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Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
m
3-axis gyroscope measurement
Indices
x x axis
y y axis
z z axis
Acronyms and Abbreviations
ETH Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule
MEMS Micro Electro-Mechanical System
GPS Global Positioning System
IMU Inertial Measurement Unit
PSD Power Spectral Density
ARW Angle Random Walk
LQE Linear Quadratic Estimation
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
v
Chapter 1
Introduction
Inertial navigation is a technique in which the position and orientation of an object is
determined through the data given by accelerometers and gyroscopes. The results
obtained are therefore calculated only from the initial position, orientation and
movement of the object itself, and not compared to an external frame of reference,
as it is the case for other navigation systems such as GPS or radars.
The rst inertial navigation systems were developed for the rst long-range rockets
in World War II, since no external reference could be used to determine the position
of those objects in ight. However, the development of inertial navigation mostly
took place during the cold war through the american and the soviet space programs,
and the rst space missions were only possible due to groundbreaking progress in
inertial sensor technology. Inertial sensors are today used in a wide range of objects,
from airplanes or the automotive industry to smartphones or running shoes.
Most of todays inertial sensors are micro electromechanical systems (MEMS). This
technology was rst used for commercial purposes in the 1990s, and enabled new
applications through high miniaturization and cost reduction. Inertial sensors began
to be used in completely new domains, such as toys. However, this miniaturization
and cost reduction inuences the performance of the accelerometers and gyroscopes,
which explains why some inertial sensors based on previous technologies are still
used for high-performance purposes.
In the following report, the physical working principles of recent MEMS inertial
sensors will be explained, and their performance studied. The aim of this studies on
mechatronics report is to have a better understanding of these widely used sensors
and of their applications.
1
Chapter 1. Introduction 2
Chapter 2
Working principles
In the following, dierent types of MEMS inertial sensors and the physical properties
they rely on are described.
2.1 MEMS accelerometers
2.1.1 Principle of a displacement-based MEMS accelerome-
ter
Most MEMS accelerometers are based on the measurement of the displacement of
a proof mass as a result of a change in acceleration. The proof mass is xed to
the sensor platform by a mechanical spring-damping system, which usually consists
of small beams [1] . The acceleration of the proof mass can be calculated using
Newtons second law F = m x and is equal to the acceleration of the object plus
a relative part. This relative part is the result of a change in acceleration of the
object. For a single direction and without any rotation of the object, we get :
m(a(t) + x
r
(t)) = d x
r
(t) kx
r
(t) (2.1)
where x
r
is the displacement of the proof mass with a known mass m relatively
to the object, i.e. if the object is taken as frame of reference, a the unknown
acceleration of the object in a desired frame of reference (e.g. the earth), k the
spring constant and d the damping constant of the mechanical system.
Figure 2.1: Mechanical model of a displacement-based accelerometer
For the measurements, the system is assumed to be in a steady-state, which means
that the displacement is constant, i.e. x
r
= x
r
= 0. This leads to the following
linear relationship between the desired acceleration and the displacement of the
proof mass :
3
Chapter 2. Working principles 4
a(t) =
k
m
x
r
(t) (2.2)
In many applications, the acceleration is the only desired parameter. However, for
navigation purposes, the position and velocity can also be determined through inte-
gration when knowing the initial velocity and position
1
. In almost all sensors, the
proof mass is only able to move in one direction, which means three dierent lin-
ear accelerometers have to be combined to measure a three-dimensional movement.
There are several ways of measuring the displacement of the proof mass. How-
ever, the most current ones are capacitors, piezoelectric crystals and piezoresistive
materials.
2.1.2 Capacitive-based displacement accelerometers
Capacitive-based accelerometers are using the fact that the capacitance of a given
plate capacitor is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates [2,
p. 182.] :
C
plate
(d) =
0
r
A
d
(2.3)
If this distance changes due to a movement of the proof mass, the capacitance
changes and the change in the electrical potential between the electrodes can be
measured. In order to augment the sensors sensitivity and to reduce the noise,
many capacitors can be combined linearly to create the output signal. Both in-plane
accelerometers, in which the proof mass moves in the plane of the device and out-
of-plane accelerometers, in which the proof mass can rotate perpendicularly to the
plane of the device on which the electrodes are put on, can use this physical property.
An example of in-plane and out-of-plane capacitive-based MEMS accelerometers is
shown in Fig. 2.1.2 .
1
given a constant orientation of the sensor, i.e. for a stable-platform IMU. In the case of
strap-down IMUs, the orientation of the object is also needed, since the direction of the measured
acceleration can vary in time. For more information, please refer to section 2.3.2.
5 2.1. MEMS accelerometers
Inertial Navigation Sensors
2 - 12 RTO-EN-SET-116(2011)
!"##$ %&''
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(a) In-Plane Accelerometer (b) In-Plane Accelerometer Schematic
Figure 9: MEMS Lateral Accelerometer.
