Overarching Theme Adaptation (and Continuity as well!) PLANTS How have plants overcome the challenges of life on land?

d? Big Idea Plants have changed over time and are now a diverse group of organisms. Adaptations are evident that allow internal transport and conservation of water in addition to life cycles that are not dependent on water.

Basics of Plant Structure

All vascular plants have true roots, stems, and leaves Adaptations plants need to be able to survive on land include; 1. Need to get sperm and egg together for reproduction 2. Need to obtain water and nutrients 3. Need to transport this water and nutrients throughout the body of the plant 4. Need to prevent excess water loss to environment 5. Need to support leaves so they can be exposed to as much sunlight as possible for photosynthesis

Roots
there is much of a plant underground as there is above ground, the part below ground is the roots they serve 2 main functions, anchor the plant in the ground and absorb water and minerals in some plants they also serve as a store of food roots are generally one of two basic plans fibrous or tap root The fibrous root plan has several main roots that branch out to form a tangled mass of thin roots. Plants with this type of root system include grass, corn and most trees The taproot plan consists of a long thick main root that has thin roots extending from it. Examples of this include carrots, cacti and dandelions On the epidermis, or outermost layer of a root, there are many thin, hair like extensions called root hairs These work to increase the surface area of the roots, thereby increasing the amount of water and nutrients the roots can absorb from the soil The very tip of the root is covered by a structure called a root cap, this protects the tip of the root as it grows through the soil Just behind this is region of meristematic tissue This tissue contains cells that can divide for as long as the life of the plant, this cell division creates growth and helps the roots extend and explore further We eat lots of roots yams, beets, carrots

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Stems
stems contain vascular tissue the xylem and the phloem that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant As well, vascular tissue provides structural support, allowing vascular plants to grow tall and to support the plant as it grows up against gravity

Seeds
Is a plant structure that contains an embryo, nutrients for the embryo and a seed coat (protective coating) These enable the seed to survive harsh environmental conditions and then sprout when favourable conditions exist Plants have developed several different ways to scatter their seeds (animals, wind, water)

Leaves
Vary greatly in size and shape Very important because they are the site of photosynthesis, the process in which food is synthesized using light energy Leaves typically have a network of veins that contain vascular tissue which is connected to the vascular tissue in the stem The leaf epidermis (outermost layer) is covered by a cuticle that protects the plant against water loss This cuticle is pierced by tiny pores called stomata Stomata regulate gas and water exchange between the plant and the atmosphere Each little stomata is bounded by a pair of sausage shaped cells called guard cells In general, these cells are open at day and closed at night Plants keep stomata open just enough to allow photosynthesis to take place, but not so much that they lose much water to the environment

Leaf Adaptations
Leaves of plants are so diverse in shape and form because each plant has evolved leaves that are specially adapted to their environment Plants that live in very windy areas such as coastlines often have small or feathery leaves that can withstand gales, large leaves would be torn to pieces

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Other leaves are modified into tendrils to help a plant climb or twine itself around a tree or other structure the tendrils of a pea plant are actually leaves

Some leaves look more like spines or needles and act as defence mechanisms preventing animals from grazing on them e.g. Cacti, holly, conifers

Rainforest plants, on the other hand, often have wide large leaves so that they can absorb as much light as possible in the dim forest light

And finally we have leaves that are modified to trap and digest insects such as the Venus flytrap of the sundew plant

When an insect lands on the leaves of a Venus flytrap, their movement triggers bristles that cause the 2 halves of the leaf to snap together trapping the insect, then special digestive glands secrete enzymes that help the plant slowly digest the insect

How do these adaptations help plants survive in their habitats?

Non-Seed Producing Plants Continued Mosses and Ferns

BRYOPHYTA (Mosses, Hornworts and Liverworts) Non-vascular Plants Characteristics - said to be halfway between aquatic plants and true land plants, so only exhibit a few special adaptations to help deal with life on land - they still require water for reproduction (flagellated sperm has to swim to egg) - are small and low to the ground, this is because they do not have internal vascular system and rely on simple cell-to-cell diffusion for water and nutrients, this is not very efficient and limits the growth of bryophytes - have root-like filaments called rhizoids that anchor plant to substrate - since they live in damp and shady areas, they do not have any adaptations to prevent water loss 3|Page

