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This paper was presented at CUMREC '97, The College and University Information Services Conference.

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Project and Employee Time Tracking for Information Systems and Technology
J. Reid Christenberry Associate Provost for Information Systems and Technology rchrist@gsu.edu Joe Sturgeon Manager, University Information Systems and Processes jsturgeon@gsu.edu

Georgia State University Information Systems and Technology Atlanta, Georgia 30303 November 14, 1996

About Georgia State University Georgia State enrolls one tenth of all students in higher education in Georgia. The second-largest university in Georgia, Georgia States students represent all fifty states and 107 foreign countries. The university offers some fifty graduate and undergraduate degrees in over 250 areas of study through its six colleges and schools: Arts and Science, Business Administration, Education, Health Sciences, Law, and Policy Studies. Georgia States campus is situated in Atlanta, the heart of the Southeasts business, government, retail, convention, health-service and legal activities.

Abstract The need for the information technology (IT) support organization to track work effort supporting diverse areas in the institution results from technological and competitive factors that have come to bear upon the academy. Georgia State University has implemented a Resource Management System (RMS) that addresses this need. The system is built upon a relational database in a client server environment. Interfaces to the system are through Oracle client server forms, Oracle reports and Web interfaces. The system supports maintenance of data about: Project definition and organization; Individuals, teams and departments involved in accomplishing this support; Preferences and privileges of system users, and The entry of information into worklogs, which designates the worker, project, activity, benefiting area, date of work, amount of time worked and notes.

Project and Employee Time Tracking for Information Systems and Technology
The RMS project at Georgia State is an outgrowth of forces that are currently shaping information technology in higher education. The prime force is simply rapid change itself and the need to know how resources are being committed in a changing environment. In the past eighteen months information technology support at Georgia State has undergone dramatic change. It has been reorganized under the aegis of a new unit called Information Systems and Technology (IS&T). A new Chief Information Officer for the university has been hired. At the same time, planning has begun for conversion of legacy mainframe applications to client server applications. The University has decided to purchase, rather then build, administrative applications. Client server conversions and an upgrade of the network infrastructure has begun. These institutional changes are taking place within a new management environment emphasizing work perspectives that are customer-driven, process-focused, team-oriented and projectbased. These perspectives have not always been part of the computing tradition at Georgia State. Review of recent literature about higher education information technology support will show that Georgia State is not an isolated island of turmoil in a calm sea. Behind institutional changes are new technological forces that are shaping education and the working world at large. Retrenchment, downsizing and redirection are banner words for these forces. They raise the question, How should the energy and scarce resources of the institution be allocated to accomplish the academic mission? This is particularly relevant when compared with former times of less rapid change, less focus on technology and less competition. From the viewpoint of practitioners in administrative computing in higher education over a long period of time, the focus on resource allocation may seem to turn the world upside down. Long gone are the isolation of the raised platform glass house and the industrial strength machine room. For many years, the programmer convinced the user of the need to computerize their recordkeeping. Many systems were built in this way: there were no systems to buy. Programmers enjoyed the position of being in-house magicians and could always pull one more rabbit out of the hat in an emergency. As time went on, these individual systems were integrated with each other and, with integration, came added dimensions of complexity and interdependence. Soon, the systems began to talk to outside systems. Private networks and dial-up lines were used to communicate with government agencies, financial aid service providers, banks, other educational institutions and the business world at large. Concurrently, systems were developed to put terminals directly in the hands of the ultimate end user the student. These terminals were first and are predominately still touch tone telephones and, more recently, Internet access to systems through the World Wide Web. High demand for applications is fueled by the strategic necessity that institutions meet the world in a high tech arena. Studies have shown that ITs contribution to profitability may be hard to prove, but there is no doubt that it is a strategic baseline necessity for entering the contest. (Hitt, Brynjolfsson, 1996) The managers of higher education are required to use IT but they are also constrained to minimize its cost. This has created a demand for off-the-shelf, industrial grade software that can replace the cottage industry of in-house development and expensive programmer craftsmen. The trend toward purchased software is concurrent with the accelerating trends of standardization and inter-communication of information. This, too, has led educational administrators to cast a desirous eye on purchased systems and a wary eye on the cost of in-house development. Despite the desire to curtail costs and buy off-the-shelf, demand for computing services in higher education normally will greatly exceed the production capacity of the IT support organization. Customers expect more. At the same time, applications are more complex and interdependent. Modification and enhancement are, therefore, more complicated. The modification and consequential maintenance of purchased software can be very expensive. Then too, democratization of access has added a multiplicity 2