The most well-known oI the commercial-grade in-plane accelerometers are probably the Analog Devices
ADXL150 and ADXL250. The latter measures lateral accelerations in two axes with a noise Iloor oI 1mg/Hz
and accuracy around 10-50 mg.
Displacement accelerometers can be operated open or closed loop. Colibrys |ReI. 39| has reported high
accuracy Ior the RS9000 series accelerometers operating open loop in the out-oI-plane and lateral
conIigurations. Both devices are all-silicon construction, with the out-oI-plane device having a cantilevered
prooI mass sandwiched between upper and lower electrodes. PerIormance quoted is ~120 g in-run bias
stability, 1-mg turn-on repeatability, 400-ppm scale-Iactor accuracy, and rectiIication oI 65 g/g
2
. A
temperature sensor and digital Application-SpeciIic Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is integrated with the sensor
package to Iurnish on-board 4
th
-order temperature compensation. Colibrys has also shown |ReI. 40| that a
sigma-delta 5
th
-order regulation loop leads to a dramatic linearity improvement and consequently greatly
reduced Vibration RectiIication Error (VRE).
A technology under development (by Hughes Research Laboratory, StanIord University, and others) that
oIIers a very high sensitivity readout Ior a z-axis displacement accelerometer is the tunneling accelerometer.
Figure 10(a) shows a schematic oI a tunneling accelerometer. The control electrode electrostatically deIlects
the cantilever into the tunneling position (1 m and ~20 V). A servo mechanism holds constant the gap
between the tunneling tip (Figure 10(b)) and the cantilever, and hence holds constant the tunneling current (~1
nA). The output signal is the change in voltage at the electrode under acceleration. These devices are designed
to resolve accelerations in the nano-g range and require low-resonant Irequency prooI masses and sub-
angstrom resolution readouts. Recent microIabricated tunneling accelerometers have resolved 20 ng/Hz over
5 Hz to 1.5 kHz |ReI. 41| with a closed-loop dynamic range oI over 90 dB. However, maximum acceleration
measurement capability is very low (~1 mg) without Iurther loop modiIication. A tunneling accelerometer in
China |ReI. 42| has exhibited good low Irequency resolution oI 15 ng/Hz over 1 to 100 Hz.
Inertial Navigation Sensors
RTO-EN-SET-116(2011) 2 - 11
2.4.1.1 Displacement-Based MEMS Accelerometers
Figure 8 shows a typical out-of-plane (z-axis) MEMS displacement accelerometer, in which a hinged
pendulous prooI mass, suspended by torsional spring Ilexures over a glass substrate, rotates under acceleration
perpendicular to the plane oI the device. Motion is detected via change in the capacitance gap using electrodes
on an insulator substrate. Under a 1-g acceleration, the change in angle oI the prooI mass is typically around
70 rad; i.e., a 3 x 10
-8
m change in sense gap, which results in a 12-IF (10
-15
) peak change in capacitance. For
a dynamic range oI 15 g to 100 -g, it is necessary to resolve motion oI 3 x 10
-12
m, or about 22.5 electrons
charge change on the prooI mass per carrier cycle.
Figure 8: MEMS Pendulous Accelerometer.
A well-known example oI this type oI accelerometer is Northrop Grumman`s SiAc, oI which over 20,000
have been produced. Two versions have been developed (tactical grade and inertial grade) and have wide
usage, such as AMRAAM, GMLRS, and Commanche helicopter. Other examples are Honeywell, Colibrys
(Switzerland), Applied MEMS Inc., Silicon Designs, Sherborne Sensors (UK), Bosch (Germany), and
numerous others.
Figure 9 shows a typical in-plane (lateral) displacement accelerometer in which prooI mass displacement is
measured by the change in capacitance across the comb Iingers. This accelerometer is much more sensitive to
accelerations in the leIt-to-right (rather than top-to-bottom) direction. The combination oI z-axis and lateral
accelerometers results in optimized system volume, since three axes oI acceleration measurement can be
achieved Irom three planar chips.
Figure 2.2: Typical structure of in-plane (left) and out-of-plane (right) capacitive-
based MEMS accelerometers. On the left, the measured acceleration is parallel to
the plane of the device, whereas on the right, it is perpendicular to it (from [3]).
Figure 2.3: Functioning principle of in-plane (left) and out-of-plane (right)
capacitive-based MEMS accelerometers, from [4].
2.1.3 Piezoelectric and piezoresistive-based displacement ac-
celerometers
A piezoelectric material is a crystal which generates a voltage when mechanical
stress is applied to it. On the opposite, applying an electric eld on the crystal
generates a deformation. This eect is due to the physical disposition of the atoms
in piezoelectric crystals, in which a deformation of the crystal separates the electric
charges from one another. Commonly used piezoelectric materials are quartz and
PZT (lead zirconate titanate, a ceramic perovskite crystal). For a perfectly uniform
piezoelectric crystal and a given direction of the force applied to the crystal, the
charge dierence and hence the output voltage is linear to this force.
