The AP Examination in Psychology is approximately two hours long and includes both a 75-minute multiple-choice section and a 45-minute

free-response section. The multiple-choice section accounts for two-thirds of the student s examination grade and the free-response section for the remaining one-third. !a"or areas co#ered in the examination are as follows$ % Methods, Approaches, History .........................7-&' % Biological Bases of Behavior ...........................(-)*' % Sensation and Perception .................................7-&' % +tates of ,onsciousness ...............................--4' % Learning and Memory........................................7-&' % Cognition ...........................................................7-&' % !oti#ation and Emotion ..................................7-&' % .e#elopmental Psychology ............................7-&' % Personality .......................................................7-&' % Testing and Individual ifferences .....................5-7' % Abnormal Psychology .....................................7-&' % Treatment of Psychological isorders .............../-('

* Social Psychology .............................................7-&' ! Practice Test ! "SSA# $%"STI&'S

HISTORY AND METHODS

Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes

A Brief HistoryWilhelm Wundt- founded first research lab in 1879- birth of scientific psychology Structuralism studied consciousness- introspection, examining ones mind and what one is thin ing and feeling! "dward Titchener Functionalism- loo at function not structure, stress adaptation to the en#ironment! William James $%rinciples of %sychology in 189&' (ohn )ewey Gestalt psychology focus on the totality of perception, *ax Wertheimer Psychoanalysis- +igmund Freud- focus on role of unconscious conflicts, the process of raising these conflicts to a le#el of awareness is the goal of psychoanalysis

Current Views of PsychologyNeurobiology- ,eha#ior #iewed in terms of biological responses Behaviorism- ,eha#ior #iewed as a product of learned responses! Humanism- ,eha#ior #iewed as a reflection of internal growth! -ree will, selfactuali.ation, /arl Rogers client-centered therapy Psychodynamic ,eha#ior #iewed as a reflection of unconscious aggressi#e and sexual impulses !ognitive ,eha#ior #iewed as a product of #arious internal sentences or thoughts!%sychology Sociocultural ,eha#ior #iewed as strongly influenced by the rules and expectations of specific social groups or cultures

TERMS AND DE !N!T!"NS

Psychology- the scientific study of the behavior of living things 4 goals# describe$ understand$ predict and control theory % general frame&or' for scientific study( smaller aspects can be tested Charles Darwin % theories led to comparative psychology$ inspired early functionalists Wilhelm Wundt# )father of psychology*$ first scientific lab

ntros!ection# the process of loo'ing into yourself and describing &hat is there "tructuralism# the first theoretical school in psychology$ stated that all complex substances could be separated and analy+ed into component elements "igmund #reud# psychodynamic approach$ emphasis on the unconscious William $ames# &rote )Principles of Psychology*$ a functionalist $ coined the phrase)stream of consciousness* #unctionalist % as'ed &hat the mind does and &hy$ believed that all behavior and mental processes help organisms to adat to a changing environment $ohn& B& Watson# behaviorist$ ,ittle Albert 'estalt !sychology %emphasi+ed the organi+ational processes in behavior$ rather than the content of behavior$ the &hole is greater than the sum of its parts (clecticism % the process of ma'ing your o&n system by borro&ing from t&o or more other systems)eurobiological approach .medical/# vie&ing behavior as the result of nervous system functions and biology Behavioral approach %vie& behavior as the product of learning and associations B& #& "*inner# behaviorist$ operant conditioning Humanistic approach# believe people are basically good and capable of helping themselvesCarl +ogers# a humanist Psychoanalysis# a system of vie&ing the individual as the product of unconscious forces Cognitive a!!roach- emphasi+ing ho& humans use mental processes to handle problems or develop certain personality characteristics "ociocultural a!!roach % behavior vie&ed as strongly influenced by the rules and expectations of specific social groups or cultures Placebo % a )medicine* &ith no active ingredients Double-blind study# neither participants or researchers 'no& &ho is in &hich group Hy!othesis# a statement of the results that the experimenter expects "ub,ects# people or animals in the experiment nde!endent variable# factor that the experimenter manipulates in a study De!endent variable# the factor in a study that changes as a result of changes in the !0 Confounding variable# factors that may cause the D0 to change other than the !0 #ield e-!eriments# research that ta'es place outside the laboratory (-!erimental grou!# the group that gets the changes in the !0 Control grou!# this group is for comparison and doesn*t get the changed !0 "urvey# method of research using 1uestions on feelings opinions$ or behavior patterns "am!le# a group that represents a larger group )aturalistic observation# research method that involves studying sub2ects &ithout their being a&are that they are being &atched nterview# a research method that involves studying people face to face and as'ing 1uestions Case study method# research that collects lengthy$ detailed info- About a person*s bac'ground$ usually for treatment Cross-sectional method# loo's at different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the life span .ongitudinal method# studies the same group of people over a long period of time +eliability % results of a test or study must be reproducible Validity % measures &hat the psychologist &ishes to measure

