes outside the abdominal cavity. Ducts o Epididymis: sperm passes through these coiled tubes; where sperm mature o Ejaculation: sperm are propelled from the epididymis through the muscular vas deferens o Vas deferens: two ducts run from the scrotum around and behind the urinary bladder to the penis. o Urethra: tube that drains both the excretory system and the reproductive system Glands: o Seminal vesicles: contribute about 60% of the total volume of semen. Fluid is thick, yellowish and alkaline. Contains mucus, fructose, coagulating enzyme etc. o Prostate gland: largest of the semen-secreting gland. Secretes its products directly into the urethra through several small ducts. Fluid is thin and milky. o Bulbourethral glands: small glands along the urethra below the prostate. Secrete clear mucus that neutralizes any acidic urine remaining in the urethra. " Also carries some sperm released before ejaculation o Penis: composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue derived from veins and capillaries. During sexual arousal, erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries. o Glans Penis: head has a much thinner covering and is more sensitive to stimulation.

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! Human Sexual Response: Vasocongestion: the filling of a tissue with blood, caused by increased blood flow through the arteries of that tissue Myotonia: increased muscle tissue Orgasm: rhythmic, involuntary contractions of the reproductive system Female hormones: FSH and LH ! released from pituitary o Stimulates egg development and release of hormones o Peak release of hormones ! release of egg (ovulation) Estrogen ! release from ovary cells around developing egg o Stimulates growth of uterus lining o Lowered levels = menstruation Progesterone: released from corpus luteum in ovaries o Stimulates blood supply to lining of uterus o Lowered levels = menstruation Ovarian Cycle 1) Hormones stimulate follicle growth ! ovulation 2) Follicular tissue transforms into corpus luteum Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle 1) Maturation and release of egg cells from the ovary integrated with changes in the uterus. 2) Embryo has not implanted in the endometrium (uterus lining) by the end of the secretory phase 3) Menstrual flow commences Oogenesis differs from Spermatogenesis in 3 ways: Oogenesis: the development of mature ova Spermatogenesis: production of mature sperm During meiotic division cytokinesis is unequal o !All cytoplasm is in secondary oocyte. Eggs are not produced continuously throughout life Oogenesis has long resting periods In humans and other placental mammals, an embryo grows into a newborn in the mothers uterus Pregnancy or gestation: condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus. Conception: fertilization of an egg by a sperm Cleavage: repeated mitotic divisions of the zygote. Unequal divisions establishes body plans.

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! Different cells receive different portions of eggs, cytoplasm! therefore different regulatory signals

Gastrulation: establishes 3 cell layers Ectoderm: outer lining o Ex: skin, nails, teeth and nerves Endoderm: inner lining o Ex: digestive system Mesoderm: middle lining o Ex: bone, blood and muscle Animal Development After fertilization, embryonic development proceeds through cleavage, gastrulation and organogenesis Fertilization: Brings together nuclei of sperm and egg, forming a diploid zygote, And activates the egg, initiating embryonic development. Acrosomal reaction!triggered when sperm meets the egg, release hydrolytic enzymes that digest material around the egg. Gamete contact/fusion depolarizes the egg cell membrane Sperm-egg fusion also initiates the cortical reaction o Rise in calcium concentration stimulates cortical granules to release their contents outside the egg o Forms a fertilization envelope that functions as a slow block to polyspermy- egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm. Cleavage: A period of rapid cell division without growth, which results in the production of a large number of cells called blastomeres. Holoblastic cleavage: division of the entire egg, occurs in species whose eggs have little or moderate amount of yolk o Sea urchins, frogs and mammals Meroblastic cleavage: incomplete division of the egg, occurs in species with yolk rich eggs o Birds and other reptiles Cleavage planes usually follow a specific pattern relative to the animal and vegetal poles of the zygote. In many species, cleavage creates a multicellular ball called the blastula, which contains a fluid filled cavity, the blastocoel.