of new customers. Computer expertise can be found in diverse places throughout the university. A diversity of skills and skill levels are available in the IT support organization. Standardization, specialization and modularity are watchwords in the industry. Customers know a lot more about computers then they did ten years ago. They know the computer can do this for us and they want their needs addressed. There are many more customers than before. On top of this, higher education itself is receiving increased scrutiny from its supporting constituency groups. Governing bodies demand more accountability. More quantitative measures of productivity and implied costs are being implemented for higher education as a whole. This combination of factors has fueled the question: What goes on in IT and why are we spending so much money on it? For the IT organization this question of resource allocation can be embarrassing unless there is a method to demonstrate productivity, cost containment and comparisons of benefiting areas. It has long been the case in computing and software development that, while hardware costs are diminishing, the cost of human resources are always increasing. Therefore, the Resource Management System (RMS) has been initially aimed at delivering information about what people are doing and for whom. An Overview of RMS The Resource Management System (RMS) at Georgia State is used to record and report Information Systems & Technology (IS&T) work activities. It contains descriptions and classifications of projects and can show who worked on a project, the hours worked and the area within the university benefiting from the work. The application is divided into three main data domains: Projects: The first data domain consists of information related to the description of a project. A project can be either a unit of work, a task or a collection of tasks which can be ordered into a hierarchy of dependencies. Some projects, like COMPUTER OPERATIONS are ongoing, or standing, projects. Other projects, like INCREASE YEAR TO FOUR DIGITS IN ACCOUNTS PAYABLE REPORT (RSBCOSAP) have specific expected completion dates and are more one-time in nature. People: The second data domain has information about employees and customers of IS&T. All users of the system must have individual data on file like ID, Name and password. This data can also be arranged into a hierarchy showing supervisor-employee relationships. Organizations: The third main data domain is composed of information about teams and benefiting departments. Teams and department are separate data types. This information can also be arranged into hierarchies showing parent-child relationships.

There are many relationships between data domains. The link between project and employee is of primary importance. This link is manifested through worklog transaction records entered into the system by employees. Another important relationship is established between project and benefiting area. The detailed worklog transactions can be entered containing a benefiting area other than the benefiting area normally associated with a project. This means that a project can have an expected benefiting area, while the actual work done benefits another area. Worklog transactions also contain an activity field. Activities are actions such as Programming, Design or Documentation performed on a project. In addition to being linked by worklogs to employees, projects are also assigned to an employee, to a department (within IS&T) and to a team. Other relationships in the data include grouping employees into team memberships and departments, recording privileges (access rights) and preferences of employees, grouping contact people with a project, associating activities with projects, and associating activities with worklogs. The functional interfaces of RMS are: 1) a set of Oracle client server forms (version 4.5), 2) a set of World Wide Web HTML forms using cgi-bin technology and 3) a set of Oracle client server reports (version 2.5) that are launched from a client server form menu. The client server forms interface consists of separate 3

panels to maintain and display employee, team and department, project, project organization, employee preferences, and worklog data. The Web forms support worklog entry, ad hoc project entry, worklog review, project notes review, benefiting departments review, and project hierarchy review. The reports allow parameter selections such as by date range or benefiting department. They show things like time logged to projects, the projects on which employees have worked, missing worklog activity, and project work hours by benefiting department. All employees of IS&T are required to make worklog entries that record project, activity, benefiting area (if other then the default associated with the project), date and hours worked. In addition, the worklog has space to record project notes so that an employee can be more specific about what was done. These notes can be recalled for later use. Employees can also enter new projects. These projects come into the system without a hierarchical parent assigned and are reviewed by the RMS administrator for assignment into a project hierarchy. Typically, employees enter the system through a Web browser. They are presented with a log-in form on which they enter their RMS ID and password. They are next presented with a menu form with a default setting to the worklog entry form. When the worklog form is presented it contains pull-down Web form fields for selection of: All projects, recent projects, and preferred projects, Activities (recent, all, preferred), Benefiting departments (recent, all, preferred), Month, day, and year, and Hours and tenths of hours worked.