Q
i
=
d
ij
F
j
(2.4)
In the case of an accelerometer, the applied force is the result of the acceleration
of the object applied on the proof mass of the sensor, and is given directly using
Newtons second law. The sensitivity of the sensor is therefore given by the piezo-
electric coecients which are dierent for each material and each direction. This
is why having a uniform crystal with as little impurities as possible is essential for
the range and accuracy of the accelerometer. Many dierent dispositions of the
piezoelectric crystal and the proof mass are possible depending on the application
domain of the given accelerometer.
Piezoresistive materials are similar to piezoelectric materials, except that a change
in mechanical stress F results in a change of the materials resistivity. The resulting
resistivity is also linear with the applied force for a given direction and material,
and can be determined by measuring the electric voltage U for a constant electric
current I and using Ohms Law :
Chapter 2. Working principles 6
U = R(F) I (2.5)
Piezoelectric and piezoresistive-based accelerometers usually have a higher robust-
ness and range than capacitive-based accelerometers but are less precise and are
therefore often used in high-shock applications.
2.1.4 Resonance-based MEMS accelerometers
Many mechanical systems such as pendulums, or basically any system mounted
on springs, have a periodical movement. The amplitude of this movement is maxi-
mized for certain excitation frequencies, called resonance frequencies. An interesting
property around the resonance frequency is that a small variation in the excitation
frequency results in a high change in amplitude, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
29.11.2012
22
micro- and nanosystems
p. 56
Hierold, Najafi
29.11.2012 Microsystems TechnoIogy 151-0621-00
Up to now: small vibration amplitudes w
max
h
Now:
Clamped-clamped beam is periodically stretched during
vibration resulting in an amplitude-dependent periodic tensile
stress; therefore, the resonance frequency increases with
w
max
(hard spring effect)
Non-linearity is described by additional term in DE
Large-AmpIitude Effects
!
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&
" # $
&
%
%
%
%
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!
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=
c
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c
c
|
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.
|
\
|
c
|
.
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\
|
c
c
+
c
c
}
t
t x w
F
x
t x w
x
x
t x w
L
F E
N
x
t x w
I E
L
1
is the resonance frequency, the excitation frequency (from [4]).
This physical property can be of great use for sensors : by exciting a mechanical
structure at its resonant frequency through an actuator, a small change in the
frequency, for example due to an additional force on the structure, results in a
great change in amplitude of the vibrating structure. If this amplitude change can
be measured accurately, a sensor with high sensitivity can be obtained.
Likewise to displacement-based accelerometers, the change of frequency can be mea-
sured capacitively or with the use of a piezoelectric crystal. The actuator, which
enables the proof-mass to vibrate, usually uses the same physical property than
the sensor used to measure this change of frequency, e.g. a piezoelectric crystal or
a capacitor powered by alternative current with a certain frequency. Resonance-
based accelerometers usually are more precise, but more cost-eective than simple
displacement-based accelerometers due to the additional presence of an actuator.
2.2 MEMS gyroscopes
2.2.1 Principle of a gyroscope
Mechanical gyroscopes are based on the Coriolis eect, which is a phenomenon
observed when an object is moving with a certain velocity in a rotating frame of
reference. To an observer in this frame of reference, the object seems to change its
7 2.2. MEMS gyroscopes
trajectory. The apparent force on the object is called Coriolis force, and is propor-
tional to the rotation speed of the frame of reference. Its direction is perpendicular
to the rotation direction of the reference frame and to the velocity of the moving
object.
F
Coriolis
= 2m
object
(
v
) (2.6)
By measuring the eect of this force on a proof mass which is moving at a known
velocity, the rotational speed of the frame of reference, i.e. the one of the object
the sensor is placed on, can be determined.
2.2.2 Tuning forks or resonant beam MEMS gyroscopes
Since the proof mass has to be in constant motion for the Coriolis eect to appear,
MEMS gyroscopes are mostly based on resonant structures. Those structures have
to be put in motion using an actuator, which can be for instance a piezoelectric
crystal put under a varying electric tension or two electrodes which are alternatively
switched on and o. Usually, the physical principle used for the actuator is the same
as the one used to measure a change in frequency of the proof-mass.
A quite simple example of a resonant structure used for MEMS gyroscopes is what
is called a tuning fork, which is lately nothing more than the combination of two
beams of same length and material on a common shaft, which is excited at their
resonance frequency, resulting in a type of balanced oscillator where the two beams
oscillate 180
Fs
micro- and nanosystems
p. 115
Hierold, Najafi
29.11.2012 Microsystems TechnoIogy 151-0621-00
Bosch Gyroscope-Second Type
RotationaI gyroscope
(Bosch)
Figure 2.8: Boschs DRS-MM2 con-
sists of an in-plane vibrating disk.
It detects a change in orientation
in a perpendicular direction capaci-
tively through electrodes placed on
the plane of the device.
There are several other structures possible, such as single vibrating beams or vi-
brating disks which have dierent properties due to their mass distribution and the
way the change of frequency is measured. However, the working principle is the
same, which is why it wont be described in detail here
2
.
