Introduction to poet Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892), English poet often regarded as the chief representative of the Victorian age

in poetry. Tennyson succeeded Wordsworth as Poet Laureate in 1850. Alfred, Lord Tennyson was born on August 5, 1809 in Somersby, Lincolnshire.. Alfred began to write poetry at an early age in the style of Lord Byron. After spending four unhappy years in school he was tutored at home. Tennyson then studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he joined the literary club 'The Apostles' and met Arthur Hallam, who became his closest friend. Tennyson published Poems, Chiefly Lyrical, in 1830, which included the popular "Mariana".

About In Memoriam Tennyson wrote In Memoriam after he learned that his beloved friend Arthur Henry Hallam had died suddenly and unexpectedly of a fever at the age of 22. Hallam was not only the poets closest friend and confidante, but also the fiance of his sister. After learning of Hallams death, Tennyson was overwhelmed with doubts about the meaning of life and the significance of mans existence. He composed the short poems that comprise In Memoriam over the course of seventeen years (1833-1849) with no intention of weaving them together, though he ultimately published them as a single lengthy poem in 1850. T.S. Eliot called this poem the most unapproachable of all his [Tennysons] poems, and indeed, the sheer length of this work encumbers ones ability to read and study it. Moreover, the poem contains no single unifying theme, and its ideas do not unfold in any particular order. It is loosely organized around three Christmas sections (28, 78, and 104), each of which marks another year that the poet must endure after the loss of Hallam. The climax of the poem is generally considered to be Section 95, which is based on a mystical trance Tennyson had in which he communed with the dead spirit of Hallam late at night on the lawn at his home at Somersby. In Memoriam was intended as an elegy, or a poem in memory and praise of one who has died. As such, it contains all of the elements of a traditional pastoral elegy such as Miltons Lycidas, including ceremonial mourning for the dead, praise of his virtues, and consolation for his loss. Moreover, all statements by the speaker can be understood as personal statements by the poet himself. Like most elegies, the In Memoriam poem begins with expressions of sorrow and grief, followed by the poets recollection of a happy past spent with the individual he is now mourning. These fond recollections lead the poet to question the powers in the universe that could allow a good person to die, which gives way to more general reflections on the meaning of life. Eventually, the poets attitude shifts from grief to resignation. Finally, in the climax, he realizes that his friend is not lost forever but survives in another, higher form. The poem closes with a celebration of this transcendent survival. In Memoriam ends with a an epithalamion, or wedding poem, celebrating the marriage of Tennysons sister Cecilia to Edmund Lushington in 1842. The poet suggests that their marriage will lead to the birth of a child who will serve as a closer link between Tennysons generation and the crowning race. This birth also represents new life after the death of Hallam, and h ints at a greater, cosmic purpose, which Tennyson vaguely describes as One far -off divine event / To which the whole creation moves.

Not just an elegy and an epithalamion, the poem is also a deeply philosophical reflection on religion, science, and the promise of immortality. Tennyson was deeply troubled by the proliferation of scientific knowledge about the origins of life and human progress: while he was writing this poem, Sir Charles Lyell published his Principles of Geology, which undermined the biblical creation story, and Robert Chambers published his early evolutionary tract, Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. In In Memoriam, Tennyson insisted that we hold fast to our faith in a higher power in spite of our inability to prove Gods existence: Believing where we cannot prove. He reflects early evolutionary theories in his faith that man, through a process lasting millions of years, is developing into something greater. In the end, Tennyson replaces the doctrine of the immortality of the soul with the immortality of mankind through evolution, thereby achieving a synthesis between his profound religious faith and the new scientific ideas of his day. Poem 1: I held it truth with him Summary Tennyson considers his theoretical belief that grief and hardship are character-building, that time is the great healer and well see weve gained a great deal from our times of sorrow when we look back. In stanzas 3 and 4 he rejects that simplicity. This summary, of course, does nothing to describe the imaginative shifts and unexpected ways with which Tennyson carries out his argument. The poem is a model of economy and image-making. Lines 3 and 4 have a graphic, painful image. Tennyson held it true (before the death of his friend):That men may rise on steppingstones Of their dead selves to higher thingsStepping-stones/ of their dead selves. What an astonishing way to put it! And I love the end of the next stanza too, the hand reaching through time to grasp the benefit that present tears have granted. Tennyson cuts through the wisdom of the day, and time hasnt moved on much. Today people still console the bereaved by saying Time is a great healer. I have never heard anyone respond by quoting Stanza 2 of this poem, but it is worth committing to memory, just in case you ever need to use it (although probably easier in such circumstances just to nod grimly). The third stanza begins with an entirely unexpected thought, Let Love clasp Grief lest both be drown'd. Without such intensity of grief, love would mean nothing. They both belong together or else neither can be authentic. Again, Tennysons economy of phrase is striking so much in one line. Its simply enough expressed, but it doesnt deal with simplicities. Rather it leads into the idea that its better to be drunk with loss than merely overworn through time, better to beat the ground than submit to love being scorned by the hours. Dylan Thomas must have been listening when he came to write his villanelle... Great use of imagery, a shifting and surprising argument, economy of phrase, and a sense of emotional rawness conveyed with exquisite control: all those combine to make this poem a stand-out. Questions and answers