A table is also presented that lists entries for the current (or a selected) day. The use of pull-downs guarantees the validity of data. The entry process appears to take about five to fifteen minutes per day per worker. How RMS Benefits the University and IS&T Return on Investment: The benefit to the University must justify the time spent entering data into RMS, producing reports and maintaining the system. In the broadest sense, RMS contains information about the work of IS&T and serves as an indicator of what is produced and how much it cost. The system can show the University what it gets for its IT staff investment. In the past, it was sufficient to measure (and perhaps hide) this relationship between cost and production by counting job titles in the computer center. The work delivered was basically computer support and it benefited the central administration and a few academic areas such as computer science and physics. Now almost all departments want computer support and there are many administrative areas competing for application development. Moreover, the management trend toward teams, cross-training and scaled-down organization hierarchies has fostered the need to track work activity in more detail than that provided by job descriptions and titles. The project and activity lists in RMS support this tracking. The first benefit to the University, therefore, is knowledge of how its valuable human talent is used. With this knowledge, the University can align its resources with its mission and justify allocation of resources, as appropriate. Budget Justification: For Georgia States IS&T, knowledge about work activities has the added benefit of offering a defense for its budget needs and offering a proactive tool for its budget proposals. Increasingly, higher education is called upon to measure its productivity and costs with objective criteria like student hour and degree production against departmental costs. The equivalent for IS&T is to project production and measure project costs in terms of staff work time. Such time has as a dollar value the equivalent to the salary and benefits of the workers involved. Analysis of Services Rendered: The area receiving the benefits of work performed provides another interesting perspective on work performed. This perspective is more closely tied with the traditional budgeting structure of the institution. Currently, RMS is not used to support a recharge system. Such 4

systems have several negative attributes, among which is the tendency to damper the adoption of technological solutions. Of course, given the increased demand for computing services and relatively static IT budgets, it can be highly productive to involve supported departments in the commitment of resources to a greater degree. However, even without recharge, RMS demonstrates to departments the time that is dedicated on their behalf. This can help IS&T support claims for more resources as well as show departments what share of IS&T resources they receive. Prioritization and Backlog Analysis: A breakdown by benefiting area can also help IS&T management in negotiations with client departments over project priorities and backlog. The projects for a department are listed along with their status and work time logged. Such a list is a helpful tool for planning work. Thus the data in RMS is double-edged: on the one side, it defends IS&T by showing the areas in the institution that benefit from IS&T work; on the other side, it is a tool for resource allocation and planning. Activity Analysis: RMS shows the type of activities performed by workers. Is the work time of programmers consumed by endless meetings? What projects are not accumulating productive work? Is professional development being allocated its needed time? Is email-reading becoming an added burden? What are the typical activities of the various IS&T sub units? These and similar question can be answered with a view of RMS data focused on activity type. Responsibility and Accountability: Projects in RMS are assigned on three levels: to departments (sub units in IS&T), to teams (sub units in departments or across departments), and to individuals.

Therefore, responsibility for projects is specified from the general area to the particular person. By assigning responsibility to departments, teams and individuals, RMS fosters both the team approach and the fact that some one must be responsible for coordinating the activity of a team or performing productive tasks. The advantage to the University is the clear indication of where responsibility rests for a project. Workload Distribution: Project assignment and worklog activity allow IS&T management to track how work is distributed to teams and individuals within their departments. By knowing who is doing what, managers can make better decisions on new assignments. Trend Analysis: Management can also use the system to track trends over time. Activities such as TROUBLESHOOTING should decrease with the age of a project. If not, there may be a problem. High maintenance areas observed in the data can be used to focus resources. The effects of quality programs can be measured by changes in activity. In general, RMS can serve as a Decision Support System. This factor is enhanced because RMS is implemented in a relational database that will make it easier to access information with a variety of methods. (Frost, Gohsman, 1993) Organization of Work and Interdependent Tasks: Another advantage provided by RMS is in the organization of work. The project hierarchy shows how projects are tied together in a system. Related projects are grouped together. This draws a clear picture for customers and IS&T staff. Customers can see what is happening in all areas. Negotiations about the relative importance of projects can be put into the hands of customers. A clear picture of project organization promotes a customer-driven orientation. Although RMS is not primarily designed for Project Management and does not offer such things as Gantt charts, CPM and PERT, it is capable of giving a rough estimate of progress toward completion of a project. A project definition includes an estimate of the number of hours required to complete the project. This can be compared to the hours accumulated in the worklog to measure degree of completion. When the Project Definition form is queried it shows the total worklog hours for the project. In addition, because projects can be arranged in parent-child relationships it is possible to structure them as a system of dependencies for the purpose of project management. Enhancing Staff Awareness of the Value of Their Work Effort: The IS&T policy of being customeroriented is enhanced with RMS. This is the result of each worker consciously recording their work project 5