2
for more details on e.g. the principle of a resonant ring gyro, please refer to [1, p. 202]
9 2.3. Inertial measurement units
2.3 Inertial measurement units
2.3.1 Denition and purpose of an IMU
An inertial measurement unit (IMU) is a combination of dierent inertial sen-
sors,usually three linear accelerometers and three gyroscopes, which provides a 3
dimensional measure of the systems orientation and motion. Such units are used
for inertial navigation purposes, e.g. in rockets or satellites, to determine the posi-
tion of an object. They are sometimes combined with positioning systems (GPS)
to have more precise information.
IMUs based on MEMS sensors are strap-down systems, which means the sensors
orientation depends of the orientation of the object it is on. Theoretically, all types
of previously shown MEMS inertial sensors can be combined in an IMU. However,
to win space, most MEMS IMUs designs combine two in-plane accelerometers and
gyroscopes (x- and y-axis) with an out-of-plane accelerometer and gyroscope (z-
axis), which permits to place all sensors on a single chip.
2.3.2 Algorithms
As opposed to stable platform inertial navigation systems, in strap-down inertial
navigation technology, the output signal of the gyroscope, i.e. the orientation of the
object, has to be implemented into the accelerometer algorithm since the direction
of the acceleration must be updated if the object changes its orientation [1]. Both
algorithms can be seen in Fig. 2.9 and 2.10.
Figure 2: A stable platform IMU.
Figure 3: Stable platform inertial navigation algorithm.
Figure 4: Strapdown inertial navigation algorithm.
6
Figure 2.9: Model of stable platform inertial navigation algorithm, from [5].
Figure 2: A stable platform IMU.
Figure 3: Stable platform inertial navigation algorithm.
Figure 4: Strapdown inertial navigation algorithm.
6
Figure 2.10: Model of strap-down inertial navigation algorithm, from [5].
Chapter 2. Working principles 10
The implementation of the gyroscopes output signal into the algorithm results in
adding the gyroscope error to the one of the accelerometer. This specic problem of
strap-down inertial systems may decrease the accuracy of the inertial measurement
unit signicantly compared to a similar stable platform system, since the largest
errors in MEMS inertial technology are usually originated by the gyroscope, as
shown in section 3.2.3.
Chapter 3
Performance and applications
3.1 MEMS inertial sensors error characteristics
The total bias of a sensor is usually dened as the average output signal that has
no correlation with the input signal, i. e. the acceleration or rotation, for specic
operation conditions and a specic time [6]. It is generally expressed in degree
per hour (deg/h) for a gyroscope and in meter per second square (m/s
2
) or g
(1g 9.80665m/s
2
) for an accelerometer. Additionally to the bias comes noise,
which can change the output value and add an additional error to the sensor.
3.1.1 Bias oset and drift
The bias oset of a sensor is dened as the value of the output signal when the
input signal is zero. For an accelerometer, it would therefore be the acceleration
given by the sensor when it is not actually moving; for a gyroscope, the angular
rotation given when the sensor is not undergoing any rotation.
Basically, a change in any physical property such as pressure, temperature or height
can induce such a bias. Nevertheless, for MEMS inertial sensors, temperature vari-
ation, wether it is due to the environment or to the heating of the sensor itself, is
the main cause of bias. Because of the many physical properties depending on the
temperature, the bias caused by temperature uctuation is almost always nonlinear
to the temperature change itself, which means it is dicult to correct. However,
many IMUs
1
contain temperature sensors which are used to correct those bias
directly [5].
The problem of inertial sensors is that the input signals are time integrated, as
can be seen in Figure 2.10 : a constant bias of therefore causes an error which
grows linearly with time for a gyroscope, i.e.
f
(t) = t and quadratically for an ac-
celerometer, i.e. x
f
(t) =
1
2
t
2
[5] . This means for a 100g bias in an accelerometer,
the error in position results in 0.05m after 10 seconds and 500 m after 1000 seconds
2
. The bias of a gyroscope creates an even more important position error, since
it creates second order errors in velocity and third order errors in position when
combined with the accelerometer. This means that for e.g. a 0.2deg/h gyroscope
bias, the nal error in position is 0.0016m after 10 seconds, and grows to 1600m
after 1000 seconds [6] . The error due to the accumulation of small bias over time
is called bias drift.
1
e.g. the Xsens Mti or the ADIS 16488 from Analog Devices (see table 3.4).
2
calculation for 1000s : x
f
(1000) = 1/2 100 10 10
6
1000
2
= 0.05m where g = 10m/s
2
is
assumed
11
Chapter 3. Performance and applications 12
3.1.2 Noise
Noise is an additional signal that interferes with the output signal of the sensor.