Major Themes Death The great poets commonly take up the subject of death in their works, but it is rare to see a great poet treat death in such a sustained and deeply personal way as Tennyson does. Many of his greatest works were written in the aftermath of the death of his closest friend, Arthur Henry Hallam. Ulysses is about the great hero searching for life in spite of old age and coming death, and Tithonus concerns the weariness of life on earth when all one wants to do is fade into the earth and no longer linger on. The Two Voices is a debate about whether or not to commit suicide. In Memoriam is the poets lengthy meditation on his profound grief and his desire to know what happens after death as well as his occasional musing that he wishes to die and join his friend. As In Memoriam proceeds, however, Tennyson appears to accept the reality of death in the natural cycle of life and to understand that he can still find pleasure on earth until his time comes. He looks forward to his reunion with Hallam and believes that his friends death occasioned his transcendence to a higher spiritual state. The acceptance of death is manifested in one of his last works, Crossing the Bar, in which he looks upon his passage from life to death as a meaningful and happy occasion. Nature Nature plays many roles in Tennysons poetry. Occasionally she is beguiling and sensuous, as in The Lotos-Eaters. In that poem the men sojourning on the isle are entranced by their natural surroundings and do not want to return to their normal lives. Nature is also an ever-present reminder of the cycle of life from birth to death; existing outside of that cycle can bring grief and separation from ones mortal humanity, for better or for worse. Occasionally Nature is a reminder of the vitality of life and existence; other times Nature is used as a metaphor for death (see Break, break, break for the former and Crossing the Bar for the latter). Finally, Nature can also be chaotic, hostile, and indifferent to Man. The casual way she discards species and wreaks havoc leads the poet to conclude that life might be meaningless. Grief Grief permeates Tennysons poetry and was a major feature of Tennysons emotional life. He endured the deaths of his parents, the ensuing mental illness and addictions of many of his family members and, as a kind of muse, the death of his close friend Arthur Henry Hallam. His poems are frank discussions of despair and the trouble of using words sufficient to express it, and he demonstrates the significance of writing poetry in the face of sorrow and loss. In some of the poems his grief is overwhelming, and he does not know if he wants to continue living. In others he finds ways to manage his grief, coming to accept that sorrow may always be a part of ones life, while acknowledging other things in life inspire happiness and hope. Artistic Isolation Tennyson struggled with the question of whether great art had to be produced in artistic isolation or if engagement with the world was acceptable and would not cloud artistic vision. In The Lady of Shalott he examines this question. Her island is a safe haven for artists, and she creates her magic web in contentment. However, she is not actually creating reality, since she only sees things reflected in the mirror, and she eventually tires of her estrangement from life and love. When she chooses to look out the window and leave her tower, thus breaking the rule

