Some examples of the types of variables encountered in a statistics class:

a person's age in years the length of a fish in cm. the number of hairs on a person's head the temperature of a classroom in degrees Celsius an SAT score the letter grade earned in a course a movie's rating (from 1 to 5 stars) the model of a car one's gender A random variable is one whose values are determined by chance. The values of some variables are more useful for comparison with one another than others. For example, if you have two fish whose lengths are 15 cm and 30 cm, you can say quite a few things:

One fish is twice as long as the other. The difference in their lengths is exactly 15 cm. The 30 cm fish is the longer of the two. Compare this with two movies that get ratings of 2 and 4 stars, respectively (out of a maximum of 5 stars).

Is one movie precisely twice as good as the other? The movies differ by 2 stars -- exactly how big a difference is this? We can safely say, however, that the movie that got 4 stars was a better movie in the eyes of the critic that rated the movie. The units of measurement in the first example was centimeters, while in the second, the units were stars on a 5 point scale. But clearly, there was a difference in the amount of information these measurements conveyed. As such, we classify variables according to the level or "'scale of measurement"' that was used: A ratio level of measurement is one where "true ratios exist". That is to say, if you look at two things being measured and the first one has a measurement "x" times as big as the second, then the first thing truly is "x" times as big as the second thing. For example: Consider the two fish of lengths 15 cm and 30 cm. The ratio we are talking about here is 30/15 (which of course, equals 2/1). One number was twice as big as the other, so one fish was twice as long as the other. A side effect of this ratio property is that "true zeros exist" as well. In other words, if something measures zero units, then that something doesn't have ANY of what you are measuring. For example: If the variable in question counts the number of hairs on a persons head, then a person with zero hairs on his head doesn't have ANY hair at all. Compare this with measuring temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius). Recall that temperature measures heat content. Does a room that measures 0 degrees have absolutely no heat? Certainly not! (Which is

warmer: a room at zero degrees, or a room at -20 degrees?) Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius also fails to admit "true ratios". A room that measures 50 degrees certainly doesn't have twice as much heat as a room that measures 25 degrees. Since we don't have true ratios or a true zero, temperature in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius is not a ratio level of measurement. (On a side note, measuring temperature in degrees Kelvin is a ratio level of measurement.) That said, knowing the temperature of two rooms does precisely define how much warmer one room is versus the other. Compare this with trying to figure precisely how much better a 4 out of 5 stars movie is compared to a 3 out of 5 stars movie. When the differences between measurements is precisely defined, but we don't have true ratios or true zeros, we have an interval level of measurement. Temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius, at least) is an example of this. In other words, the interval between two measurements is precisely defined and can be easily compared with another such interval. For example: Consider three rooms with temperatures of 60 degrees, 40 degrees, and 30 degrees Celsius. While we can't say that the first room is twice as warm as the third (since the temperature doesn't give us true ratios), we can say that the difference between the first and the second (60 - 40) is twice as large as the difference between the second and the third (40 - 30).

In the first case, we have an interval between the two temperatures measuring 20 degrees. In the second case, we have an interval measuring 10 degrees. These intervals and differences are precisely-defined and can thus be compared with one another. (At the risk of hurting some peoples' heads -- you may have noticed that the differences described above would have a ratio level of measurement, even though the original measurements have only an interval level of measurement!) So under what scale of measurement do the movie ratings fall under? We don't have true ratios, true zeros, or even precise differences between our measurements (number of stars, in this case). What we do have is an "ordering" of the movies by quality. We can say, when given two movies with different ratings, which one is a better movie (at least in the critic's eyes). When all that our measurements give us is a way to order (or rank) what we measured, then we have what is called an ordinal level of measurement. Letter grades assigned to a college courses are an example of an ordinal level of measurement. You know that a student that earns an A did better than one that earned a B, but you don't really know by how much. Were the grades really just one percent apart, and the second student had the misfortune to fall just below the cutoff for

an A? Or did the B student really get lucky just to get the B, while the A student never missed a problem in the whole course? If all you have is the letter grade to look at, you can't tell. The differences between the performance different letter grades represent is not precisely defined. So what about variables like gender or the model of a car? What scale of measurement are we using here? Clearly we don't have true ratios or true zeros, or precise differences between different values for our variable -we don't even have numerical values! So it can't be a ratio level or interval level of measurement. Furthermore, despite what some male chauvinists would have you believe, there is no natural ordering of the sexes. So, we can't be talking about an ordinal level of measurement. In fact, the whole concept of "measuring" anything seems suspect here. We aren't really measuring anything -- we are categorizing. So if we are to talk about these types of variables in terms of a level of measurement, it is a level of measurement "in name only". In other words, we say these types of variables have anominal level of measurement. So, variables with a nominal level of measurement, really just categorize things. We should be clear about what we mean by that. The categories things are associated with by the "value" of the variable in question should be exhaustive (that means that everything fits into some category) and mutually exclusive (in other words, one thing is never in more than one category). While we are on the subject of categories, I should mention that if a variable has either a nominal or ordinal level of measurement, it is called a categorical (or qualitative) variable, while if it has an interval or ratio level of measurement, it is called a numerical (or quantitative) variable.

