EE6604 Advanced Topics Semiconductor Devices

Base Conductivity Modulation Effect

This is another effect causing IC to decrease at high VBE.

1. At high levels of electron injection, the hole concentration

in the base pp has to increase by thermal generation to
maintain charge neutrality (refer page 46).

2. In addition, the injected electrons add to the negative

space charge on the base side of the base collector junction.
This reduces the depletion width and increases the
quasineutral base width WB.

Both (1) and (2) increase the base Gummel number and
decrease IC.

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Charge distribution in base-collector junction

Normal
Forward active

High injection

Depletion region (n-side)

(p-side)
Depletion region

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Numerical simulation of BJT base widening

Dopant Profile

High field region shifts towards collector-subcollector

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Kirk Effect (or Base Pushout)

This refers to the shifting of the base collector junction

towards the collector-subcollector interface at high levels of
injection.

The electrons injected from the base induce holes in the

collector in order to maintain charge neutrality.

These holes cause the portion of collector nearest to the

base to become p-type and effectively a base extension.

[Analysis is difficult because the depletion approximation no longer applies.]

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Nonideal Base Current

The base current consists of three components:

1. Hole injection current from base to emitter

2. Generation-recombination current

3. Tunneling current

Only the first component follows the ideal transistor theory.

At low currents, components (2) and (3) cause deviations.

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Generation-Recombination Currents

This current component is due

to interface states (x x x)
at the surface of the base.
They are situated at the Si-
SiO2 interface.

Because these states are

within the Si bandgap, they
can result in Shockley
-Read recombination. Injected carriers recombine instead of
crossing the base to the collector.
Due to improvements in semiconductor processing, this is
not a problem anymore.

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Base Tunneling Current

Interband quantum tunneling at

emitter-base junction is possible
when there is heavy doping
in both the emitter and the
extrinsic base.

Narrow depletion widths are

comparable to the de-Broglie
electron wavelength.

Important in VLSI bipolar transistors

Interband tunneling current is independent of temperature.

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Band to Band Tunneling in a P-N Junction

Valence band Conduction Band

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Early Effect

The collector current of bipolar transistors with a thin base

often increases as the collector emitter voltage increases.

This Early effect is caused by an increase in the base-

collector depletion width. As a result, the quasi-neutral base
width WB decreases.

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Early Voltage

Collector current increases linearly with VCE in the linear

region.

The collector voltage at which the extrapolated IC = 0 is

called the Early voltage, VA: E B C
−1
⎛ ∂I C ⎞
VA + VCE = I C ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂VCE ⎠

VA increases with base doping density. If the base is very

lightly doped (small VA), the quasi-neutral base width can
reduce to zero and punchthrough occurs.

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Bipolar Device Models

Purpose:

1. Device models allow a circuit comprising bipolar

transistors to be simulated by computer.

2. Electrical characteristics of the device are represented in

the model by equivalent circuit parameters. There are two
widely used DC models:

Ebers-Moll model

Gummel-Poon model

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Basic DC Ebers-Moll Model

Transistor modeled as two

diodes in series and two
dependent current sources

With BE forward biased,

IF flows in BE diode and αFIF
flows in the collector.

When BC is forward biased,

IR flows in the BC diode and Ebers Moll circuit
αRIR flows in the emitter.

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The dependent source αFIF models the injection of

minority carriers from emitter to collector.

αF is the common base current gain in the forward

direction.

αRIR models the injection of minority carriers from

collector to emitter.

αR is the common base current gain in the reverse

direction.

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Ebers-Moll Terminal Currents

From the equivalent circuit,

IE = αR IR − IF

IC = α F I F − I R
and

I B = (1 − α F ) I F + (1 − α R ) I R

[Kirchoff: IE + IC + IB = 0]

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Using the ideal p-n diode equation for IF and IR,

I F = I F 0 [exp(qVBE / kT ) − 1]

I R = I R 0 [exp(qVBC / kT ) − 1]

Substituting,

I E = − I F 0 [exp (qVBE / kT ) − 1] + α R I R 0 [exp (qVBC / kT ) − 1]

I C = α F I F 0 [exp (qVBE / kT ) − 1] − I R 0 [exp (qVBC / kT ) − 1]

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The four basic Ebers-Moll parameters are:

IF0, IR0, αF, αR.

Alternatively, we can rewrite IE and IC as:

⎛ ⎛ qV ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ qVBC ⎞ ⎞
I E = a11 ⎜⎜ exp⎜ BE − ⎟ +
⎟ ⎟ 12 ⎜
1 a ⎜ exp ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎠

⎛ ⎛ qVBE ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ qVBC ⎞ ⎞
I C = a21 ⎜⎜ exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟⎟ + a22 ⎜⎜ exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎠

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where,
a11 = − I Fo
a12 = α R I R 0
a21 = α F I F 0
a22 = − I R 0
Note:

From the reciprocity theorem for 2-port networks,

a12 = a21

Thus there are actually three independent parameters only.