in the curse, she chooses to embrace a full and passionate life. However, this life is actually death, and her art is destroyed as well. The poem suggests that the end of artistic isolation brings a loss of creativity and artistic power. Spirituality Tennyson adhered to a Christian faith that can most vividly be seen in In Memoriam, but he was not wary of expressing his difficulties with that faith and religious belief, particularly in the wake of the death of Hallam. He engages with the scientific findings of the Victorian era, wondering whether Nature is truly indifferent to Man and whether death only brings obliteration of the soul. He finds it difficult to be optimistic and positive that he will be reunited with Hallam after death and that there is any purpose in living. The poets lapses in faith, however, are reconciled by the end of the poem. He moves from doubt to acceptance, certain once more that the spirit is not gone after death but lives on and progresses to a higher state. He believes that God does have a plan for human beings and that ones presence on earth is not accidental or unheeded. Time Many of Tennysons works reflect his working through the implications of time. Growing old and lingering on are laborious and enervating in poems like Tithonus and The Two Voices, while in Ulysses the title character wants to keep adventuring as long as he can. Life on earth can be very sad because one is separated from loved ones who have died and because knowledge is limited. Time is also complicated by the tensions between science and religion; science reveals that time stretches on for a very long time, and religion asserts but does not prove what happens after death. Generally the poets reflection is that life is fleeting and short, wasted if one dwells merely in sadness or in hope, and worth savoring while it lasts. Courage Many of Tennysons greatest poems feature individuals displaying great courage, especially under duress. Courage is a universally admired virtue, but during the Victorian age and for the British in particular, it was extremely important. The Charge of the Light Brigade features the noble six hundred soldiers who rush into a battle even though they know they will probably perish; their courage and willingness to follow orders are exemplary. Similarly, Tennyson creates a highly sympathetic character in Princess Ida from The Princess: A Medley. She is firmly committed to her vision and does not yield to those who wish to dissuade her from her noble goal of securing gender equality. In Morte dArthur, one of the most heroic men in legendary history, King Arthur, is depicted demonstrating his courage not in the heat of battle but in his willingness to face death; much like Ulysses. Courage is perhaps the greatest Tennysonian virtue. What role does memory play in "In Memoriam"? Tennyson is beset by his memories of Hallam. They arise to his mind unrelated to any particular place, and they are summoned by encountering locations where the two spent time together. In particular, Tennyson associates Hallam with the Tennyson home at Somersby and is grieved when he moves away, because it seems like the grief is fresh again. He visits Hallam's old home and visits Cambridge where they attended school, noting that a new student's name is on the door.

Memories of Hallam change as "In Memoriam" proceeds. His memory is at first overwhelming to Tennyson, who cannot fathom how he is to go on living. As the years tick on, however, the memory of Hallam does not sting so much. At one point the poet begins to forget what his friend's face looks like. The memories and the sorrow they bring become manageable over time, and Tennyson finds it possible to never forget Hallam even while he lives out his own life.

Considering the many poems that apparently deal with the death of Arthur Henry Hallam, how does Tennyson resolve or attempt to resolve his grief? Many of Tennyson's most critically lauded and beloved poems were written to deal with his grief over the death of his friend. Although one might not notice the autobiographical influence on each poem, "Tithonus" and "Ulysses" are important examples along with "The Two Voices," In Memoriam, and "Break, break, break." In these poems Tennyson expresses a variety of emotions reflecting grief and his experience of loss: he is depressed, confused, resentful, and disillusioned. He contemplates suicide and ponders the deep questions of the meaning of life and what happens to the soul after death. He deeply questions his religious faith. Yet, by the time he finished In Memoriam, he had come to terms with his grief and found a way to find pleasure in life, a way to live with his sorrow. He particularly took comfort in his belief thats Hallam's soul had achieved a state of transcendence and that his own grief had been instructive to him. He regained anchors for his religious faith and took comfort in his belief that God has a plan for all souls. Importantly, Tennyson knew he could never forget Hallam or be truly healed of his grief, but that it was possible to live his own sublunary life and find meaning within it. What are the salient features of writings of the Victorian Age?

Isolation - An intense preoccupation of the major poets and writers is with this problematic condition of man. Situations of betrayal, alienation, separation from life and love appear in the writings of Tennyson's poetry early and late, and in Browning's throughout his career. Charles Dickens certainly was concerned with this theme as evidenced in such novels as "Oliver Twist" and "Great Expectations." Thomas Hardy's poignant narrative, "Tess of the D'Ubervilles" explores the devastating effects of human alienation and isolation.

A moral purpose - Many works pointed to the repression of women, the corruption of those in authority, and the plight of the poor. Also, there was literature for children, written with a strong moralistic tone (e.g. Kipling's "Jungle Book," and Lewis Carroll's "Alice in Wonderland") Idealism - Truth, love, justice are often themes in this literature. In Dickens's "Oliver Twist" for example, the brutal killer and burglar, Bill Sikes, and heinous Fagin receive their just rewards by being hanged. Love triumphs in "Great Expectations." Hardy's "Tess" actually shocked contemporary readers with its honesty. A realistic adherence to daily life - Many of the works present the life of the lower classes, their miserable plight and lack of social mobility. As a result, Victorian literature became an instrument for social progress.