Construct validity % the extent to &hich a test measures something % a theoretical construct Criterion-related validity- refers to ho& effective a test is in predicting an individual*s behavior in other specified situations .ex- SAT/ nformed consent % telling sub2ects all features of the experiment prior to the study nferential statistics % used to measure sampling error$ dra& conclusions from data$ and test hypotheses .ex- T#test$ chi#s1uares$ analyses of variance/ Descri!tive statistics % ans&er the 1uestion &hat is the data$ include measures of central tendency /ean# average /edian# middle number /ode % most fre1uent number Variability# ho& the data spreads across a graph .range$ standard deviation$ 3# Correlation % the relationship bet&een t&o sets of scores$ range bet&een 45-66 and %5-66$ the closer to 5 the stronger the correlation 0-score %a &ay of expressing a score*s distance from the mean in terms of the standard deviation

H "12+3 A)D /(1H2D" 45 0

5- The essence of the experimental method is A78Daccurate calculation of correlations obtaining direct reports from sub2ects about their sub2ective experiencescareful measurement and record 'eeping using control to identify cause and effect connections

9- :hich of the follo&ing is an appropriate use of naturalistic observation; A78Dto raise 1uestions and suggest hypotheses to develop formal psychological theory to test hypotheses derived from theory to ans&er 1uestions about cause and effect relationships

<- =ou are at a lecture about the history of psychology and the spea'er states that :ilhelm :undt*s theory of structuralism &as the first scientific psychological theory- "n &hat historical fact might the spea'er be basing her or his argument; A- :undt &as internationally 'no&n at the time$ and this led credence to his theory in the scientific community7- :undt studied under !van Pavlov for his graduate training$ and Pavlov re1uired scientific methods to be used8- Structuralism &as based on the results of his introspection experiments$ so it is$ at least in part$ empiricalD- Structuralism &as based on careful anecdotes gathered from :undt*s extensive clinical careerE- :undt &as the first person to study psychology in an academic setting

>- !n order to summari+e or organi+e a series of observations in some meaningful &ay psychologists may develop A78Dhypotheses experiments surveys theories

?- !n the simplest experiment$ the t&o groups of sub2ects are treated exactly ali'e except for the @@ variableA78Dindependent dependent extraneous control

A- Sigmund reud*s theory of the unconscious mind A- &as revolutionary because it &as the first comprehensive explanation of human thought and behavior7- Resulted from discoveries about the human brain obtained by cadaver dissection8- !s outdated and has no relevance for modern psychologyD- ocused entirely on human males* sex driveE- Depends on the idea that humans can remember events but not be consciously a&are of the memoryB- The conditions that a researcher &ishes to prevent from affection the experiment are called A78Dconstants dependent variables extraneous variables independent variables

C- !n &hat &ay might a behaviorist disagree &ith a cognitive psychologist about the cause of aggression; A- A behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by memories or &ays &e thin' about aggressive behavior$ &hile a cognitive psychologist might say aggression is caused by a past repressed experience7- A behaviorist might state that aggression is a behavior encouraged by our genetic code$ &hile a cognitive psychologist might state that aggression is caused by memories or &ays &e thin' about aggressive behavior8- A behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by past re&ards for aggressive behavior$ &hile a cognitive psychologist might believe aggression is caused by an expressed desire to fulfill certain life needs-

D- A behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by past re&ards for aggressive behavior$ &hile a cognitive psychologist might believe aggression is caused by memories or &ays &e thin' about aggressive behaviorE- A behaviorist &ould not disagree &ith a cognitive psychologist about aggression because they both believe that aggressive behavior is caused by the &ay &e cognitively process certain behaviorsD- A researcher &ants to determine the effect of sleep deprivation on human problem solvingSub2ects in an appropriate control group for such an experiment &ould be described as having A78Dmuch more sleep than normalMuch less sleep than normal A normal amoount of sleep The same amount of sleep as the experimental group

56- :hich type of variable is measured in both the experimental and control groups of an experiment; A78Dthe dependent variable the independent variable extraneous variables the reference variable

55- Dr- Marco explains to a client that his feelings- "f hostility to&ard a co&or'er are most li'ely caused by the &ay the client interprets the co&or'er*s actions$ and the &ay he thin's that people should behave at &or'$ Dr- Marco is most li'ely &or'ing from &hat perspective; A78DEbehavioral cognitive psychoanalytic humanist social#cultural

59- !n the traditional learning experiment the effect of practice on performance is investigatedPerformance is the @@@ variable A78Dindependent extraneous control dependent

5<- "ne of the limitations of the survey method is A- observer bias 7- that it sets up an artificial situation

8- that replies may not be accurate D- the self#fulfilling prophecy 5>- :hich of the follo&ing is not a goal of psychology; A78Ddescription of behavior prediction of behavior depiction of behavior understanding behavior or most psychologists$ control means

5?- 8ontrol is an important goal of psychology-

A- heavy reliance upon re&ards rather than punishments 7- manipulation of behavior by government$ educators$ scientists$ or authorities 8- altering conditions that influence behavior in predictable &ays 5A- Professor Ma &ants to design a pro2ect studying emotional response to date rape- Ee advertises for participants in the school ne&spaper$ informs them about the nature of the study$ gets their consent$ conducts an intervie&$ and debriefs them about the results &hen the experiment is over- !f you &ere on the !R7$ &hich ethical consideration &ould you most li'ely have the most concern about in Professor Ma*s study; A- 8oercion D- anonymity 7- Deception E- clear scientific purpose 8confounding variables

B 2.2' CA. BA"(" 2# B(HAV 2+

1H( H5/A) B+A )