Habitats - live in moist environments, water must be plentiful to ensure survival - abundant in temperate rainforest biome Ecological Role - bryophytes play an important role in ecological succession as they are among the first plants (=pioneer plants) to establish themselves on rocky faces or in soil where no other plants can grow - usually lichen (mutualistic relationship between an alga and a fungus) cover the barren area first and start to break down the rock, then bryophyte spores land on lichen and their life cycle begins - due to the bryophytes ability to retain water (sponge-like) other plant seeds fall on the lichen/bryophyte bed and begin to grow as well Uses of Bryophytes - fertilizers (ground up sphagnum moss) - deposits of dead moss (peat) used as fuel in places such as Ireland and Newfoundland - wilderness first aid, sphagnum moss had antiseptic properties so can be used to dress wounds used in gardening to retain water in flower beds/containers - evolutionary links DNA analysis has shown that liverworts lack DNA sequences of other plants, suggests that they are most primitive of land plants, first to move from water to land environments Reproduction - Life Cycle of a Moss (refer to diagram) - complex life cycle uses spores rather than seeds (like algae and ferns) - the dominant stage that most of us recognize as a moss (green, leafy) is the gametophyte stage - mosses are unique in that 2 generations or stages of the plant are contained on the same structure (draw below)

1. the sporophyte grows out of the gametophyte on an elongated stalk that elevates the sporangium above the surface of the ground 2. the sporangium protects the spores until they are ready to be dispersed 3. the life cycle of a new moss plant begins when haploid (n) spores are released from the sporangium 4. spores are mainly dispersed by wind or water 5. if the site where the spore lands is suitable, it germinates, if not suitable it can remain dormant for years until right conditions exist 6. after a few days of growth, the protonema begins to resemble the green, leafy gametophyte 7. when the gametophyte matures, it produces the male and female sex organs on tips of leaves, male structure=antheridium (produces sperm), female structure =archegonium (produces eggs) 8. fertilization occurs when the plant is wet (covered by dew or rainwater), the sperm swim to the egg and a zygote (2n) develops 9. this zygote grows into the mature sporophyte and the process begins again 4|Page

PTEROPHYTA (The Ferns and Horsetails) Seedless Vascular Plants

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Characteristics Largest group of extant (living) seedless vascular plants Very diverse group of plants (water ferns, epiphytes, tree ferns and horsetails) Have true vascular tissues, strong roots and rhizomes=thick, fleshy creeping stem that grows either on or just beneath the surface of the ground, helps with food storage. Ferns have true leaves and true stems. A fern leaf is called a frond Vascular tissue consists of xylem(dead cells that create tubes to transport water and minerals up from the roots) and phloem (living tissue that carries products of photosynthesis throughout the plant) Also provides strength since thick cell walls contain cellulose, so plants with vascular tissue can grow quite tall Still require water for reproduction to occur Habitats o Abundant in wet, or at least seasonally wet, habitats around the world. o Found living in the shadows of forest trees; can thrive with little light o Grow best in the rain forests of the Pacific Northwest o Wet tropical areas o Tropical forests-grow as large as small trees in some places (e.g. New Zealand) Uses of Ferns Ferns are planted and cultivated by gardeners for their own ornamental value. Consumed by humans; Fern fronds, when young and cooked when they are fresh, are considered a delicacy (fiddlehead greens) Rice farmers in Asia grow a small, aquatic fern on their rice paddies because tiny pockets in the ferns fronds provide a home for specific blue - green algae. This alga produces natural fertilizers that enhance the growth of the rice. All plants benefit, none are harmed, so=mutualistic relationship. Reproduction Life Cycle of a Fern - Ferns employ alternation of generations, but in ferns the diploid sporophyte is the dominant obvious stage. 1. In the sporophyte generation the fern grows long, green fronds. In many types of ferns, the developing fronds are curled at the top into a fiddlehead (yummy when slightly boiled!) 2. On the underside of the fern frond are tiny dots called sori. Each contains clusters of sporangia that contain spores. 3. the gametophyte stage begins when spores land in a suitable moist site and being to divide by mitosis into a spongy, heart-shaped cushion of cells called a prothallus (barely visible to the naked eye). The gametophyte is tiny and lives for only a short period of time. 4. The prothallus produces antheridia and archegonia, which produce male and female gametes. Ferns are not fully-adapted to life on land as their sperm must swim through water (dew/raindrops) to get to the eggs. The fertilized egg (zygote) grows into the sporophyte. 5. The sporophyte is a well-developed land plant with true vascular tissues. The gametophyte lacks vascular tissues, is very tiny and delicate, and can grow only in moist areas. Confirm your learning Translation Activities