and benefiting area. Workers become more aware that their work is a professional service related to a particular benefiting entity an entity whose satisfaction is the ultimate reason for their work. Customer orientation is another way of saying that the mission of the university as a whole is taken into account by IS&T. Customer orientation promotes professionalism within IS&T. Professionalism may seem rather highsounding to many people in computing who are accustomed to taking an understated approach to daunting tasks. This paper, in fact, has continuously used the term worker because any other term seems either pretentious or awkward. However, most entry-level positions in IT require a high level of expertise and the mastery of a complex set of skills. Often, degrees and certificates testify to competence in IT. In addition, a professional is differentiated from other workers whose skills are less technical and more embedded in the context of the organization. Professionals apply a standard competency to areas where other workers may be more opportunistic. That the standardized competence of professionals is measured by their time is also true for other workers. The difference is that professionals are not so embedded and can sell their time to a variety of benefiting areas. This is not unlike the situation of attorneys. Attorneys using automated time tracking almost always report an increase in billed time. (Goldstein, 1992) This supports the contention that RMS increases professionalism by drawing attention to both the skill that is applied and the customer benefiting from the skill. IS&T workers become more aware that their time is a valuable corporate asset. Client Server Pilot Project: A final benefit from the RMS project was the experience gained from application development in a client server environment. This was part of the justification for developing RMS in-house. Georgia State University plans to move its administrative applications to client server. It has purchased some administrative software for student housing and alumni/development relations and, in the near future, will purchase replacement software for Student Information Systems, Human Resources and Finance. Yet the applications development group had very little experience with relational databases and client server systems. RMS has allowed the application group to gain experience that includes entity relationship design, application design, interactive World Wide Web interfaces, UNIX, C programming, PL/SQL, report writers, Windows programming and the myriad other components of client server. Moreover, IS&T has gained the experience of running a system that is used by about 150 people everyday and generates approximately 10,000 worklog transactions per month. Staff Perceptions - Some Comments Heard in the Hall The joys of entering worklog data into RMS are not yet universally appreciated. The decision to implement this system was an executive decision. Many in IS&T support RMS for the reasons outlined above and because they realize that, to compete for its share of the budget pie during a period of rapid change, IS&T must have hard facts about both the kind of functions it performs and the associated costs. Some in IS&T prefer the former, perhaps cozier, era in university computing when relating to users was not mediated by time charges. Yet this very coziness raised questions about who benefited. One objection has been that entering the data takes too much time. However, analysis shows that the overall average is 14.5 transactions per week, which is less then three a day. The Web interface requires just several clicks to enter data. This activity does not take more then 15 minutes per day per person. Still, the servers are sometimes slow and a browser must be launched. Much effort has gone into making the interfaces quick and simple to encourage accurate usage. Part of the difficulty with entering and reporting information is the number of items from which to choose for projects and activities. This problem needs to be addressed by the RMS administrator and the management of IS&T. Perhaps, it would be useful to restrict activities to a list of no more than fifteen. The projects also need to be better organized as there are now over 700 and the list grows at a faster rate than projects are completed. The problem of too many choices is related to comments about data inaccuracy. Workers can make the wrong choices. Four months into the program, review of data has centered on making sure that workers