It may come from other sensors or from the sensor itself, but it is present in any
sensor and dicult to characterize. Since it is not systematic, noise can not be
removed from the data directly and a stochastic modeling of the noise is necessary
beforehand. Integrating a white noise with a constant standard deviation
0
one
time, i.e. as it is the case for the output of the gyroscope or for the velocity, gives
a zero-mean random walk with a standard deviation that grows proportionally to
the square root of time, and integrating it twice, as it is the case for the position
error resulting of the accelerometer noise, gives a second-order zero-mean random
walk with a standard deviation linear to t
3/2
[5] .
Fig. 3.1 shows a measurement made on 1000 identical gyroscopes by the company
crossbow for the same noisy signal. Those sensors have an angle random walk
(ARW)
3
of 0.99 deg/
K()e
j
d (3.1)
3
the angle random walk is a currently given value for gyroscopes It is simply dened as the
standard deviation of the gyroscope output for a white noise input, i.e. a rst order random walk
after 1 second and corresponds to the proportionality factor between this standard deviation and
the square root of time
13 3.1. MEMS inertial sensors error characteristics
A useful property of the PSD is that for a white noise input, the output power
spectral density can give directly the transfer function of the system. The PSD of
a random process usually gives linear log-log slopes corresponding to the powers of
frequencies. This means the dierent random processes such as noise or bias drift
are represented through straight lines, wich have dierent slopes [6] [8].
66
expressions of noise are shown together with Allan variance expressions in Chapter Four.
The typical characteristic slopes are shown in Figure (3.9), where the actual units and
frequency range are hypothetical. With real data, gradual transitions would exist between
the different PSD slopes (IEEE Std1293-1998), rather than the sharp transitions in Figure
(3.9); and the slopes might be different than 2, -1, 0, and +2 values in Figure (3.9). A
certain amount of noise or hash would exist in the plot curve due to the uncertainty of the
measured PSD.
Figure 3.9 Hypothetical Gyro in Single-sided PSD Form (after IEEE Std952-1997)
3.4.2.3 TEST RESULTS
The same data sets used in section 3.3.2 are used here for power spectral density analysis.
Applying the PSD method described previously, the PSD result on log-log plot is shown
in Figure (3.10) for CIMU X-axis gyro data. Because of the bunching of the high
frequency data points in the log-log plot, it is difficult to identify noise terms and obtain
parameters in such conditions. Hence, the frequency averaging technique (IEEE Std
Figure 3.2: Slopes and appearance frequencies of various random processes for a
hypothetical gyro in single-sided PSD form, from [8].
These characteristics can be used to analyze random processes, for instance the bias
instability or the angle random walk of a gyroscope. The resulting PSD obtained as
a function of the frequency is usually averaged using frequency averaging techniques,
which enable a clear visible slope. An example of such an analysis is shown in
Fig. 3.3, which shows e.g. an angle random walk of about 0.0015deg /
h [6].
69
Figure 3.11 CIMU X-Gyro PSD Results with Frequency Averaging Technique
Figure 3.12 MotionPak II X-Gyro PSD Results with Frequency Averaging
Technique
Figure 3.3: PSD output for a real MEMS gyro after frequency averaging techniques,
from [6].
Chapter 3. Performance and applications 14
Allan Variance
Allan Variance is a procedure rst dened to analyze the rendering of high precision
oscillators [9]. It has later on been applied more generally for the study of oscillator
stability, and can be used quite eciently to determine the stability and random
drift characterization of MEMS inertial sensors [10]. The allan variance
2
()
describes the frequency stability of a random process, i.e. the variance of the change
of frequency value between two observations done over a certain sample period . It
can be calculated from the PSD estimation with the formula given in equation 3.2,
but there is no inverse formula [8].
() = 4
0
S
(f)
sin
4
(f)
(f)
2
df (3.2)
Similarly to PSD, allan variance is used to analyze dierent random processes of
inertial sensors by using the dierent slopes in a log-log scaled plot, as shown in
Fig. 3.4.
IEEE
Std 952-1997 IEEE STANDARD SPECIFICATION FORMAT GUIDE AND TEST PROCEDURE
"#
Copyright 1998 IEEE. All rights reserved.
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
! (h)
"
(
!
)
(
/
h
)
Q
#
0
.
5
7
7
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N
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0.
0
0
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K
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0
.0
0
0
1
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3
/
2
Figure B.5-PIacewise representation of hypotheticaI gryo in AIIan variance form
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
0.0000001 0.000001 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01
f (Hz)
G
%
f
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/
H
z
(
)
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K
2
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Authorized licensed use limited to: IEEE Standards Staff. Downloaded on January 27, 2009 at 15:00 from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Authorized licensed use limited to: ETH BIBLIOTHEK ZURICH. Downloaded on September 25,2012 at 11:39:19 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Figure 3.4: Slopes of various random processes for a hypothetical gyro in an Allan
variance plot from [8].
3.1.4 Data ltering
The Kalman lter
4
is a mathematical algorithm providing an optimized output for
a noisy input signal by using a predictive model. The predictive control system is
a copy of the studied system, which estimates how the answer should be without
the noise or error created by the actual sensor. Using aiding sensors which give
additional information to the system, it provides a more observable system than
the original. By averaging the output value of the real control system and the
predictive control system, an optimal signal can be obtained [6, p. 43.].