1he influence of biology 6sometimes called the neuroscience or bio!sychological !ers!ective7 is growing& "ome researchers !redict that someday !sychology will be a s!ecialty within the field of biology& An understanding of the biological !rinci!les relevant to !sychology is needed to understand current !sychological thin*ing& The human brain consists of three ma2or divisions( hindbrain$ midbrain$ and forebrain

/a,or Division
Prosence!halon 6#orebrain7

"ubdivision 1elence!halon Dience!halon

"tructures )eocorte-8 Basal 'anglia8 Amygdala8 Hi!!ocam!us8 .ateral Ventricles 1halamus8 Hy!othalamus8 (!ithalamus8 1hird Ventricle 1ectum8 1egmentum8 Cerebral A9ueduct Cerebellum8 Pons8 #ourth Ventricle /edulla 2blongata8 #ourth Ventricle

/esence!halon /esence!halon 6/idbrain7 +hombence!halon /etence!halon 6Hindbrain7 /yelence!halon

Brain "tructure

:& Hindbrain- structures in the to! !art of the s!inal cord; controls basic biological functions that *ee! us alive& /edulla- controls blood pressure$ heart rate$ and breathing( Pons# connects the hindbrain &ith the mid and forebrain$ also involved in the control of facial expressions( Cerebellum- portion of the lo&er
brain that coordinates and organi+es bodily movements for balance and accuracy-

< =

/idbrain-between the hind and forebrain; coordinates sim!le movements with sensory information#orebrain# controls what we thin* of as thought and reason- 1halamus- portion of the lo&er brain
that functions primarily as a central relay station for incoming and outgoing messages from the body to the brain and the brain to the body Hy!othalamus- portion of the lo&er brain that regulates basic needs .hunger$ thirst/ and emotions such as pleasure$ fear$ rage$ and sexuality Amygdala and Hi!!ocam!us- t&o arms surrounding the thalamus$ important in ho& &e process and perceive memory and emotion )21(F The three parts above are grouped together and called the limbic aspects of emotion and memory-

system because they all deal &ith

What is a neuron>
A neuron is a nerve cell- The brain is made up of about 566 billion neuronsNeurons are similar to other cells in the body in some &ays such asF 5- Neurons are surrounded by a membrane9- Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes<- Neurons contain cytoplasm$ mitochondria and other GorganellesG-

Eo&ever$ neurons differ from other cells in the body in some &ays such asF 5- Neurons have speciali+ed pro2ections called dendrites and axons- Dendrites bring information to the cell body and axons ta'e information a&ay from the cell body9- Neurons communicate &ith each other through an electrochemical process<- Neurons form speciali+ed connections called GsynapsesG and produce special chemicals called GneurotransmittersG that are released at the synapse!t has been estimated that there are 5 1uadrillion synapses in the human brain- ThatHs 565? or 5$666$666$666$666$666 synapsesI This is e1ual to about a half#billion synapses per cubic millimeter- .Statistic from 8hangeux$ J#P- and Ricoeur$ P-$ What Makes Us Think?$ PrincetonF Princeton Kniversity
Press$ 9666$ p- BC/

How big is the brain> How much does the brain weigh>
1he adult human brain weighs between :=?? g and :4?? g 6about = lbs7& A newborn human brain weighs between =@? and 4?? g& #or com!arisonA ele!hant brain B C;??? g chim!anDee brain B 4<? g rhesus mon*ey brain B E@ g beagle dog brain B F< g cat brain B =? g rat brain B < g 1he !icture to the right is a human brain&
6 mage !rovided by Dr& Wally Wel*er; 5niv& of Wisconsin Brain Collection7

:ays of studying the brain

Accidents$ ,esions$ Electroencephalogram$ 8omputeri+ed axial tomography$ Magnetic resonance imaging .MR!/$ Positron emission tomography$ unctional MR!

Neuroanatomy

)euron % a nerve cell$ &hich transmits electrical and chemical information throughout the body dendrite# part of the neuron that receives information from the axons of other nerve cells A-on# part of the neuron that carries messages a&ay from one neuron to the dendrites of another 8ell body$ or soma- contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life /yelin sheath# a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses 1erminal buttons# the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters Vesicles % bubbleli'e containers of neurotransmitters$ located at the end of an axon )eurotransmitters#% chemicals in the endings of nerve cells that send information across the synapse Acetylcholine % neurotransmitter that regulates basic bodily processes such as movement Do!amine % a neurotransmitter involved in the control of bodily movements . involved in Par'inson*s disease$ and Al+heimer*s/ (ndor!hins % neurotransmitters that relieve pain and increase our sense of &ellbeing "erotonin# mood control "yna!se# the 2unction point of t&o or more neurons( a connection is made by neurotransmittersAction !otential All-or-none !rinci!le Afferent neurons; or sensory neurons nterneurons (fferent neurons; or motor neurons
Central nervous system# brain and spinal cord Peri!heral nervous system# # all other nerves "omatic nervous system# controls voluntary movements Autonomic nervous system# controls involuntary movements "ym!athetic nervous system# speeds things up# prepares body for fight or flight Parasym!athetic nervous system## brings the body bac' to normal Cerebral corte-# covers the lo&er brain and controls mental processes such as thought #rontal lobes#% contains the motor strip and frontal association area #rontal association area % plays an important part in integrating personality and in forming complex thoughts /otor stri!# band running do&n the side of the frontal lobe that controls all bodily movements Parietal lobes #% area that contains the sensory strip "ensory stri!# band running do&n the side of he parietal lobe that registers and provides all sensation 2cci!ital lobes# area that interprets visual information 1em!oral lobes# area responsible for hearing and some speech functions