αF = -a21/a11 ; αR = -a12/a22

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For a given bipolar transistor, the Ebers-Moll model

parameters: (IF0, IR0, αF, αR) or (a11, a12, a21, a22) can be
deduced from the transistor dopant dimensions, doping
profiles and material parameters.

Schematic of simulated E-M BJT characteristics

Ic

Emitter current

Collector base voltage

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Base Collector Impact Ionization

If the bipolar transistor has a large VA, the collector current

can still increase as the base-collector voltage is increased
because of junction impact ionization. This results in carrier
multiplication.

Electrons injected from emitter enters collector base

depletion region.

• High field causes impact ionization.

• Secondary electrons add to collector current.

• Secondary holes flow to base and reduces base current.

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Effect of impact ionization

High injection base widening

Reduced peak field at BC
junction results in a
reduced impact ionization

Base current and β both Negative base current and β due

positive; forward active to impact ionization and Ibr
operation

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Bipolar Breakdown Voltages

Breakdown voltages are usually measured by applying

reverse bias to two transistor terminals with the third left
floating (open-circuit, OC).

BVCBO = collector base breakdown voltage (emitter OC)

BVCEO = collector emitter breakdown voltage (base OC)
BVEBO = emitter base breakdown voltage (collector OC)

BVCBO and BVCEO must be sufficiently large.

BVEBO is usually not of practical significance.

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BV Measurement Circuits

BVCEO BVBCO

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Avalanche Multiplication of Carriers

When the collector base junction breaks down, avalanche

multiplication (impact ionization) of carriers occurs within the
collector base junction depletion region.

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The electron current exiting the collector base depletion

region is larger than the current entering it by a factor of M.

J n (WB + WdBC ) = MJ n (WB )

Note:
When avalanche multiplication is significant, the common
base current gain, α will be increased by a numerical factor
of M.
α = (γα T ) M

where γ is the emitter injection efficiency and αT is the base

transport factor.

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Emitter injection efficiency,

J n (0 )
γ =
J n (0 ) + J p (0)

Base transport factor,

J n (WB )
αT =
J n ( 0)

For M=1 (no avalanche), α = γαT

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Relation of saturation currents in bipolar transistor

From the Ebers-Moll model, we can rewrite,

I C = − I CBO [exp(qVBC / kT ) − 1] − α F I E

where ICBO = IF0(1-αFαR) is the reverse saturation current of

the collector base diode with emitter on open circuit.

For the BVCEO measurement, IB=0, IC= -IE, therefore:

I CBO
IC =
1 −αF

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IC is in fact ICEO
I CBO
I CEO =
1 − αF

This shows that ICEO should be larger than ICBO.

When breakdown occurs, ICEO becomes infinite and this

corresponds to:
αF = 1

This is the avalanche breakdown condition.

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Relation Between BVCEO and BVCBO

Miller found that the multiplication factor, M can often be

expressed in terms of the breakdown voltage of a reverse
biased diode as:
1
M (V ) = m
⎛ V ⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟
⎝ BV ⎠

where V is the reverse voltage and m is an empirical number

between 3 - 6.

For the collector base junction of the forward active

transistor in the BVCBO configuration,

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1
M (VCB ) = m
⎛ VCB ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ BVCBO ⎠
Ö M needs to be infinity at breakdown.

For the BVCEO configuration, α =1 and VCB ~ BVCEO, at BD

γαT M (VCB ) = γαT M ( BVCEO ) = 1

Ö M slightly above 1 at breakdown

Combining,
BVCEO
= (1 − γα T )1 / m
BVCBO

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Physical Explanation of Smaller BVCEO

For each avalanche event in the base collector junction,

one electron hole pair is created. Secondary electron
will enter collector with the primary.

Secondary hole will flow to emitter and as a result of

diode action, 1/(1-α) electrons are injected into base
causing rapid build up of current at a lower voltage.
Hole injection to emitter Electron injection to base

E B C

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Since (1-γαT)<<1, BVCEO is substantially smaller than BVCBO

The plot below shows the BVCEO and BVCBO of a number of
BJTs as well as two dotted lines for a BV ratio of 2 and 4.

In practice, there is a trade-off between current gain and

breakdown voltage.

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Bipolar transistor models

The Ebers-Moll model can only give a good prediction of

terminal currents for moderate levels of injection i.e. base
currents.

Model does not take into account high current and other
non-ideal effects.

A more elaborate bipolar device models the Gummel-Poon

was therefore developed in ~1970.