4
also called linear quadratic estimation (LQE)
15 3.2. Comparison with classic inertial sensor performances
3
In order to navigate with respect to the inertial reference frame, it is necessary to keep
track of the direction in which the accelerometers are pointing. Rotational motion of the
body with respect to the inertial reference frame may be sensed using gyroscopic sensors
and used to determine the orientation of the accelerometers at all times. Given this
information, it is possible to transform the accelerations into the computation frame
before the integration process takes place. At each time-step of the system's clock, the
navigation computer time integrates this quantity to get the body's velocity vector. The
velocity vector is then time integrated, yielding the position vector. These steps are
continuously iterated throughout the navigation process (Verplaetse 1995). Figure 1.1
shows this concept in a schematic form. This procedure is, usually, considered as IMU
mechanization. The mechanization results will be fed into the Kalman filter to correct
inertial sensor errors for best estimation solution.
Figure 1.1 Inertial Navigation Schematic Plot (after El-Sheimy 2003)
Figure 3.5: Schematic plot of a, inertial navigation algorithm for an IMU using a
Kalman lter, from [6].
The aiding sensors used for the Kalman lter can be temperature and pressure
sensors, but also magnetometers or vision-based navigation algorithm, which use a
change of the environment to determine their position. Another often used solution
is the combination of IMUs with a geostationary positioning system (GPS) to obtain
more precise information on the position and orientation of the studied system [11].
3.2 Comparison with classic inertial sensor perfor-
mances
3.2.1 Common performance criteria
In the following common performance parameters used to describe and compare
sensors, and more specically inertial sensors, are dened.
Range
The range of a sensor is dened as the set of all the possible output values. For an
accelerometer, it would therefore be dened as the acceleration values that can be
measured with this sensor with the given accuracy.
Accuracy
The accuracy of a sensor is dened as the degree of closeness of the measured value
to the real value. It varies from one sensor to another due to drift or noise, and is
inversely proportional to the maximal error or bias
5
of the sensor.
Resolution
The resolution of a sensor corresponds to the smallest measurable input signal.
Usually, a signal cant be measured when the noise to signal ratio approaches 1, i.e.
when the sensor cant distinct it from noise.
5
see section 3.1
Chapter 3. Performance and applications 16
Bandwidth
The bandwith of a sensor is a signal processing term which refers to the range of
the frequencies that can be measured (usually in Hz or rad/s).
Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a system is generally dened as the ratio between the output signal
and the input signal. The higher the sensitivity, the easier a change in the input
signal (which can result from a change in acceleration or orientation) is measured.
However, increasing the sensitivity of a sensor usually decreases its accuracy, since
the errors are increased as well.
Selectivity
The selectivity of a sensor is its capacity to dierentiate the wanted signal from
other present signal. It can be dened as the ratio of the sensor sensitivity for two
dierent signals.
Nonlinearity
The nonlinearity of a sensor is the actual maximal variation of a constant sensitivity
over time for the total range or scale.
Bias stability/instability
Bias stability can be dened as the potential of the sensor error to stay within a
certain range for a certain time. It is an essential value for inertial sensors, since the
integration steps necessary in the signal processing of these sensors can lead to high
bias instability. Likewise to rate noise density, bias stability/instability is modeled
using stochastic modeling techniques which are described in section 3.1.3.
Repeatability
Repeatability is the potential of the sensor to respond in an identical way, i.e. with
the same output, to a same input signal given the same conditions.
Grades
Inertial sensors are sometimes graded depending on their performances. Those
grades are corresponding to the possible application domain corresponding to the
performance of the sensor. Table 3.1 shows the grades corresponding to dierent
in-run bias of inertial sensors.
Application Grade Commercial Tactical Navigation Strategic
Gyroscope > 1deg/s 1deg/h 0.01deg/h 0.001deg/h
Accelerometer > 50mg 1mg 25g 1g
Table 3.1: Grades of inertial sensors, from [3].
3.2.2 Accelerometers
One of the main arguments of MEMS accelerometers is the dierent range there
are able to calculate an acceleration for. This enables their use in many dierent
application domains, as shown in Fig. 3.6.
17 3.2. Comparison with classic inertial sensor performances
Figure 3.6: Application domains of accelerometers, from [4].
Recent MEMS accelerometers have an excellent price/performance ratio, and their
performances can be in the same range than accelerometers based on previous tech-
nologies, which is why many high-precision IMUs contain MEMS accelerometers.
Table 3.2 shows the performances of 2 MEMS accelerometers based on dierent
principles.