.obe# ma2or division of the brain

Hemis!heres# one#half of the t&o halves of the brain( controls the opposite side of the body Brain lateraliDation Cor!us callosum - bundle of nerve fibers that transfers info- rom one hemisphere to the other #issure- a lengthy depression mar'ing off an area of the brain +eticular activating system- the alertness control center of the brain that regulates the activity level of the body "!lit-brain Brain !lasticity (ndocrine system % system of all the glands and their chemical messages ta'en together Hormones % chemical regulators that control bodily processes such as emotional responses$ gro&th$ and sexuality Pituitary gland % the master gland of the body that activates other glands and controls the gro&th hormone 'rowth hormone % hormone that regulates the gro&th process 1hyroid gland % controls and regulates the speed of bodily processes called metabolism /etabolism % the speed at &hich the body operates of the speed at &hich it uses up energy Adrenal glands % glands that release the hormone that causes excitement in order to prepare the body for an emergency Adrenaline % chemical that prepares the body for emergency activity by increasing blood pressure$ breathing rate$ and energy level

7!","L!8A, 7AS!S " 7EEA0!"R MK!3

5- 7lindness could result from damage to &hich cortex and lobe of the brain; A78DE9visual cortex in the frontal lobe visual cortex in the temporal lobe sensory cortex in the parietal lobe visual cortex in the occipital lobe cerebral cortex in the occipital lobe

Paralysis of the left arm might be explained by a problem in the A- motor cortex in the frontal lobe in the left hemisphere7- Motor cortex in the frontal lobe in the right hemisphere-

8- Sensorimotor cortex in the temporal lobe in the left hemisphereD- Motor cortex in the parietal lobe in the left hemisphereE- Motor cortex in the occipital lobe in the right hemisphere<- Deafness can result from damage to the inner ear or damage to &hat area of the brain; A- 8onnections bet&een the auditory nerve and the auditory cortex in the frontal lobe7- 8onnections bet&een the auditory nerve and the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe8- 8onnections bet&een the areas of the sensory cortex that receive messages from the ears and the auditory cortexD- 8onnections bet&een the hypothalamus and the auditory cortex in the temporal lobeE- 8onnections bet&een the left and right sensory areas of the cerebellum>- According to the theory of evolution$ &hy might &e call some parts of the brain the old brain and some parts the ne& brain; A78D"ld brain parts are &hat exist in very young children$ and the ne& brain develops later The old brain developed first according to evolution-The old brain becomes more active as &e gro& olderThe ne& brain deals &ith ne& information$ &hile the old brain deals &ith information gathered &hen &e &ere childrenE- The old brain is most affected by age deterioration .dementias/ &hile the ne& brain remains unaffected?- :hich chemicals pass across the synaptic gap and increase the possibility the next neuron in the chain &ill fire; A78DEsynaptic peptides inhibitory neurotransmitters adrenaline#type exciters excitatory neurotransmitters potassium and sodium

A- =ou eat some bad sushi and feel that you are slo&ly losing control over your muscles- The bacteria you ingested from the bad sushi most li'ely interferes &ith the use of A- Serotonin 7- Dopamine 8- acetylcholine BA78DD- thora+ine E- adrenaline

The three ma2or categories researchers use to organi+e the entire brain are the old brain$ ne& brain$ and cerebral cortex lo&er$ middle$ and upper brainEindbrain$ midbrain$ and forebrain7rain stem$ limbic system$ and cerebral cortex

E- Neurons$ synapses$ and cerebral cortexC- A spinal reflex differs from a normal sensory and motor reaction in that A- a spinal reflex occurs only in response to extremely stressful stimuli7- !n a spinal reflex$ the spine moves the muscles in response as soon as the sensory information reaches the spine &hile usually the impulse must reach the brain before a response8- !n a normal sensoryNmotor reaction$ the spine transmits the information through afferent nerve fibers$ &hile reflex reactions are transmitted along special efferent nervesD- Spinal reflexes are part of the central nervous system response$ &hile normal sensoryNmotor reactions are part of the peripheral nervous systemE- Spinal reflexes occur only in animals because humans are born &ithout instinctual responsesD- Antidepressant drugs li'e Pro+ac are often used to treat mood disorders- According to &hat you 'no& about their function$ &hich neurotransmitter system do these types of drugs try to affect; A78DEserotonin adrenaline acetylcholine endorphins morphine

56- :hich sentence most closely describes neural transmission; A- An electric charge is created in the neuron$ the charge travels do&n the cell$ and chemicals are released that cross the synapse to the next cell7- A chemical change occurs &ithin the cell$ the change causes an electric charge to be produced$ and the charge 2umps the gap bet&een the nerve cells8- The electric charge produced chemically inside a group of neurons causes chemical changes in surrounding cellsD- Neurotransmitters produced in the hindbrain are transmitted to the forebrain$ causing electric changes in the cerebral cortexE- Neural transmission is an electrochemical process both inside and outside the cell55- Dr- Dahab$ a brain researcher$ is investigating the connection bet&een certain environmental stimuli and brain processes- :hich types of brain scans is he most li'ely to use; A78DEMR! and 8AT 8AT and EOL PET and EEL EOL and 8AT ,esioning and MR!