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Gummel-Poon Model

The Gummel-Poon model is an extension of the Ebers-Moll

model.

It incorporates several secondary physical effects that are

ignored in the Ebers Moll e.g. high injection effects.

Although more accurate than the Ebers-Moll model, many

device parameters (>20!) are required to model all the
various physical effects.

H.K. Gummel, H.C. Poon, “An integral charge control model of bipolar
transistors”, Bell Syst. Tech. J. 49, p.827 (1970).

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Outline of the Gummel-Poon Model

Starting point is to rewrite the Ebers-Moll equations. By

comparing coefficients, the following relations can be
deduced directly from the Ebers-Moll circuit equations:

a12
a11 = −
αF
a12
a22 = −
αR
a122
− a11 + = IF0
a22

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By treating a11, a12 and a22 as three unknowns, we can

solve the above simultaneously. The Ebers-Moll
coefficients can be expressed in terms of αF, αR and IF0:

IF0
a11 = −
1 − α Fα R

αF IF0
a12 =
1 − α Fα R

αF IF0
a22 = −
(1 − α Fα R )α R

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Now introduce a parameter called intercept current, Ii:

αF IF0
I i = −a12 = −
1 − α Fα R

This current can be determined experimentally with the

base-emitter short circuited, ln(Ii) is the y-intercept of
ln(IE) versus VBC from VBC >> kT/q back to VBC = 0.

ln(IE)

VBC

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Using the relation between α and β, we can rewrite the

Ebers-Moll equation as:

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ qVBE ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ qVBC ⎞ ⎤
⎜
I E = ⎜1 + ⎟
⎟ I i ⎢exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ − I i ⎢exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎝ β F ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎦

⎡ ⎛ qVBE ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ qVBC ⎞ ⎤
I C = − I i ⎢exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ + ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ I i ⎢exp⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎦ ⎝ β R ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎦

These are equivalent but more symmetrical forms for IE

and IC.

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In the Gummel-Poon model, these currents are

rewritten as:
I E = I CC + I be

I C = − I CC + I bc

where,
I CC = I i [exp(qVBE / kT ) − exp(qVBC / kT )]

is the principal component of both the emitter and

collector currents.

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The minor component currents are:

I be =
Ii
[exp(qVBE / kT ) − 1]
βF

I bc =
Ii
[exp(qVBC / kT ) − 1]
βR

The key idea in the G-P model is to account for

secondary effects by modifying the expression for ICC
(ignore the smaller Ibe and Ibc).

I CC =
qnG I i
[exp(qVBE / kT ) − exp(qVBC / kT )]
Qb

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Here, Qb is the total majority carrier charge in the base

per unit area and nG is the base Gummel number.

At low levels of injection, Qb = qnG and the equation

reverts to the Ebers-Moll model.

For other injection conditions, we want this form of ICC to

allow additional effects to be modeled.

Qb consists of (i) charge in the quasi-neutral region, (ii)

space charge of the emitter-base and collector-base
depletion and (iii) holes resulting from injection into the
base. (See supplementary notes)

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Gummel-Poon Bipolar Equivalent Circuit

G-P model can predict bipolar I-V behavior more accurately. See supplementary
notes for model equations which are used in circuit simulators such as SPICE.

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Common Emitter Form of Ebers-Moll Model

This is a more useful form of the Ebers-Moll model for

circuit analysis. It can be derived from the common
base model.
ISR/βR IC
IB
I SF = α F I F
I SR = α R I R
I CT = I SF − I SR ICT

αF ISF/βF
βF =
1−αF
IE
αR
βR =
1−αR

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AC Model of Bipolar Transistor

When ac signals are present, capacitors have to be added to

the dc model:

For each junction, we need to add two capacitances:

1. Depletion layer capacitance, Cd

2. Diffusion capacitance, CD

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AC Model of Bipolar Transistor (large signal)

CdCS

CdBC
IB IC
CDC

ISR/βR
ISF/βF ICT

CdBE CDE IE

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Small Signal Equivalent Circuit Model

Used when small signals (ss)

are superposed on DC bias
voltages.

iB: ss base current

iC: ss collector current

vBE: ss base emitter voltage

vCE: ss collector emitter voltage

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Model parameters:

1. Transconductance, gm is the derivative of Ic with respect to

VBE taken at the dc bias point.