are completing their logs. Participation by all staff was the initial objective; refinement of data will follow as a second objective. The data may not be completely accurate at this time. But as time goes on, and the activity and project lists are refined, accuracy will increase. The system itself and the ease of constructing relational database queries serve as helpful tools in this matter. Moreover, compared with what was available previously (no information), RMS is quite a jump into accuracy. Also, large numbers there are over 40,000 transactions after a four month period give statistical credence to RMS data. As time goes on, entering data into RMS will become a habit that is far less intrusive on workers time than it first appeared. It is an overwhelming advantage to IS&T to have quantitative measurements of its work as it competes for resources. It is better to spend a few minutes a day tracking time than to spend ones day looking for a new job due to outsourcing, downsizing, redirection or some other variation of not getting resources because nobody knows what workers spend their time doing. Review of Selected Technical Features of RMS RMS data is accessed through three interfaces: client server forms; World Wide Web (WWW) forms and client server reports. The client server forms are written in Oracle Forms 4.5. The WWW forms are delivered by a server program written in ProC (C that uses an Oracle precompiler to compile SQL) using socket interprocess communication (IPC). The reports are written in Oracle Report 2.5 and are called from a Forms 4.5 menu form. Client Server Forms Most of the fields on RMS forms support the Oracle query-by-example mode. This is a powerful feature for data selection and display. The Query button is clicked to enter query mode. Selection data (wild cards allowed) is entered in the appropriate field. The Query button is clicked again and information based on the query is retrieved. Each instance that meets the criteria of the query can be viewed by scrolling. The client/server interface is entered through the RMS main menu. This menu presents the available forms and reports. Buttons let users toggle between Form views and Report views. The report and form selection items are populated from the database. When a new item is needed, it is added to the database and does not require programming changes. As to be expected from a relational database application, the items in the Form view of the Main Menu give a good functional breakdown of the RMS system: Preferences Project Organization Project Definition Department and Team Definition Worklog People Definition

On the Preferences form (not shown), users enter combinations of projects, activities and benefiting areas. These combinations are then available to the user through pulldowns in the WWW interface and the client server Worklog form as preferred or priority combinations. In this way, the user does not have to review the multitude of project, activity and benefit area combinations to reconstruct their typical daily worklog. Thus the Preferences form is one method that an individual can bring order to their RMS environment. The Preferences form also shows recent combinations a worker has used in their worklog. In turn, these may be set as preferences. On the WWW interface for worklog entry, the pulldowns for Project, Activity and Benefiting Area are populated first with preferences, second with recent worklogs and last with all valid possible entries. The Preferences form can also be used by managers to put project combinations on a workers list. The ability for one person to adjust preferences for another person is determined by a set of privileges maintained in the RMS database.

Figure 1

The Project Organization form (Figure 1) is used to arrange projects into a hierarchy. The plus (+) and minus (-) signs to the left of the form indicate whether or not the projects listed in the detail section of the form have children projects. By clicking the sign, the corresponding project is made the main query of the form. Thus this form can be used to traverse the project hierarchy. This interface is also used to assign parent projects, benefiting areas, workers and IS&T departments to a project. The Capture and Put buttons at the bottom of the form are used to copy data from one detail field to another.

Figure 2 The Project Definition form (Figure 2) is used to enter and maintain individual project information. To enter a new project, the user clicks on New at the bottom of the form, keys in the appropriate information and clicks Save. The form is extensively populated with function buttons. The Hier button for example switches project pulldowns on the form from an alphabetic listing to a hierarchial listing. All projects must have one and only one parent except for the project called All Projects which has no parent. When a project is displayed on this form its children are also displayed. By clicking the plus sign (+) next to the child project, that project is made the main query of the form. As can be seen, the form enables the assignment of a project to a department, team and individual. It allows for the designation of a default benefiting area. The Total Hours and Last Worklog Date are the result of a query on current worklog data. Valid Activities can be associated with a project. There are fields of ample size for project description and additional notes. In a detail section at the bottom of the form, roles such as Approved or Requested can be associated with IS&T customers and employees.

This form also allows access to special administrative functions. Access to these functions is determined by RMS privileges associated with a user and is typically restricted to the RMS administrator role. The special functions are: Change Project Name - changes all occurrences of project name in the database Consolidate Projects - collapses two projects into one name Recreate Hierarchy - creates table entries for the hierarchy view of projects Change Department and Team - changes all occurrences of a department or team name Change User ID - changes all occurrences of a user ID

The Department and Team Definition form (not shown) is for establishing and maintaining data related to benefiting areas and IS&T teams. Essentially, it maintains a department type file. Like projects, benefiting areas and teams can be organized into a hierarchy by assigning a parent. Child benefiting areas/teams are shown on the form. In addition, this form can be used to assign individuals to a team and shows the uncompleted projects assigned to a team. 9

The worklog entry form (Figure 3) is used by workers to record time and can be used by management to review worker activity. Database queries are made by adjusting the query dates or clicking the radio buttons. Various combinations of preferences and recent worklogs are available as templates for the user by way of the pull-down bars above the detail section of the form. An editor window is available by double-clicking the Notes field. Controls are used to adjust date, time and hours.