Kistler miniature Piezobeam
R
8640A
Analog Devices ADXL335
Principle
Piezoelectric ceramic beam cre-
ates voltage when vibrating due
to acceleration
Capacitors measure linear dis-
placement of proof-mass
Prize (USD) not given (low cost) 77
Output signal type Analog Analog
Measured Directions 1 3
Size 10.5mm
3
4 4 1.45 mm
Weight (grams) 3.5 not given
Range (g)
3 versions available : 5, 10,
50
3.6
Bandwith
0.5 to 3000 Hz for 5 and 10g
range, 0.5 to 5000 Hz for 50g
0.5 to 1600 Hz for x- and y-axis,
5 Hz to 550 Hz for z-axis
Sensitivity
1.000 V/g for 5g range, 0.500
V/g for 10 g range, 0.100 V/g for
50g range
0.300 V/g
Sensitivity change
due to Temperature
(%/
C)
0.12 for 5g version, 0,16 for
10g and 50g
0.01
Nonlinearity (% of
Full-scale-output)
1 0.3
Shock survival limit 7 000g 10 000g
Oset at 0g none (no operating current) 1.5V on all 3 axis
Noise Density before
ltering (g/
Hz)
not given
15010
6
for x-, y-axis, 30010
6
for z-axis
Table 3.2: Comparison of values given by the constructor for 2 dierent MEMS
Accelerometers (data taken directly from the datasheets of the constructors)
Chapter 3. Performance and applications 18
3.2.3 Gyroscopes
Even though the precision of MEMS gyroscopes has been improved in the last
years with the help of batch production techniques and new gyroscope designs,
they remain the biggest problem of MEMS inertial sensing technology and the main
reason why previous technologies such as ber-optic gyroscopes (FOG) or ring laser
gyroscopes (RLG) are still vastly used in domains where high-precision sensors are
necessary. Todays best MEMS gyroscopes attain a bias stability in the range of
1
/sec/LSB)
0.0125 0.00875 not given
Nonlinearity
0.05 %Full scale
and range
0.2 %Full scale
0.15%Full-scale and
range
Temperature Sensitiv-
ity
not given 0.03
/s/
C
<6
/h for a change
of max. 1
C/min
Acceleration Sensitiv-
ity (
/sec/g)
0.01 not given not given
Rate Noise
Density(
/sec/
Hz)
0.015 at 25
C 0.03 at 25
C 0.0667
Bias Stability
/h 16 not given 1
Table 3.3: Comparison of values given by the constructor for 3 dierent gyroscopes
: 2 based on MEMS technology and 1 FOG (data taken directly from the datasheets
of the constructors)
3.2.4 MEMS IMUs
Due to the performances of the MEMS inertial sensors, and particularly to the
integration of the gyroscope errors, MEMS IMUs are globally still less performant
than previous IMUs. However, some recent inertial measurement units based on
MEMS technology can be used for navigation. Their prize is almost similar to some
IMUs based on previous technologies, but their reduced size and weight make new
application domains for navigation possible. The price range of MEMS IMUs, which
go from about 4$ for e.g. the LSM330DLC of ST Microelectronics, to more than 10
000$ for some high-precision IMUs, is also what enables their dierent applications.
In the following table, the main data of 3 MEMS IMUs of dierent constructors
and with dierent application domains are listed.
19 3.2. Comparison with classic inertial sensor performances
Invensense MPU
6000
YEI 3-Space Sensor
Analog Devices
ADIS 16488
Prize (USD) 15 250 1700
Size 4 4 0.9mm 35 50 15mm 47 44 14 mm
Weight (grams) not given 17 not given
Number of Sensors (A
: accelerometer, G: gy-
ros, T : temperature,
M: magnetometer, P:
pressure)
3A, 3G, 1T 3A, 3G, 1T, 3M 3A, 3G, 1T, 3M, 1P
Accelerometer Range
(g)
2, 4, 8, 16
selectable
2, 4, 8 se-
lectable
18
Gyroscope Range
(
/sec)
250, 500,
1000, 2000
selectable
250,500,2000
selectable
from 450 to 480
Accelerometer Sensi-
tivity (g/LSB)
from 6.10 10
5
for 2g range to
4.88 10
4
for 16g
range
from 2.4 10
4
for
2g range to 9.6
10
4
for 8g range
1.22110
8
Gyroscope Sensitivity
(
/sec/LSB)
from 0.00763 for
250
/sec to 0.061
for 2000
/sec
from 0.00875 for
250
/sec to 0.070
for 2000
/sec
3.052 10
7
Accelerometer Noise
Density before ltering
(g/
Hz)
410
4
at 10Hz 9.910
5
at 10Hz 6.710
5
at 25Hz
Gyroscope Noise Den-
sity before ltering
(
/sec/
Hz)
0.005 at 10Hz 0.03 at 10Hz 0.0066 at 25Hz
Gyroscope Bias Stabil-
ity
not given
11
/h average at
25
C
6.25
/h
Signal processing
Programmable low-
pass lters
Kalman ltering Kalman ltering
Applications
Motion Con-
trol, Immersive
Simmulations,
Image Stabiliza-
tion, Pedestrian
Navigation, Toys
Robotics, Mo-
tion capture,
Positioning and
stabilization, Per-
sonnel navigation
and tracking,
Unmanned ve-
hicle navigation,
Healthcare mon-
itoring, Motion
control, Immersive
simulations
Platform stabiliza-
tion, Navigation,
Personnel track-
ing, Instrument,
Robotics
Table 3.4: Comparison of values given by the constructor for 3 dierent MEMS
IMUs (data taken directly from the datasheets of the constructors)
Chapter 3. Performance and applications 20
3.3 Future developments
3.3.1 Multi-directional MEMS inertial sensors
A promising breakthrough in MEMS inertial sensing technology would be the use
of multi-directional MEMS inertial sensors, which have the particularity to measure
an acceleration or rotation in several directions at once. This would not only en-
able even more miniaturization, but also more precise sensors since it would make
the combination of dierent signals from dierent sensors to know the direction of
acceleration or rotation obsolete.