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Compare and Contrast Bryophytes and Pterophytes BRYOPHYTES How are nutrients and water transported in the plant? PTEROPHYTES

Explain adaptations developed for life on land

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Seed Producing Plants Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

GYMNOSPERMS (Cycads, Gingkos, Gnetales and Conifers) Vascular Seed Plants Characteristics - Most ancient of all seed plants, first appeared about 360 million years ago (m.y.a.), about the same time as land animals. - Throughout the age of dinosaurs (65-245 m.y.a.) gymnosperms were dominant form of plant life on Earth - Gymnos=naked, so called gymnosperms because have a naked seed (not protected by outer coating). - All have vascular tissue (transport water and nutrients efficiently and provides stability and strength), more on this later. - Develop roots that extend over a wide surface area, rather than penetrating deep down into the soil, this helps hold the plant in locations where not much soil is present. - Produce distinct male and female sex organs that are designed to transmit genetic material without water. Taxonomy and Habitats - 4 phyla of gymnosperms have survived to present day 1. Cycads tropical plants that look like palm trees - About 250 m.y.a. were a diverse and widespread group, now only 160 species remain; some close to extinction. 2. Gingkos were fairly common in the age of dinosaurs, but only 1 species exists today, Gingko biloba, a species that originated in Asia. 3. Gnetophytes share characteristics with both gymnosperms and angiosperms - Are one of the only organisms on Earth that can survive the extremely hot and dry climate of the Namib Desert in Africa. 4. Conifers make up the largest group of gymnosperms and are extremely important to the economy of B.C. as they are a source of wood for building and paper making. - Are about 550 species, most are large trees with needle or scale-like leaves. - Found throughout the world and include the worlds tallest trees (coast redwoods) and oldest trees (bristle cone pines in Arizona and Nevada, thought to be 5000+ years old). - Can survive in wide range of habitats because their narrow leaves are coated in thick cuticle (to prevent water loss) and their downward sloping branches allow snow to slide o ff so branches dont break under heavy snow. - Most common conifers in B.C. are from the Pine family (pines, spruces, firs, larches and cedars), the Yew family, the Cypress family and the Juniper family. Confirm your learning Gymnosperm Character Sketch Economic and Ecological Importance - Seeds of nearly all pines are edible and are high in protein. - 85% of all wood in buildings and furniture comes from conifers. - Conifers also used for fuels, paper, turpentine and medicines. - Trees help maintain balanced levels of CO2 in our atmosphere, large forested areas often called carbon sinks as they absorb high amounts of CO2 gas. 8|Page

Trees also prevent soil erosion, especially on steep slopes where tree roots keep soil in place; no trees lead to increase in landslides. - Trees (both living and dead) provide important shelter for many animals including squirrels, many birds, bats Reproduction Life Cycle of a Conifer (refer to diagram) -As with ferns, the sporophyte generation is dominant. - All gymnosperms have a similar life cycle (we will look at a Pine tree). 1. The pine tree produces two different kinds of cones seed cones (female) and pollen cones (male). 2. The seed cones bear ovules that contain haploid spore cells. These develop into the female gametophyte that makes the eggs (n). 3. The pollen cones have spores that divide by mitosis into pollen grains with sperm nuclei (n) inside. 4. Large amounts of pollen carried by the wind (=pollination) to the female cones. 5. The male pollen lands on the female cone and begins to grow a tube into the female cone until it reaches an egg. Then the sperm is released through the pollen tube, unites with the egg and forms a zygote (2n). 6. The zygote divides by mitosis and grows into an embryo inside the seed in the female cone. 7. The seed falls to the ground and grows into the young sporophyte. The seed can remain dormant for years and only breaks out of the seed coat and begins to grow when proper environmental cues are present (rainfall, increase in sunlight).

