Karen Mae B.

Hinampas

4:30-7:30 F

March 16, 2012

Experiment 6: Filters OBJECTIVES: To understand the principle behind the operation of filters. To distinguish a high pass filter from a low pass filter. To be able to design a simple analog filter.

SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE: CONSTRUCTION OF A HIGH PASS FILTER A 4.7 F capacitor was connected in series with the 16 earphones using the board with binding posts. Using the given values of the capacitance and resistance, the cut-off frequency fco was calculated for the filter circuit. The frequency of the function generator was set to the value of fco and with the waveform selector step switch set to sine wave, the function generator was connected to the terminals of the board. The signal from the function generator served as input signal to the filter circuit and went to Channel 1 of the oscilloscope while the signal tapped across the earphones served as the output signal of the filter circuit and went to Channel 2 of the oscilloscope. The vertical mode lever switch of the scope was set to CHOP position to display the two signals simultaneously. The transfer function H (U0max/UImax) was assured to be about 70%. This was done by counting the number of divisions along the Y-axis for the input and output voltages and multiplying by their respective VOLT/DIV values. The values obtained for the frequency f, U0max, UImax and the computed value for H were recorded. The value of the transfer function H was determined for six more frequencies above the cut-off frequency fco and six more frequencies below it. The transfer function H was plotted along the ordinate vs. frequency along the abscissa on double log graphing paper. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A LOW PASS FILTER The value of the resistance R1 that gives a cut-off frequency fco of 2000 Hz when connected in series with a 10 nF capacitor was calculated. A Low Pass Filter was set up using a variable resistor whose value was adjusted to R1 and a 10 nF capacitor found on the board with binding posts. The function generator with the frequency knobs set to 2000 Hz and the waveform selector step switch to sine wave was connected to the appropriate terminal of the variable resistor R1. The other terminal of the variable resistor was connected to the 10 nF capacitor. The signal from the function generator served as input signal to the filter circuit and went to Channel 1 of the oscilloscope while the output signal was taken across the 10 nF capacitor and went to Channel 2 of the scope. The peak to peak voltage of the output signal was assured to be 70% to that of the input signal. The values obtained for the frequency f, U0max, UImax and the computed value for H were recorded. The value of the transfer function H was determined for six more frequencies above the cut-off frequency fco and six more frequencies below it. The transfer function H was plotted along the ordinate vs. frequency along the abscissa on double log graphing paper.

DATA AND RESULTS: High Pass Filter Frequency Input f (Hz) Signal UImax (V) 100, 000 1 64, 000 1 32, 000 1 16, 000 1 8, 000 1 4, 000 1 2, 000 1 1, 000 1 500 1 250 1 125 1 63 1 32 1 ANALYSIS: The cut-off frequency fco for the filter circuit was calculated to be 2000 Hz. Six more frequencies above the cut-off frequency fco and six more frequencies below it were used to calculate for the transfer function H. The input signal was set to 1 so that it would be easier to calculate for the transfer function H since the value of the transfer function (U0max/UImax) will just be the same as the amplitude of the output signal U0max. The results above show how the transfer function H of these filters varies with frequency. For the High Pass Filter at the left, the transfer function at very high frequencies ranges from 1 to 1.1; it drops to 0.6 at the cut-off frequency which is very close to the expected value of 0.7, and then keeps dropping lower and lower as the frequency decreases. The situation is the opposite for the Low Pass Filter on the right where the transfer function is very close to 1 at low frequencies, drops to 0.7 at the cut-off frequency, and then keeps dropping even farther as the frequency increases. CONCLUSION: Circuit (a) is called a low pass filter because it allows the lower frequencies to pass through without attenuation while the higher frequencies are blocked. Circuit (b) is called a high pass filter because the lower frequencies are blocked while the higher frequencies are allowed to pass without attenuation from input to output. Capacitive low pass filters insert a resistor in series and a capacitor in parallel with the load while capacitive high pass filters insert a capacitor in series with the load. These circuits react to the frequency of the signal because the reactance Xc of a capacitor depends on the frequency f. At high frequencies, Xc is very small and so the capacitor behaves like a short circuit and shorts the output signal, not letting high frequencies Low Pass Filter H Frequency Input (U0max/UImax) f (Hz) Signal UImax (V) 1.1 100, 000 1 1.1 64, 000 1 1.1 32, 000 1 1 16, 000 1 1 8, 000 1 0.9 4, 000 1 0.6 2, 000 1 0.4 1, 000 1 0.2 500 1 0.1 250 1 0.05 125 1 0.025 63 1 0.0125 32 1

Output Signal U0max (V) 1.1 1.1 1.1 1 1 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.0125

Output Signal U0max (V) 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.35 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95

H (U0max/UImax)

0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.35 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95

through. In the high pass filter, the capacitor at low frequencies acts like an open circuit and does not let the signal go from the input to the output. A frequency at which Xc is exactly equal to the resistance R is called the cut-off frequency. The cut-off frequency for low pass and high pass filters is that frequency at which the output (load) voltage equals 70.7% of the input (source) voltage. Above the cutoff frequency, the output voltage is lower than 70.7% of the input and vice versa for a low pass filter and greater than 70.7% of the input and vice versa for a high pass filter.

(a) Low Pass and (b) High Pass Filters GRAPHS: High Pass Filter

10

H (Uomax/Uimax)

1 High Pass Filter

0.1

0.01 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Frequency (Hz) Low Pass Filter H (Uomax/Uimax)

0.25 Low Pass Filter

0.025 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Frequency (Hz)