59- Split#brain patients are unable to A78Dcoordinate movements bet&een their ma2or and minor muscle groupsSpea' about information received exclusively in their right hemisphereSpea' about information received exclusively in their left hemisphereSolve abstract problems involving integrating logical .left#hemisphere/ and spatial .right hemisphere/ informationE- Spea' about information received exclusively through their left ear$ left eye$ or left side of their bodies5<- :hen brain researchers refer to brain plasticity $ they are tal'ing about A78DEthe brain*s ability to regro& damaged neuronsThe surface texture and appearance caused by the layer 'no&n as the cerebral cortexThe brain*s versatility caused by the millions of different neural connections"ur adaptability to different problems ranging from survival needs to abstract reasoningNe& connections forming in the brain to ta'e over for damaged sections-

5>- Mr- Spam is a <D#year#old male &ho has been brought into your neurology clinic by his &ifeShe has become increasingly alarmed by her husband*s behavior over the last four months=ou recommend a 8AT scan to loo' for tumors in the brain- :hich t&o parts of the brain &ould you predict are being affected by the tumors; ,ist of symptomsF vastly increased appetite$ body temperature fluctuations$ decreased sexual desire$ 2er'y movements$ poor balance &hen &al'ing and standing$ inability to thro& ob2ects$ and exaggerated efforts to coordinate movements in a tas' Amotor cortex and emotion cortex 7motor cortex and hypothalamus 8hypothalamus and cerebellum Dcerebellum and medulla Ethalamus and motor cortex 5?- !n most people$ &hich one of the follo&ing is a specific function of the left hemisphere that is typically not controlled by the right hemisphere; A78DEproducing speech control of the left hand spatial reasoning hypothesis testing abstract reasoning

SENSAT!"N AND PER8EPT!"N

"ensation #Experience of sensory stimulation$ the activation or our senses Perce!tion #Process of creating meaningful patterns from ra& sensory information

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V " 2)
0ision is the dominant sense in human beings- Sighted people use vision to gather information about their environment more than any other sense- The process of vision involves several steps"te! :F Lathering light "te! <F :ithin the eye Cornea -The transparent protective coating over the front part of the eye Pu!il #small opening in the iris through &hich light enters the eyeris #colored part of the eye.ens #transparent part of the eye inside the pupil that focuses light onto the retina +etina #lining of the eye containing receptor cells that are sensitive to light "te! =F Transduction 1ransduction %process by &hich sensory signals are transformed into neural impulses +ece!tor cell #Speciali+ed cell that responds to a particular type of energy+ods #Receptor cells in the retina responsible for night vision and perception of brightnessCones #Receptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision #ovea #Area of the retina that is the center of the visual field 2!tic nerve # The bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries neural messages from each eye to the brainBlind s!ot # Place on the retina &here the axons of all the ganglion cells leave the eye and &here there are no receptors 2!tic chiasm #Point near the base of the brain &here some fibers in the optic nerve from each eye cross to the other side of the brain "te! 4A !n the 7rain 1heories or color vision1richromatic theory #Theory of color vision that holds that all color perception derives from three different color receptors in the retina 2!!onent-!rocess theory # Theory of color vision that holds that three sets of color receptors respond in an eitherNor fashion to determine the color you experience

Colorblindness #Partial or total inability to perceive hues1richromats #People &ho have normal color vision /onochromats #People &ho are totally color blind Dichromats # People &ho are blind to either red#green or yello&#blue

HEARING

The ears contain structures for both the sense of hearing and the sense of balance- The eighth cranial nerve .vestibulocochlear nerve made up of the auditory and vestibular nerves/ carries nerve impulses for both hearing and balance from the ear to the brain-

Am!litude % the height of the &ave $ determines the loudness of the sound$ measured in decibels #re9uency # The number of cycles per second in a &ave( in sound$ the primary determinant of pitch HertD 6HD7 # 8ycles per second( unit of measurement for the fre1uency of &aves Pitch # Auditory experience corresponding primarily to fre1uency of sound vibrations$ resulting in a higher or lo&er tone Decibel #The magnitude of a &ave( in sound the primary determinant of loudness of sounds Parts of the ear(ar canal % also called the auditory canal (ardrumHammer; anvil; stirru! # The three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear

2val window # Membrane across the opening bet&een the middle ear and inner ear that conducts vibrations to the cochlea +ound window # Membrane bet&een the middle ear and inner ear that e1uali+es pressure in the inner earCochlea # Part of the inner ear containing fluid that vibrates &hich in turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrateBasilar membrane #0ibrating membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear( it contains sense receptors for sound 2rgan of Corti #Structure on the surface of the basilar membrane that contains the receptors cells for hearing Auditory nerve #The bundle of neurons that carries signals from each ear to the brain P 1CH 1H(2+ ("- As &ith color vision$ t&o different theories describe the t&o processes involved in hearing pitchF place theory and fre1uency theory& Place theory #Theory that pitch is determined by the location of greatest vibration of the basilar membrane #re9uency theory #Theory that pitch is determined by the fre1uency &igh &hich hair cells in the cochlea fire D(A#)(""

Hearing .oss
People can lose all or some of their ability to hear because of loud noises$ infections$ head in2uries$ brain damage and genetic diseases- Eearing loss is common in older people- There are several types of hearing lossF