A mixture of Romanticism with the Gothic - novels by the Bronte sisters mix the romantic with the supernatural and also examine class and gender Colonialism and Imperalism - These elements are most evident in the writings of Joseph Conrad and Rudyard Kipling whose novel "Kim" is set in India, exposing the insular society of England to the exotic land while yet presenting the reality of colonialism. Two poets who used an abundance of nature imagery in the Victorian period were Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Matthew Arnold. In Tennyson's In Memoriam, he utilizes many different aspects of nature as metaphors to describe his emotions after the death of a close friend. Discuss Tennysons treatment of nature in the in memoriam

In the beginning of Tennyson's poem, he describes an old yew tree. The tree, to him, is dead and at this early point of his grief he cannot find any life in the nature surrounding him. The old yew "which grapsest at the stones/ That name the underlying dead,/ Thy fibers net the dreamless head,/ Thy roots are wrapped about the bones" (2.1-4). Therefore he sees the tree as an extension of the graves it grew on. The roots are entangled around the dead bones and are as dead as the skull of the person, unable to dream ever again. The world around the tree and grave will begin again to bloom, but Tennyson feels the tree will not change and keep its gloomy appearance throughout the year. He is "sick for thy stubborn hardihood" (2.14) and seems to wish to be like the tree. For if he were also dead, he would not have to feel the pain he is experiencing. He likens his poetry to nature also. He uses "words, like weeds..." (5.9) to envelope himself from the pain. His poem is "this poor flower of poesy" (8.18) but he writes it anyway since it once pleased his dead friend. "I go to plant it on his tomb./ That if it can it there may bloom,/ Or dying, there at least may die" (8.22-24). At this point he is considering the possibility of life continuing, at least through his poetry. Yet he does not seem to care about this possibility strongly. If there is no life within his poetry, then he feels its proper place is dead with his friend. Further into the poem, the immediate frenzy of grief has subsided, and he reflects upon his grief more calmly. "Calm is the morn without a sound,/ Calm as to suit a calmer grief, And only through the faded leaf/ The chestnut pattering to the ground" (11.1-4). His natural surroundings are quiet, which he feels are suited to this stage in his grief. It is fall and the leaves are falling off the tree along with the chestnuts. Still there is imagery of death and dying. It is quiet but the world to him is dying. A particular moving part of the poem is when he describes a dam. The dam slows down and "hushes half the babbling Wye" (19.6) and he feels his grief is stopped up also. He still feels deep grief, but he controls himself at most times. The tide makes the water flow again and floods the surrounding area with noise. Like the flood of water is the flood of his tears where his deepest anguish bursts out of control and he cannot contain his feelings. In contrast to his earlier feeling of wanting to be like the inanimate and unfeeling as the old yew tree, Tennyson pities animals that cannot feel. "I envy not the beast that takes...To whom a conscience never wakes" (27.5-9).

He makes remarkable progress in his healing. It is as if he is coming to terms with what happened. "'Tis better to have loved and lost/ Than never to have loved at all" (14-15). In the mists of heavy grief this is certainly a difficult thing to say. Some time has gone by and Tennyson reconsiders the yew tree. He finds when he taps at it, pollen spurts out. "these buried bones...With fruitful cloud and living smoke..." (39.1-3). So he discovers the life within the tree that he did not believe existed back in the fall at the beginning of his bereavement. Throughout his exploration of his friends death, Tennyson questions the existence of God. "What then were God to such as I" (34.9)? Through his observation of nature he seems to accept the existence of God. "That nothing walks with aimless feet;/ That not one life shall be destroyed...That not a worm is cloven in vain;/ That not a moth with vain desire..." (54.5-10). He views even the smallest creatures with having a purpose. Therefore his friends life held purpose and his death was not in vain. He still struggles with God and nature though. He wonders "Are God and Nature then at strife..." (55.5). He sees nature as destructive, bringing to fruit just one seed out of fifty. He wonders how God and nature co-exist. Nature does not care specifically for life. She brings life and death, as for the spirit--that is for God. So he gropes "To what I feel is Lord of all,/ and faintly trust the larger hope" (55.18-19). At this point he has mixed emotions. He sees the re-birth and hope for life in nature but he also sees the destructiveness of nature. After the one year anniversary of Hallam's death, Tennyson looks forward to spring. "O sweet new-year delaying long;/ Thou doest expectant nature wrong...Can troubles live with April days,/ Or sadness in the summer moons" (83.2-8)? So he is looking forward to having the earth re-awaken and come alive. He feels the energy and life of spring will help him with his sadness. Being surrounded by such activity makes it hard for one to be depressed. Not only is the earth being reborn but his spirit is also. He seems to come to a reconciliation with God, nature and his soul when he says:like a child in doubt and fear...But crying, knows his father near: And what I am beheld again What is, and no man understands; And out of darkness came the hands That reach through nature, molding men. (124.16-24) He sees his grief as causing him to doubt God, but all along he knew that God was there. Tennyson realizes that God cannot be completely understandable to man. He also sees nature as a force of God, something that God uses to make men. God through nature helps men understand themselves, their life and death. Matthew Arnold makes use of water and the ocean as a metaphor for his feelings in To Marguerite--Continued and Dover Beach. In Marguerite, Arnold see people as small islands surrounded by "echoing straits...Dotting the shoreless watery wild" (2-3). Humans feel the water and understand the amount of distance separating them from others. Nightingales sing, flying from person to person, like hope. "For surely once, they feel, we were/ Parts of a single continent" (13-14)! Arnold is expressing his thoughts about him and his girlfriend separating but he also is speaking about mankind in general. He hopes for a re-connection of humans even through the "unplumbed, salt, estranging sea" (23). Perhaps he sees a lack of spirituality missing in people that causes this estrangement. In Dover Beach he seems to carry this idea over. He begins off calm and soothing. "The sea is calm tonight. The tide is full, the moon lies fair.." (1-2). Quickly though the ocean becomes noisy. "With tremulous cadence slow, and bring/ The eternal note of sadness in" (13-14). He feels this