An example of such a multi-directional MEMS inertial sensor would be the levi-
tating disk accelerometer, which is currently under research at the University of
Southampton [12] and Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center. A physical model of
this accelerometer is shown in Fig. 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Physical model of a levitating-disk accelerometer, based on [12].
The proof-mass of the levitating disk is a micro-machined disk which is levitating
between two parts composed each of 4 or more electrodes using electrostatic forces.
The displacement of the proof mass is measured capacitively through a comparison
of the tension over each capacitor. This technology has several advantages over
previous technologies : It enables a measurement of the acceleration in all three
directions and two angles (yaw and pitch) with only one proof mass. It also sup-
presses the mechanical spring system to which the proof mass is usually xed, which
was a cause of errors of the sensor since the spring constant varied with time and
physical properties such as temperature or pressure. Here, the spring constant is
linked to the electrostatic forces that levitate the disk, and can be varied depending
on the application of the sensor [12].
Several other types of multi-directional inertial sensors are currently under research
in dierent companies or universities, such as a levitating sphere concept at Ball
Semiconductor, Tokinec, Inc., Japan, or a levitating spinning disk similar to the
model described above as a basis for a new type of MEMS gyroscope, which was
developed in the DARPA Navigation Grade Integrated Micro Gyroscope initiative
[3, p. 18f].
3.3.2 New applications of MEMS inertial sensors
The never-ending miniaturization of MEMS inertial sensors has opened the pos-
sibility for new applications. One often given example is smart ammunition : a
bullet equipped with a MEMS inertial IMU could calculate its position, compare it
to the one of its target, and redirect itself using e.g. small ns on the back of the
bullet. Such possibilities are currently under research in several companies for the
weapon industry
6
, the most important problem being the shock resistance of the
6
e.g. at Honeywell, which specializes in producing high-precision inertial sensors for military
and aeronautical use
21 3.3. Future developments
IMU necessary for its survival to the ring of the bullet. Another example of new
possible applications is microrobotics. Robots small enough to be implemented in
someones body have been build
7
, and if adding an IMU to these robots to enable
precise navigation is not imaginable today, it might be in the upcoming years.
7
e.g. at the IRIS Lab at ETHZ
Chapter 3. Performance and applications 22
Chapter 4
Conclusion
4.1 Conclusion
MEMS Inertial sensors have been a real breakthrough compared to previous inertial
sensing technologies in matters of size and price. Although they function with
relatively simple physical principles, they can enable measurements of acceleration
and angular rotation quite precisely. The miniaturization and low cost of inertial
sensors created by the MEMS technology has opened new possibilities and industrial
applications, such as their utilization in toys and smartphones, in small robots or
motion capture. New applications are envisaged in the future in dierent elds,
from micro-sized robots to smart ammunition.
However, there still are several drawbacks in MEMS inertial sensor performance,
especially for MEMS gyroscopes : Their low selectivity, for instance their high
sensitivity to temperature or pressure, combined with the integration necessary for
a strap-down technology, can lead to high bias drift and create important errors
in position after a certain time. Furthermore, the precision of micromachining
processes is limited, which can induce aws in the basic structure of the sensor. All
these errors lead to the point that todays MEMS IMUs still are not comparable
in matters of performance to previous technologies, especially due to the MEMS
gyroscopes.
Nevertheless, one should not forget that MEMS inertial sensing technology is a
fairly recent technology, and that increasing the performance and design of MEMS
IMUs remains a very active development area. Another important point is that
the size and price of such an IMU enables their combination with other position
tracking devices, such as GPS, magnetometers or vision-based tracking, which sig-
nicantly reduce the errors of a inertial measurement navigation system and make
high-precision navigation based on MEMS sensors a reality.
4.2 Acknowledgements
I would like to express my very great appreciation to the tutors of this project,
Janosch Nikolic and Michael Bloesch, who answered all my questions and showed
great support during all the semester. I also would like to thank the whole ASL
lab for enabling me to do this work in ideal conditions, and the ETH library for
providing a calm place to work.
23
Chapter 4. Conclusion 24
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