8onductive Eearing ,ossF occurs &hen sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear are bloc'ed- This may be caused by ear &ax in the auditory canal$ fluid buildup in the middle ear$ ear infections or abnormal bone gro&thSensorineural Eearing ,ossF occurs &hen there is damage to the vestibulocochlear .auditory/ nerve- This type of hearing loss may be caused by head in2ury$ birth defects$ high blood pressure or stro'ePresbycusisF occurs because of changes in the inner ear- This is a very common type of hearing loss that happens gradually in older ageTinnitusF people &ith tinnitus hear a constant ringing or roaring sound- The cause of this ringing cannot al&ays be found- Some cases of tinnitus are caused by ear &ax$ ear infections or a reaction to antibiotics$ but there are many other possible causes of this disorder-

TOU H
:hen our s'in is indented$ pierced$ or experiences a change in temperature$ our sense of touch is activated by this energy'ate control theory # Theory that a )neurological gate in the spinal cord controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain

CH(/ CA. "()"("

TASTE !GUSTATION" Taste buds Papillae#

Eumans sense four different tastesF s&eet$ salty$ sour$ and bitter
All other tastes come from a combination of these four basic tastes& Actually; a fifth basic taste called G5mamiG has recently been discovered& 5mami is a taste that occurs when foods with glutamate 6li*e /"'7 are eaten& Different !arts of the tongue can detect all ty!es of tastes& /orever; the sim!le tongue Gtaste ma!G that is found in many te-tboo*s has been critici+ed for several reasons1he actual organ of taste is called the Gtaste budG& (ach taste bud 6and there about about :?;??? taste buds in humans7 is made u! of many 6between @?-:@?7 rece!tor cells& +ece!tor cells live for only : to < wee*s and then are re!laced by new rece!tor cells& (ach rece!tor in a taste bud res!onds best to one of the basic tastes& A rece!tor can res!ond to the other tastes; but it res!onds strongest to a !articular taste&
!

SME## !O#$A TION"

1he )ose Hnows

The smells of a rose$ perfume$ freshly ba'ed bread and coo'ies---these smells are all made possible because of your nose and brain- The sense of smell$ called olfaction$ involves the detection and perception of chemicals floating in the air- 8hemical molecules enter the nose and dissolve in mucous &ithin a membrane called the olfactory epithelium- !n humans$ the olfactory epithelium is located about B cm up and into the nose from the nostrils2lfactory e!ithelium # Nasal membranes containing receptor cells sensitive to odors Pheromone # 8hemical that communicates information to other organisms through smell

V("1 B5.A+ "()"( % tells us about ho& our body is oriented in space"emicircular canals # Structure in the inner ear particularly sensitive to body roataionVestibular sacs # Sacs in the inner ear that are responsible for sensing gravitation and for&ard$ bac'&ard$ and vertical movement

H )("1H(1 C "()"(" #Senses of forces and movement of muscles

"tretch rece!tors #Receptors that sense muscle stretch and contraction 'olgi tendon organs #Receptors that sense movement of the tendons$ &hich connect muscle to bone-

PER8EPT!"N

1H+("H2.D"
Absolute threshold #The least amount of energy that can be detected as a stimulation ?6 percent of the time "ubliminal# stimuli belo& our absolute threshold Difference threshold #The smallest change in stimulation that can be detected ?6 percent of the time ,ust-noticeable difference % the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before &e detect a change WeberIs .aw #The principle that the 2ust noticeable difference for any given sense is a constant proportion of the stimulation being 2udgedPER8EPTKA, TEE"R!ES Psychologists use several theories to describe ho& &e perceive the &orld"ignal detection theory# investigates the effects of the distractions and interference &e experience &hile perceiving the &orld+es!onse criteria #alse !ositive 1o!-Down Processing % &e perceive by filling in gaps in &hat &e sense "chemata Perce!tual set Bac*mas*ing Bottom-u! Processing$ also called feature analysis % &e use only the features of the ob2ect itself to build a complete perception

'("1A.1 +5.(" Proximity Similarity 8ontinuity 8losure

C2)"1A)C3- Tendency to perceive ob2ects as stable and unchanging despite changes in sensory stimulation "iDe constancy # Perception of an ob2ect as the same si+e regardless of the distance from &hich it is vie&ed

"ha!e constancy # Tendency to see an ob2ect as the same shape no matter &hat angle it is vie&ed from Brightness constancy # Perception of brightness as the same$ even though the amount of light reaching the retina changes

D(P1H C5("
Visual cliff e-!eriment-

/onocular cues # 0isual cues re1uiring the use of one eye

inter!osition # Monocular distance cue in &hich one ob2ect$ by partly bloc'ing a second ob2ect$ is perceived as being closer.inear !ers!ective # Monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that t&o parallel lines seem to come together at the hori+on +elative siDe# 1e-ture gradient# "hadowing#

Binocular cues # 0isual cues re1uiring the use of both eyes

+etinal dis!arity # 7inocular distance cue based on the difference bet&een the images Convergence# cast on the t&o retinas &hen both eyes are focused on the same ob2ect "tereosco!ic vision # 8ombination of t&o retinal images to give a three#dimensional perceptual experience-