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! Gastrulation: Transforms the blastula into a gastrula, which has a primitive digestive cavity and three embryonic germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Organogenesis: Organs of the animal body develop from specific portions of the three embryonic germ layers. Vertebrates: include formation of the o Notochord by condensation of dorsal mesoderm, o Neural tube from enfolding of the ectodermal neural plate o Coelom from splitting of lateral mesoderm. Development Adaptations of Amniotes: Embryos of birds, other reptiles and mammals develop within a fluid filled sac that is contained within a shell or the uterus. In these organisms, the three germ layers give rise not only to embryonic tissue but also to the four extra embryonic membranes, the amnion, chorionic, yolk sac and allantois. Mammalian Development The eggs of marsupial and ethereal mammals are small and store few nutrients ! Exhibit holoblastic cleavage and show no obvious polarity. After fertilization and early cleavage in the oviduct Blastocyst implants in the uterus Trophoblast initiates formation of the fetal portion of the placenta Embryo proper develops from a single layer of cell, the epiblast, within the blastocyst. Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position and adhesion. The Cytoskeleton, cell motility and convergent extension Cytoskeletal rearrangements are responsible for changes in both the shape and position of cells. Both kinds of changes are involved in tissue invaginations. Roles of the extracellular matrix and cell adhesion molecules Fibers of the extracellular matrix provide anchorage for cells and also help guide migrating cells toward their destinations. Fibronectin and other glycoproteins located on cell surfaces are important for migration and for holding cells together in tissues Developmental fate of cells depend on their history and on inductive signals Fate mapping: experimentally derived fate maps of embryos have shown that specific regions of the zygote or blastula develop into specific parts of older embryos ! ! "#$%$&'!()*+,-./#.0!

Circulation and Gas Exchange

Circulatory systems reflect phylogeny Simple animals: body wall with only two cell thick that encloses a gastrovascular cavity which function in both digestion and the distribution of substances/nutrients throughout the body. Complex animals: have either open or closed circulatory systems. Invertebrate Circulation Gastrovascular cavities: fluid inside cavity is continuous with the water outside through a single opening. Digestion begins in the cavity and only the cells of the inner layer have direct access to nutrients! nutrients diffuse only a short distance to outer layer Open and Closed Circulatory Systems Three basic components o A circulatory fluid (blood) o Set of tubes (blood vessels) ! through which the blood moves through the body o Muscular pump (heart)! powers circulation by metabolic energy to elevate hydrostatic pressure of the blood which then flows down a pressure gradient through its circuit and back to the heart. " Blood pressure: motive force for fluid movement in the circulatory system Open Circulatory System: no distinction between blood and intestinal fluid This fluid is called hemolymph One or more hearts pump the hemolymph into a interconnected system of sinuses! spaces surrounding organs o Chemical exchange occurs between the hemolymph and body cells. Closed Circulatory System: blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid. One or more hearts pump blood into large vessels that branch into smaller ones. o Materials are exchanged by diffusion between the blood and the interstitial fluid. Survey of Vertebrate Circulation: Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system!cardiovascular system. o Consists of blood vessels and a two to four chambered heart. " Atria: chambers receiving blood returning to the heart " Ventricles: chambers that pump blood out of heart.

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! o Arteries: carry blood from the heart to capillaries, the sites of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid. " Branch into arterioles: small vessels that convey blood to capillaries: microscopic vessels with thin, porous walls. o Veins: return blood from capillaries towards the heart. Fish: have two main chambers: one ventricle and one atrium. o Blood pumped from the ventricle travels to the gills " Girl circulation: gills pick up oxygen and dispose carbon dioxide. " Systematic circulation: gill capillaries converge into vessel that carries oxygen rich blood throughout other parts of the body Amphibians: has a three-chambered heart: two atria, one ventricle. o Ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery that splits the ventricles output into the pulmocutaneous circuit and the systematic circuit. " Pulmocutanous circuit: exchange in has exchange organs. Pick up oxygen, and released carbon dioxide before returning to the hearts left atrium. " Systematic circuit: supplies all organs their returns oxygen poor blood to the right atrium via the veins. Reptiles (excluding birds): have double circulation with a pulmonary circuit (lungs) and a systematic circuit. Most have a three-chambered heart. Mammals and Birds: ventricle is divided into separate right and left chambers. o Left side: received and pumps only oxygen rich blood o Right side: received and pumps only oxygen poor blood. o Oxygen delivery is enhanced because there is no mixing of oxygen rich and poor blood.

Double circulation in mammals depends on the anatomy and pumping cycle of the heart 1. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. 2. In the lungs, the blood loads oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. 3. From the lungs, blood enters the heart at the left atrium and is pumped to the bodys tissues by the left ventricle in the aorta. 4.Blood returns to the heart via the right atrium. Cardiac cycle: the heart contracts and relaxes Contraction phase!systole Relaxation phase! diastole Maintaining the hearts Rhythmic Beat: some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, meaning they contract without any signal from the nervous system.

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! Sinoatrial node, or pacemakers ! sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract Impulses from the SA node travel to the atrioventricular (AV) node At the AV node. Impulses are delayed and then travel to the Purkinje fibers that make the ventricles contract. The left ventricle contracts an instant before the right ventricle.