∂I C qI C
gm = =
∂VBE kT

2. Input resistance, rπ is the derivative of VBE with respect to

IB.
−1 −1
⎛ ∂I B ⎞ ⎛ ∂I B ∂I C ⎞ β
rπ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ ∂VBE ⎠ ⎝ ∂I C ∂VBE ⎠ gm

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3. Output resistance, r0 the reciprocal of the derivative of Ic

with respect to VCE.
−1
⎛ ∂I C ⎞ VA
⎜
r0 = ⎜ ⎟
⎟ =
⎝ ∂VCE ⎠ IC

The capacitances are designated by:

Cμ = CdBC
and
Cπ = CdBE + CDE

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In these two capacitors,

CdBC is the ss capacitance of the depletion region of the

base collector junction.

CdBE is the ss capacitance of the depletion region of the

base emitter junction.

CDE is called the emitter diffusion capacitance

If parasitic resistance is significant, additional

resistances should be added to this ideal small signal
model (see Taur, p.57).

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Diffusion capacitance

The capacitance CDE is due to all the minority carriers

caused by the base-emitter forward bias.

∂QDE
CDE =
∂VBE
Here,
QDE = QE + QB + QBE + QBC

QE, QB minority carrier charge in emitter, base.

QBE, QBC minority carrier in base-emitter, base-collector
space charge region.

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CDE accounts for the change in terminal voltages whenever

there is a rearrangement of the excess charges within the
transistor.

For circuit modeling purposes, we often write,

QDE = (t E + t B + t BE + t BC )I C
where,

tE: emitter delay time;

tB: base transit time;
tBE: base emitter space charge region transit time;
tBC: base collector space charge region transit time.

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Define forward transit time τF as:

τ F = (t E + t B + t BE + t BC )

At low collector current, τF is independent of VBE,

∂I C qI C
C DE =τF =τF = τ F gm
∂VBE kT

At high collector current, τF is not constant because of the

base conductivity modulation effect.

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Minority Carrier Charge Distribution

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Transient and AC response of BJT

The transient and AC characteristics of a BJT is determined

by the charges stored in the device.

When the terminal voltages are changed, the stored charges

must change in response and time is required for this.

Main figures of merit for high frequency performance:

1. Cutoff frequency, fT

2. Maximum oscillation frequency, fmax

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Cutoff frequency, fT

Defined as the transition frequency at which the common

emitter small-signal current gain at short circuit (RL=0) drops
to unity, 1.

Hence it is also referred to as the unity current-gain

frequency.

ft describes the maximum useful frequency of the transistor

when used as an amplifier.

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Small signal equivalent circuit for fT

C
iB Cμ
Cπ rπ iC
gmvBE

From the circuit,

iC = g mvbe − jωCμ vbe

⎛1 ⎞
iB = ⎜⎜ + jωCπ + jωCμ ⎟⎟vbe
⎝ rπ ⎠

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The frequency dependent common emitter current gain:

g m − jω C μ
β (ω ) =
(1 / rπ ) + jω (Cπ + Cμ )

It can be shown that, gm >> ωCμ, therefore at high

frequencies,
β (ω ) ≈
gm
jω Cμ + Cπ ( )

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From this,
gm
1=
2πf T (Cπ + C μ )

1 gm
fT =
2π (Cπ + Cμ )

Note:
fT depends on the forward transit time and the depletion
capacitances. τF can be determined from fT.

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Substituting for Cμ, Cπ, and CDE,

1
= τF +
kT
(CdBE + CdBC )
2πfT qI C

This is the typically used expression for finding τF.

Method:
Measure fT at different bias current
IC. A plot of 1/fT versus 1/IC will yield
(after extrapolation) at the intercept a
value for τF.

Question: Why is there a deviation at

small 1/Ic?

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Maximum Frequency of Oscillation, fmax

This is the frequency at which the maximum available power

gain of the transistor drops to 1.

fmax is typically greater than fT because it takes into account

voltage gain.

1 ⎡ Re(Z out ) ⎤ 2
Gp = ⎢ ⎥β
4 ⎣ Re(Zin ) ⎦
Maximum 
at high frequencies, power theorem 
Re(Zin) is basically the base resistance, rb;
Re(Zout) = 1/(2πfTCμ).

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High frequency equivalent circuit for fmax

Zout
Zin
rb Cμ
V’be

gmv’be RL
rπ
Cπ
Vs

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By analyzing the hybrid-π equivalent circuit,

1/ 2
⎛ fT ⎞
f max = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 8πrbCdBC ⎠

[N.B. Proof not required]

fmax can be used to estimate the maximum available power

gain at other frequencies:

2
⎛ f max ⎞
Gp = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ f ⎟
⎝ ⎠

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Maximum Available Power Gain

The maximum available power is only obtained when the
input and output impedances of the transistor are matched.

A microwave vector network analyzer (VNA) is used to

determine the maximum available power gain (MAG) as
function of frequency.

40MHz-40GHz VNA

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Frequency response of a bipolar transistor

(MSG: Mason gain U: unilateral gain)

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