SENSAT!"N AND PER8EPT!"N MK!3

5"ur sense of smell may be a po&erful trigger for memories because A78DE9&e are conditioned from birth to ma'e strong connections bet&een smells and eventsThe nerve connecting the olfactory bulb sends impulses directly to the limbic system The receptors at the top of each nostril connect &ith the cortex Smell is a po&erful cue for encoding memories into long#term memory Strong smells encourage us to process events deeply so they &ill most li'ely be remembered

The cochlea is responsible for A78Dprotecting the surface of the eye transmitting vibrations received by the eardrum to the hammer$ anvil$ and stirrupThe receptors at the top of each nostril conect &ith the cortex Smell is a po&erful cue for encoding memories into long#term memory Strong smells encourage us to process events deeply so they &ill most li'ely be remembered-

E<-

!n a perception research lab$ you are as'ed to describe the shape of the top of a box as the box is slo&ly rotated:hich concept are the researchers most li'ely investigating; A- feature detectors in the retina 7- feature detectors in the occipital lobe 8- placement of rods and cones in the retina

D- binocular depth cues E- shape constancy >The blind spot in our eye results from A78DE?the lac' of receptors at the spot &here the optic nerve connects to the retina the shado& the pupil ma'es on the retina competing processing bet&een the visual cortices in the left and right hemisphere floating debris in the space bet&een the lens and the retina retinal damage from bright light

Smell and taste are called @@@@@@@ because A78DEenergy senses( they send impulses to the brain in the form of electric energy chemical senses( they detect chemicals in &hat &e taste and smell flavor senses( smell and taste combine to create flavor8hemical senses( they send impulses to the brain in the form of chemicalsMemory senses( they both have po&erful connections to memory

A-

:hat is the principal difference bet&een amplitude and fre1uency in the context of sound &aves ; A- Amplitude is the tone or timbre of a sound$ &hile fre1uency is the pitch7- Amplitude is detected in the cochlea$ &hile fre1uency is detected in the auditory cortex8- Amplitude is the height of the sound &ave$ &hile fre1uency is a measure of ho& fre1uently the sound &aves pass a given pointD- 7oth measure 1ualities of sound$ but fre1uency is a more accurate measure since it measures the shapes of the &aves rather than the strength of the &avesEre1uency is a measure for light &aves$ &hile amplitude is a measure for sound &aves-

B-

:eber*s la& determines A78DEabsolute thresholdocal length of the eye,evel of subliminal messagesAmplitude of sound &avesJust#noticeable difference-

C-

Late control theory refers to A- &hich sensory impulses are transmitted first from each sense 7- &hich pain messages are perceived 8- interfering sound &aves$ causing some &aves to be undetected D- the gate at the optic chiasm controlling the destinaiton hemisphere for visual information from each eyeE- Eo& our minds choose to use either bottom#up or top#do&n processing-

D-!f you had sight in only one eye$ &hich of the follo&ing depth cues could you N"T use; A78DEtexture gradient convergence linear perspective interposition shading

56- :hich of the follo&ing sentences best describes the relationship bet&een sensation and perception; A78DESensation is a strictly mechanical process$ &hile perception is a cognitive processPerception is an advanced form of sensationSensation happens in the senses$ &hile perception happens in the brainSensation is detecting stimuli$ perception is interpreting stimuli detectedSensation involves learning and expectations$ and perception does not-

55- :hat function does the retina serve; A78DEThe retinal contains the visual receptor cells The retinal focuses light coming in the eye through the lensThe retina determines ho& much light is let into the eyeThe retina determines &hich rods and cones &ill be activated by incoming light The retina connects the t&o optic nerves and sends impulses to the left and right visual cortices-

59- 8olor blindness and color afterimages are best explained by &hat theory of color vision; A--trichromatic theory 7- 0isible hue theory 8- "pponent#process theory D- Dichromatic theory E- 7inocular disparity theory 5<- =ou are sho&n a picture of your grandfather*s face$ but the eyes and mouth are bloc'ed out- =ou still recogni+e it as a picture of your grandfather- :hich type of processing best explains this example of perception; A78Dbottom#up processing signal detection theory top#do&n processing opponent#process theory

5>- :hat behavior &ould be difficult &ithout our vestibular sense ; A78DEPtop

integrating &hat &e see and hear &riting our name repeating a list of digits &al'ing a straight line &ith our eyes closed reporting to a researcher the exact position and orientation of our limbs