Heart murmur: which may be detectable as a hissing sound when a stream of blood squirts backwards through a valve. Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)! electrical currents that are conducted through body fluid to the skin are measure by an EKG. Physical principles govern blood circulation: blood delivers nutrients and removes wastes throughout an animals body. Infrastructure: walls of both arteries and veins have three similar layers o Outside: a layer of connective tissue with elastic fibers allows the vessel to stretch and recoil o Middle: contains smooth muscle and more elastic fiber o Inside: lining the lumen, endothelium, a single layer of flattened cells that provides a smooth surface that minimizes resistance to the flow of blood. o Capillaries: lack the two outer layers and has a very thin layer. o Arteries: have thicker middle and outer layers than veins. Blood pressure ! the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel. Systolic pressure: pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole: it is the highest pressure in arteries Diastolic pressure: the pressure in arteries during diastole; lower than systolic pressure. Fluid return by the lymphatic system: the lost fluid and proteins return to the blood via the lymphatic system. Fluid reenters the circulation directly at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly through the lymphatic system. Blood is a connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma Invertebrates with open circulation: blood/hemolymph is not different from interstitial fluid Vertebrates blood is a specialized connective tissue o 45% of volume is made of several kinds of cells. o Blood plasma is 90% water. " Plasma solutes: inorganic salts sometimes called electrolytes " Plasma proteins: blood pH, osmotic pressure, viscosity, lipid transport, immunity, and blood clotting.

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Cellular Elements: Red blood cells (erythrocytes) ! transport oxygen. o Most numerous o Main function of oxygen transportation depends on rapid diffusion of oxygen across the plasma membrane o In humans: they are small disks that are biconcave! thinner in the center than at the edges. This provides a large collective surface area, " Hemoglobin: iron containing protein that transports oxygen White blood cells (leukocytes) ! function in defense. o Fight infections. Some are phagocytes: which engulf and digest bacteria. o Spend most of their time outside the circulatory system, patrolling through interstitial fluid and the lymphatic system. Platelets ! fragments of cells that are involved in the clotting process. o Have no nuclei and originate as pinched off cytoplasmic fragments of large cells in bone marrow. They then enter the blood and function in blood clotting. Blood clotting: sealant is always present in an inactive form, fibroses. A clot forms when this plasma protein is converted to its active form, fibrin, which aggregates into threads that form the framework of the clot. Hemophilia: a disease, which affects any step of the clotting process. Cardiovascular diseases: disorders of the heart and blood vessels. Hypertension: high blood pressure: increases risk of heart attack and stroke Heart attack: death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from prolonged blockage of one or more coronary arteries, the vessels that supply oxygen rich blood to the heart. Stroke: death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head. Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces Supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of carbon dioxide. Respiratory medium: source of oxygen! air for terrestrial animals and water for aquatic animals. Respiratory surface: part of an animals body where gases are exchanged with the surrounding environment. o Animals require large, moist respiratory surfaces for adequate diffusion of gases. " Gills: outfoldings of the body surface specialized for gas exchange. " Tracheal systems: found in insects " Lungs: found in spiders, land snails, and most terrestrial vertebrates.

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Breathing ventilates the lungs Breathing: the alternate inhalation and exhalation of air. Positive pressure breathing: amphibians. o Ventilates its lungs by forcing air down the trachea. o During a breathing cycle, muscles lower the floor of the oral cavity drawing in air through the nostrils. Then with the nostrils and mouth closed, the floor of the oral cavity rises, forcing air down the trachea. Elastic recoil of lungs and compression by muscles force air back our lungs during exhalation Negative Pressure breathing: mammals have negative pressure breathing. Works by suction pump, pulling air instead of pushing it into the lungs. o Ventilate the lungs by breathing which pulls air into the lungs. o Muscle action changes the volume of the rib cage and chest cavity. o Lung volume increases as a result of contraction of the rib muscles and the diaphragm. o Contraction of the rib muscles expands the rib cage pulling the ribs upwards.

Control of breathing in humans: main breathing control centers are in the medulla oblongata and the pons Medulla: regulates breathing in response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid Sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries monitor oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the blood and exert secondary control over breathing. Respiratory pigments bind and transport gases The role of partial pressure gradients: Partial pressure: diffusion of gas, whether present in air or dissolved in water Gases diffuse down pressure gradients in the lungs and other. A gas diffuses from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure. Respiratory pigments! proteins that transport oxygen Almost all vertebrates use hemoglobin Hemoglobin reversibly binds oxygen Binding of oxygen to one subunit induces the other subunits to bind oxygen with more affinity. A drop in pH lowers affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Carbon Dioxide Transport: Hemoglobin also helps transport carbon dioxide and assists in buffering Carbon from respiring cells diffuses into the blood plasma and then is ultimately released in the lungs.

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