School of Physics and Astronomy Junior Honours Thermodynamics

Lecture TOPIC 7
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GJA 2013-2014

(Finn: 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10)

Synopsis: Thermodynamic temperature scale. Carnot devices. A (nearly) real engine.

Carnot Engine eciency The eciency of a Carnot engine is independent of the nature of the working substance. Heat ows (Q1 and Q2 ) are determined solely by the temperatures (T1 and T2 ) of the heat reservoirs. It is therefore possible to dene a temperature scale based on thermodynamic principles. This is in principle better than the ideal gas temperature scale which relies on the properties that real gases have in common at very low pressure. Choosing an ideal gas as a working substance we now show that the simplest denition of a thermodynamic temperature scale coincides with the ideal gas temperature scale. The ideal gas scale then provides a practical way to measure absolute thermodynamic temperature. Heat ow and work done in a Carnot cycle with an Ideal gas as the working substance: 1. Isothermal expansion ab: For any innitesimal part of this expansion, the First Law gives dU = d q P dV = 0, since for an ideal gas U = U (T ). Integrate to get heat entering the gas:
Vb Vb

qab =
Va

P dV = nRT1
Va

dV Vb = nRT1 ln( ), which is positive. V Va

(For an ideal gas U = 0 for an isothermal process. So heat enters the working substance to make up for the energy loss it incurs because it does mechanical work on its surroundings.) 2. Isothermal contraction or compression cd: For any innitesimal part of this compression, at constant temperature T2 , the First Law gives dU = d q P dV = 0, since for an ideal gas U = U (T ). Integrate as for the other isothermal stage, above, to get the heat entering the working substance:
Vd Vd

qcd =
Vc

P dV = nRT2
Vc

Vd dV = nRT2 ln( ), which is negative. V Vc

(Heat leaves the working substance with the energy loss being balanced by the mechanical work done on it by its surroundings. 3. In terms of the notation developed for use with heat engines, Q1 = qab , but Q2 = qcd . Vc The heat rejected by the working substance ie Q2 = nRT2 ln( V ). d Q2 nRT2 ln(Vc /Vd ) T2 ln(Vc /Vd ) = = Q1 nRT1 ln(Vb /Va ) T1 ln(Vb /Va )
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le topic07.pdf

Information is needed on the factor involving the volumes. 4. Properties of the adiabatics Take the ratio of T1 Vb 1 = T2 Vc 1 and T1 Va 1 = T2 Vd 1 to get Vb /Va = Vc /Vd ln(Vb /Va ) = ln(Vc /Vd ). Substitution of this result in the formula for Q2 /Q1 gives Q2 T2 = Q1 T1 5. Conclusion Dening thermodynamic temperature Tth via
Tth2 Tth1

Q2 Q1

makes the thermodynamic temperature scale the same as the ideal gas temperature scale. Henceforth we denote temperatures on both scales by T , measured in kelvin.

Engineering denitions of eciency including for refrigerators and heat pumps

We are now in a position to specify eciencies in terms of the temperatures of the reservoirs they are connected to. Eciency is always dened by (what you want out)/(what you put in). So for an Engine you put heat in and get work out. For a Refrigerator, you put work in, and take heat out (from the cold region). For a Heat Pump you put work in, and get heat out (into the warm region).

Heat Engine hot reservoir T1

?

Refrigerator hot reservoir T1 Q1 W 6 '$ W C  &%

Q1

'$ 

&% ?

Q2

Q2 6 T2 cold reservoir Refrigerator, coecient of performance R : R = Q2 Q2 = W Q1 Q2

R C =

T2 cold reservoir

Engine, eciency : Q2 = 1 Q1 T2 C = 1 T1

T2 T1 T2

Heat pump, heat pump eciency HP : Carnot only HP = Q1 Q1 = W Q1 Q2

HP C =

T1 T1 T2

The air standard Otto cycle: a nearly real engine

This is a simplied version of the twostroke petrol engine. A single working substance is assumed an ideal gas, rather than an air plus petrol mix. No chemical changes are therefore considered, and the source of heat is assumed to be external rather than internal from the combustion of fuel. The simplied cycle that remains (the air standard Otto cycle) is a four stage process comprises two adiabatic and two constant volume (isochoric) processes. Heat exchange takes place in the isochoric processes, see diagram.

Begin with the compression stage. 1. a b: reversible adiabatic compression (Piston moves in) Ta V1 1 = Tb V2 1 2. b c: heat added from some external source and the working substance pressure increases at constant volume. (actually, combustion) Q1 = CV (Tc Tb ) 3. c d: reversible adiabatic expansion (the power stroke: piston moves out) Td V1 1 = Tc V2 1 4. d a: heat rejected and the working substance cools to its original pressure, at constant volume (actually, exhaust and fuel/air input) Q2 = CV (Td Ta ) The eciency for the engine has to be specied in terms of Q1 and Q2 . From (4) and (2): =1 Q2 Td Ta =1 Q1 Tc Tb

To get more insight into the factors controlling eciency use (1) and (3) to give: =1 V2 V1
1

=1

1
1 rc

where rc = V1 /V2 is called the compression ratio. If rc is 5, 50%. Many other considerations limit the eciency of real engines yielding values that are well below this. Most real engines are four-stroke. They have exhaust and intake stages between da and ab.