Introduction to Measurement Scales and Data Types

This tutorial discusses a classification system that is often used to describe the measurement of concepts or variables that are used in social sciences and behavioral research. This classification system categorizes the variables as being measured on either a nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio scale. After introducing the classification system and providing examples of variables which are typically measured on each type of scale, we note the implications of these measurement scales for the analysis of data. Specifically, we discuss the statistical tests which are most appropriate for data measured on each type of scale. Finally, we will briefly consider some of the limits and criticisms of this classification system.

I. Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio measurement scales

In the social and behavioral sciences, as in many other areas of science, we typically assign numbers to various attributes of people, objects, or concepts. This process is known as measurement. For example, we can measure the height of a person by assigning the person a number based on the number of inches tall that person is. Or,

we can measure the size of a city by assigning the city a number which is equal to the number of residents in that city. Sometimes the assignment of numbers to concepts we are studying is rather crude, such as when we assign a number to reflect a person's gender (i.e., Male = 0 and Female = 1). This type of measurement is known as a Nominal measurement scale. A Nominal measurement scale is used for variables in which each participant or observation in the study must be placed into one mutually exclusive and exhaustive category. For example, categorizing study participants into "male" and "female" categories demonstrates that 'sex' is measured on a nominal scale. Every observation in the study falls into one, and only one, Nominal category. With a nominal measurement scale, there is no relative ordering of the categories -the assignment of numeric scores to each category (Male, Female) is purely arbitrary. The next level of measurement, Ordinal measurement scales, do indicate something about the rank-ordering of study participants. For example, if you think of some type of competition or race (swimming, running), it is possible to rank order the finishers from first place to last place. If someone tells you they finished 2nd, you know that one person finished ahead of them, and all other participants finished behind them. Although ordinal variables provide information concerning the relative position of participants or observations in our research study, ordinal variables do not tell us anything about the absolute magnitude of the difference between 1st and 2nd or between 2nd and 3rd. That is, we know 1st was before 2nd, and 2nd was before 3rd, but we do not know how close 3rd was to 2nd or how close 2nd was to 1st. The 1st place finisher could have been a great deal ahead of the 2nd place finisher, who finished a great deal ahead of the 3rd place finisher; or, the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place finishers may have all finished very close together. The image below illustrates the ordinal ranking of individuals in a competition. The tick mark to the far right illustrates the person who finished in first place, while the tick mark to the far left represents the person who finished sixth out of six.

The limits of ordinal data are most apparent when one looks at the distance between the third and the fourth place finishers. Although the absolute distance between third

and fourth was not that large, the measurement of ordinal data does not indicate this detail. The next level of measurement, Interval scales, provide us with still more quantitative information. When a variable is measured on an interval scale, the distance between numbers or units on the scale is equal over all levels of the scale. An example of an Interval scale is the Farenheit scale of temperature. In the Farenheit temperature scale, the distance between 20 degrees and 40 degrees is the same as the distance between 75 degrees and 95 degrees. With Interval scales, there is no absolute zero point. For this reason, it is inappropriate to express Interval level measurements as ratios; it would not be appropriate to say that 60 degrees is twice as hot as 30 degrees. Our final type of measurement scales, Ratio scales, do have a fixed zero point. Not only are numbers or units on the scale equal over all levels of the scale, but there is also a meaningful zero point which allows for the interpretation of ratio comparisons. Time is an example of a ratio measurement scale. Not only can we say that difference between three hours and five hours is the same as the difference between eight hours and ten hours (equal intervals), but we can also say that ten hours is twice as long as five hours (a ratio comparison).
Properties of Measurement Scales
Each scale of measurement satisfies one or more of the following properties of measurement.

Identity. Each value on the measurement scale has a unique meaning. Magnitude. Values on the measurement scale have an ordered relationship to one another. That is, some values are larger and some are smaller.

Equal intervals. Scale units along the scale are equal to one another. This means, for example, that the difference between 1 and 2 would be equal to the difference between 19 and 20.

A minimum value of zero. The scale has a true zero point, below which no values exist.

Nominal Scale of Measurement

The nominal scale of measurement only satisfies the identity property of measurement. Values assigned to variables represent a descriptive category, but have no inherent numerical value with respect to magnitude. Gender is an example of a variable that is measured on a nominal scale. Individuals may be classified as "male" or "female", but neither value represents more or less "gender" than the other. Religion and political affiliation are other examples of variables that are normally measured on a nominal scale.