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Confirm your learning - GAME!!! Internal Structures (refer to cross-section diagram handout) - Contain vascular tissue - Food made in leaves through photosynthesis is carried throughout plant by phloem tissue. - Water and nutrients are brought up from roots by xylem tissue. - On outside of tree is outer bark, protects tree from injury, keeps insects and diseases out and protects tree tissues from freezing. - New xylem and phloem (inner bark) are added to stems of conifers throughout life of tree, this is accomplished by the vascular cambium, a thin layer of unspecialized cells between the xylem and phloem. All new cells of stem grow from this layer. - The division of cells from vascular cambium allows stem to grow wider. 10 | P a g e

Vascular cambium is a form of meristematic tissue=any plant tissue that contains cells capable of dividing for the life of the plant, this type of tissue is also present at root tips and other parts of stem. Growth rings allow us to determine age of tree. The cells produced by vascular cambium in spring and summer tend to be larger and have thinner cell walls than those produced in late summer/early autumn, this is because there is much intense growth during spring/early summer so cells grow more quickly. By late summer/early autumn there is less sunlight, so cells do not divide as rapidly. Winter is a period of dormancy (no growth) in Northern climates. As a tree ages, some of the cells at the centre of the xylem fill with resins and gums, which prevent the flow of water but help support the tree; this darker wood at the centre is called heartwood. The outer, lighter wood that has functioning xylem is called sapwood

ANGIOSPERMS (Flowering Plants) Vascular Seed Plants Characteristics - About 100 m.y.a., angiosperms became dominant form of plant life - Make up the largest group of plants in the world, with 250,000 known species. - Angio, comes from Greek word angion, meaning vessel so, angiosperms have covered seeds. - In angiosperms, the vessel or covering is the ripened ovary. - Widely distributed in wide variety of habitats due to successful adaptations - Contain vascular tissue that is arranged in bundles. - All produce flowers, but these vary greatly in size and shape. Flower Structures (refer to diagram of stylized flower) - When flower is still a bud, it is enclosed in protective, leaf-like structures called sepals. - Sepals fold back and the flower opens to reveal the petals. 11 | P a g e

The colour and shape of petals attract insects and other animals that play a vital role in pollination. Within the petals are the plants reproductive structures. The thin stalks topped by small knobs are the male reproductive structures called stamens these are composed of a filament and an anther. The anther is where pollen grains are formed. The female structures are called pistils and are in the centre of the flower. Flowers have at least one pistil, but several have many. The sticky tip at the top of the pistil is the stigma; this is where pollen grains (from anther) land during pollination. The stigma is connected to the ovary (hollow structure at base of flower) by a slender tube called a style. The ovary contains one or more ovules. Flowers that have both male and female parts are called perfect/complete flowers. Examples include lilies, tulips and tomatoes. A flower that produces some flowers with male parts and some with female parts is called an imperfect/incomplete flower. Examples include kiwi, blackberry, corn

Pollination and Fertilization - A flower is pollinated when a pollen grain lands on the stigma - If pollen is from the same species of plant as the stigma it landed on, the pollen grain breaks open and grows a pollen tube down through the style and into the ovary. - The sperm from the pollen then travels down the pollen tube and fertilizes an egg cell inside an ovule. - The fertilized ovule is the seed. - Many flowers drop their petals after an egg has been fertilized. The remaining structures grow in size and develop into a fruit. So, a fruit is really a ripened ovary that protects the seed/seeds. Apples and cherries are fruits, as well as many other foods we normally call vegetables such as cucumbers, tomatoes and each kernel on a cob of corn. All are fruits since they contain their seeds within a protective structure. Confirm your Learning Flower Dissection Monocots vs. Dicots - Angiosperms are divided into two classes, Monocotyledons (Monocots) and Dicotyledons (Dicots). - A cotyledon is a seed leaf that stores food for the germinating seedling. It falls off once the stem has grown leaves that can provide plant with food through photosynthesis. 12 | P a g e

- Monocots have their flower parts in 3s or multiples of 3s so the flower of a monocot may have 6 petals and 9 stamens. They have leaves with parallel veins. Their stems dont have vascular cambium and they have scattered vascular bundles. They also only have one cotyledon.

Dicots have flower parts in multiples of 4s or 5s. Their leaves have net-like veins and their stems have vascular cambium and vascular bundles arranged in a ring. They have two cotyledons.

Confirm Your Learning watch The Plants and The Bee: Plant Reproduction - CrashCourse Biology #38 http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=ExaQ8shhkw8 Connections to Biological Theme Using the theme of Adaptations as a guide, explain how Angiosperms have become the dominant plant form on Earth. __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ Do you think that algae have stomata? Explain your answer. 13 | P a g e

__________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________ No. They are not vascular plants, so do not have true leaves or leaf cells such as mesophyll, xylem, phloem, etc. Their blades (photosynthetic surfaces) are extremely thin and float within the algaes water habitat and exchange gases and water with the environment through simple diffusion. Since the plant lives in water, no adaptations have developed to prevent water loss such as those required in terrestrial environments.

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