sadness has been with humans for a long time, imaging Sophocles heard it in the ocean also. Arnold see humans lacking in spirituality though "The sea of Faith/ Was once, too, at the full..." (21-22). The ocean affects his thoughts on this lack of faith and he gets into a melancholy mood. He views a rebirth of spirituality as land within the ocean of despair. "Ah, love, let us be true...To lie before us like a land of dreams..." (28-30). He sees humans as confused and in need of spiritual help. His poem ends on a note of melancholy and he does not seem to have faith that a spiritual revival will happen. These two poets successfully use nature as a metaphor for human feelings. Tennyson seems exceptionally strong on this, especially in his ability to use a variety of forms of nature to achieve his point. Matthew Arnold in particular feels a relationship with water as he uses that image the most in his poems. Both poets demonstrate that man and nature are bound together on earth. It affects us in every way. When the sun glows, the human heart does also. Everyone is aware of how nature affects people, such as in "spring fever". Tennyson seems to be the poet who has achieved the most reconciliation with nature imagery and his poetry. In contrast to Tennyson, Arnold could have brought more images to his poetry. Nevertheless, both have used nature well to reflect the human condition.

I sometimes hold it half a sin summary The poet believes that sometimes it is pointless to use mere words to express grief, because they can only half reveal the Soul. However, for a tortured heart words are a mechanical exercise that can numb the dull pain. He will wrap himself in words although they can only suggest the outline of his grief. Within it, Tennyson discusses the limitations of language in expressing grief, and the advantages of delineating grief, albeit with necessarily limited success, through language. The three stanzas exhibit a thought process which progresses from the first stanza in which Tennyson feels languages deficiencies instinctively and feels that its half a sin (1) to mangle grief in an attempt to share it, to the second stanza in which he recognizes that the exercise of transferring grief to language actually numbs his pain, and finally in the last stanza, in which he resigns himself to language despite its essential limitations. Tennysons ability to record his conflicting emotions and the eventual acceptance of his final conclusion is noteworthy and due in large part to his careful selection of language. In the first stanza, words including Soul, Nature, and sin bring the sublime aspect of mans grief to mind, and further reinforce the limitations of language in light of the transcendent nature of the subject at hand. In the second stanza, the corporeal aspect of grief is stressed with mentions of heart and brain, mechanic exercise, and narcotics, reinforcing the physical ache of emotional pain, which can be eased through language. The final stanza exhibits the essential conflict between the limitations of human language and its impact on the grief of the body versus that of the soul, by discussing both the mortal aspect of grief with the mention of weeds, which are a totally external bodily emblem of grief, and addressing the spiritual side of

man with the phrase, the large grief, which is the true internal emotion which can not be adequately conveyed through language. Tennyson presents the possibility of language easing the more mortal aspect of grief, but the impossibility of it addressing the more intense grief of the soul. The rhyme scheme of the poem also reinforces the duality and the internal conflict of the poem. Each stanza is arranged with an a-b-b-a rhyme scheme in order to spatially reinforce the stress between the internal and external aspects of the speakers grief. The first and final lines of each stanza form one rhyming unit, representing the external, and the second and third lines, representing the internal, form a separate unit. In addition, to compound the issue, the stanzas are divided otherwise in term of meaning, and the first and second lines form one couplet, while the third and fourth form a second, divided from the first by a semi-colon. Perhaps these conflicting divisions are intended to convey that both aspects of grief comprise a single complex individual, and therefore, a single solution to grief, language, is insufficient.