Ordinal Scale of Measurement

The ordinal scale has the property of both identity and magnitude. Each value on the ordinal scale has a unique meaning, and it has an ordered relationship to every other value on the scale. An example of an ordinal scale in action would be the results of a horse race, reported as "win", "place", and "show". We know the rank order in which horses finished the race. The horse that won finished ahead of the horse that placed, and the horse that placed finished ahead of the horse that showed. However, we cannot tell from this ordinal scale whether it was a close race or whether the winning horse won by a mile.

Interval Scale of Measurement

The interval scale of measurement has the properties of identity, magnitude, and equal intervals. A perfect example of an interval scale is the Fahrenheit scale to measure temperature. The scale is made up of equal temperature units, so that the difference between 40 and 50 degrees Fahrenheit is equal to the difference between 50 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit. With an interval scale, you know not only whether different values are bigger or smaller, you also know how much bigger or smaller they are. For example, suppose it is 60 degrees Fahrenheit on Monday and 70 degrees on Tuesday. You know not only that it was hotter on Tuesday, you also know that it was 10 degrees hotter.

Ratio Scale of Measurement

The ratio scale of measurement satisfies all four of the properties of measurement: identity, magnitude, equal intervals, and a minimum value of zero. The weight of an object would be an example of a ratio scale. Each value on the weight scale has a unique meaning, weights can be rank ordered, units along the weight scale are equal to one another, and the scale has a minimum value of zero. Weight scales have a minimum value of zero because objects at rest can be weightless, but they cannot have negative weight.

Test Your Understanding of This Lesson

Problem 1 Consider the centigrade scale for measuring temperature. Which of the following measurement properties is satisfied by the centigrade scale? I. Magnitude. II. Equal intervals. III. A minimum value of zero. (A) I only (B) II only (C) III only

(D) I and II (E) II and III Solution The correct answer is (D). The centigrade scale has the magnitude property because each value on the scale can be ranked as larger or smaller than any other value. And it has the equal intervals property because the scale is made up of equal units. However, the centigrade scale does not have a minimum value of zero. Water freezes at zero degrees centigrade, but temperatures get colder than that. In the arctic, temperatures are almost always below zero.

Nominal Variables

What does the word "nominal" comes from? It has to do with naming. So nominal comes from name and that is all you can do with variables measured on nominal scales (nominal variables). The important thing is there is no measure of distance between the values. You're either married or not married. The answer is determined, yes or no. So there is no question of how far apart in a quantitative sense those categories are. They are just names. Nominal scales name and that is all that they do. Some other examples are sex (male, female), race (black, hispanic, oriental, white, other), political party (democrat, republican, other), blood type (A, B, AB, O), and pregnancy status (pregnant, not pregnant.
Ordinal Variables

In the next kind of variable you have a little more sophistication than you can get with just names alone (see Figure 1.1). What does ordinal imply? Ordinal implies order. And, order means ranking. So the things being measured are in some order. You can have higher and lower amounts. Less than and greater than are meaningful terms with ordinal variables where they were not with nominal variables. For example, you don't rank male and female as higher and lower. But you do rank stages of cancer, for example, as higher and lower. You can rank pains as higher or lower. So, ordinal variables give you a more sophisticated level of measure - a finer

tuned level of measurement. But you have now added only this one element having to do with ranking. You know that something is higher than something else, or lower than something, or more painful than something, or less painful than something. So, ordinal scales both name and order. Some other examples of ordinal scales are rankings (e.g., football top 20 teams, pop music top 40 songs), order of finish in a race (first, second, third, etc.), cancer stage (stage I, stage II, stage III), and hypertension categories (mild, moderate, severe).
Interval Variables

Examples of interval scales include the Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures previously mentioned, SAT, GRE, MAT, and IQ scores. In general, many of the standardized tests of the psychological, sociological and educational displines use interval scales. Interval measures all share the property that the value of zero is arbitrary. On the Celsius scale, for example, 0 is the freezing point of water. On the Fahrenheit scale, 0 is 32 degrees below the freezing point of water.
Ratio Variables

Ratio variables have all the properties of interval variables plus a real absolute zero. That is, value of zero represents the total absence of the variable being measured. Some examples of ratio variables are length measures in the english or metric systems, time measures in seconds, minutes, hours, etc., blood pressure measured in millmeters of mercury, age, and common measures of mass, weight, and volume (see Figure 1.1). They are called ratio variables because ratios are meaningful with this type of variable. It makes sense to say 100 feet is twice as long as 50 feet, because length measured in feet is a ratio scale. Likewise it makes sense to say a Kelvin temperature of 100 is twice as hot as a Kelvin temperture of 50 because it represents twice as much thermal energy (unlike Fahrenheit temperatures of 100 and 50). With ratio variables, the only difference from interval variables is that you have a true zero so that you can actually talk about ratios. That is a person's lung capacity can be twice somebody else's lung capacity. In order to make those kinds of statements you have to have be able to compute meaningful ratios and you can only do that if you have a true zero. But really for the purposes of any statistical tests it makes no difference whether you have interval or ratio variables.