Figure 3

The People definition form (not shown) maintains information like workers name, department, title, functional area and employment date. Various types of address data such as e-mail, phone and room can be associated with a person. This form also contains secure information such as RMS password that is only available to users with the required privileges. Secure information can be viewed by clicking the View Secure button. User privileges are also maintained on this form. World Wide Web Interface The WWW Interface to RMS consists of a server program called ora_rweb, a cgi-bin program that pumps label and value data to ora_rweb, a group of Unix files corresponding to the various functions supported by the interface and the SQL embedded in ora_rweb. The Unix files are for the most part HTML. However, they do contain certain tokens and symbols that, when read by ora_rweb, cause variable substitution and function calls. Thus the design is fairly modular in that similar functions and variables can be reused by embedding their corresponding token in the diverse HTML pages. The tokens are variables that stand for commands and data. The commands are interpreted by ora_rweb.

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The WWW forms in RMS are: Worklog Entry - Users record project, activity, benefiting area, date, hours and notes Project Request - Users enter new projects to be reviewed by the RMS Administrator Worklog Review - Worklog records are queried for a date range Benefiting Areas - Worklog records are queried and summed for a Benefiting Area Project Notes - Project detail and notes are queried Preferences - User preferences for pull-downs are designated Project Hierarchy - The project hierarchy can be traversed

Figure 4

The Worklog Entry form (Figure 4) is the primary way users enter worklog data into the system. The server program presents this form with table data showing log records for the last date of activity. Users can query a date by selecting from the date pull-downs and clicking the query button. The Project, Activities and Benefit Area pull-downs have Preferred, Recent and All sub-divisions.

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Figure 5 Figure 5 is detail from the Worklog Review Form. Queries to the database are made by selecting a worker from the pull-down and a date range. An HTML table displays the results of the query. Reports Standard RMS reports are selected from the client/server menu form. The available reports are: Department, Worklog, Project Summary Detail Worker Report by Worker and Day Project Assignments Project Worklog by Benefiting Area Project Hierarchy Project Detail Sheet With Worklog Under-Logged Hours by Week Worklog Benefit Area, Worker and Project No Worklog for Week

When the report name is double-clicked Oracle Forms launches Oracle Reports. A parameter form is presented by Oracle Reports that allows selection specification.

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Figure 6 Figure 6 is detail from a report that is used to audit data by showing employees who have not logged the expected time during a work week. The selection parameters allow filtering by date range and an allowance percentage. In this case employees can under report by ten percent and not show up on this report as an exception. One great advantage of relational databases and sql is demonstrated here: the ability to work extensively with date functions. In this case, daily worklogs are collapsed into a week and the hours are compared with the expected hours recorded in the workers person record. Some Preliminary Research Two examples of the type of information about IS&T that can be gathered from the system are shown in Figures 7 and 8. Figure 7 is a graph of average worklog transaction per person per week. The data is broken down by division in IS&T. The graph shows that, for all IS&T workers, the average is less than 15 worklog transactions per week. The greatest average number of transactions are in University Information Systems and Processes, which contains the application development and support group. The least number are in Technology Initiatives and IS&T Administration.

Figure 7

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Figure 8 Figure 8 is a pie chart showing the distribution of work by activity types. The activities used when logging project time were collapsed into nine categories. Such charts could be used by IS&T management to measure the impact of management decisions about work. A chart for one range of time could be compared with a chart for another to measure, for example, efforts to reduce clerical work. Conclusion Given the technological and competitive imperatives of the times, a system for recording work activity and time was needed by IS&T to support its position within the institution. The RMS system developed at Georgia State University has been in production for four months and has recorded over 40,000 log entries for 150 people. There is much room for improvement with the system, particularly in the area of refining data options when specifying activities and in characterizing projects. However, for the most part employees have made a graceful adjustment to a significant change in work procedures. References L. M. Hitt and E. Brynojolfsson, Productivity, Business Profitability, and Consumer Surplus: Three Different Measures of Information Technology Value. MIS Quarterly, June 1996. R. W. Frost and J. Gohsman, Implementing A Data Administration Function and Strategic Data Planning At the University of Michigan. CAUSE/EFFECT, Fall 1993. D. S. Goldstein, Automated Time Tracking: Plugging the Black Hole. Computer Counsel, October 1992.

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