RETKRN T" MENK

STATES " 8"NS8!"KSNESS

We s!end about J hoursKday; @C hoursKwee*; <<4 hoursKmonth and <;CJJ hoursKyear doing it&&&thatLs right&&&".((P )'& 2ne third of our lives we are a!!arently doing nothing& But is slee! really doing nothing> t loo*s li*e it&&&a !ersonLs eyes are closed8 muscles are rela-ed8 breathing is regular8 there is no res!onse to sound or light& However; if you ta*e a loo* at what is ha!!ening inside the brain; you will find 9uite a different situation - the brain is very active& "cientists can record brain activity by attaching electrodes to the scal! and then connecting these electrodes to a machine called an electroence!halogra!h& 1he ence!halogram 6or (('7 is the record of brain activity recorded with this machine& 1he wavy lines of the ((' are what most !eo!le *now as Gbrain wavesG& Consciousness is our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment& Conscious level The information about yourself and your environment you are currently a&are of)onconscious level 7ody processes controlled by your mind that &e are not usually a&are of Preconscious level !nformation about yourself or your environment that you are not currently Thin'ing about but you could be"ubconscious level !nformation that &e are not consciously a&are of but &e 'no& must exist due to behavior5nconscious level& Psychoanalytic psychologists believe some evens and feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed into the unconscious mindMany psychologists ob2ect to this concept as difficult or impossible to prove/ere-e-!osure effect # prefer stimuli &e have seen before over novel stimuli Priming # respond more 1uic'ly andNor accurately to 1uestions they have seen before Blind sight # person being blind being able to grasp an ob2ect they cannot see ".((P C3C.( Lreat information found atF httpFNNfaculty-&ashington-eduNchudlerNsleep-html 8ircadian rhythm Sleep stages REM rapid eye movement ".((P D "2+D(+" !nsomnia# problems of getting to or staying asleep$ effects up to 56Q of the population Narcolepsy# extreme sleepiness # sleep attac's Lo to httpFNNfaculty-&ashington-eduNchudlerNnarco-html Sleep apnea# stop breathing during sleep Night terrors# usually occur in children are dreams outside of REM$ during stage > sleep Somnambulism# sleep &al'ing

D+(A/ 1H(2+ (" reudian Theory # believes that dreams reveal information in the unconscious mind Manifest content# literal content ,atent content # deeper meaning Activation#synthesis Theory # dreams are nothing more than the brains interpretation of &hat is happening physiologically during REM sleep !nformation#processing Theory # dreams may be a &ay to integrate the information processed during the day into our memories H3P)2" " Posthypnotic amnesia # forget events that occurred during hypnosis Posthypnotic suggestibility # +ole 1heory # says hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness$ points out that some people are more easily hypnoti+ed than others"tate 1heory # hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness Dissociation 1heory # Eilgard studied$ it causes to divide our consciousness voluntarily # the experiment that demonstrated the hidden observer effect D+5'" or information on specific drugs go toF httpFNNfaculty-&ashington-eduNchudlerNintrob-hemlPdrug 7lood#brain barrier Tolerance :ithdra&al agonist antagonist

"1A1(" 2# C2)"C 25")("" 1(+/"

Consciousness# the a&areness or$ or the possibility of 'no&ing$ &hat is happening inside or outside the organism "ubconscious % consciousness 2ust belo& our present a&areness 5nconscious % thoughts or desires about &hich &e can have no direct 'no&ledge Chronobiology % the study of forces that control the body at different times of the day$ month$ or year Construct % a concept re1uiring a belief in something that cannot be seen or touched but that seems to exist Biological cloc*s % internal chemical units that control regular cycles in parts of the body #ree-running cycles % cycles set up by biological cloc's that are under their o&n control$

ignoring the environment (ntrainment % the process of altering the free#running cycle to fit a different rhythm Circadian rhythm % se1uences of behavioral changes that occur every 9> hours 1wilight state % relaxed state 2ust before &e fall asleep +(/ slee! % rapid eye movement sleep &hen &e dream Beta waves # rapid brain &aves( appear &hen a person is a&a'e Al!ha waves % stage 5$ fairly relaxed brain &aves occurring 2ust before going to sleep( relaxed Delta waves % slo&$ la+y$ deep#sleep brain &aves)+(/ slee! % non#rapid eye movement sleepN sleep involving partial thoughts$ images$or stories$ poor organi+ation )ightmare % frightening dream during REM +(/ rebound % increase in the number of dreams after being deprived of them ncubus attac* % also called a night terror$ a horrible dream occurring during NREM &hen the body is not prepared for it nsomnia % the inability to get enough sleep )arcole!sy - disorder in &hich a person falls instantly into sleep no matter &hat is going on in the environment "lee! a!nea % breathing stops &hile someone is asleep Hy!nosis % a state of relaxation in &hich attention is focused on certain ob2ects$ acts$ or feelings/editation % a form of self#control in &hich the outside &orld is cut off from consciousness Altered state of consciousness % mental state that differs noticeably from normal &a'ing consciousness Psychoactive drugs % chemical substances that change moods and perceptions Dreams % vivid visual and auditory experiences that occur primarily during REM periods of sleep "ubstance abuse % a pattern of drug use that diminishes the user*s ability to fulfill responsibilities at home$ &or' or school$ that results in repeated use of a drug in dangerous situations$ legal problems "ubstance de!endence % a pattern of compulsive drug ta'ing that often results in tolerance and or &ithdra&al 1olerance % phenomenon &hereby higher doses of a drug are re1uired to produce its original effects or to prevent &ithdra&al symptoms Withdrawal sym!toms % unpleasant physical or psychological effects that follo& the discontinuance of a dependence#producing substanceDrugs % 'no& the effects % opiates$ stimulants$ amphetamines$ cocaine$ depressants$ hallucinogens$ alcohol$ ,SD$ barbiturates$ mari2uana 8"NS8!"KSNESS MK!3 5- Agonists are psychoactive drugs that A78DEproduce tolerance to the drug &ithout the associated &ithdra&al symptoms mimic and produce the same effect as certain neurotransmittersMimic neurotransmitters and bloc' their receptor sitesEnhance the effects of certain opiates li'e heroinMa'e recovery from physical addiction more difficult-

9- !n comparison &ith older people$ babies A78DEsleep more fitfully( they tend to &a'e up more oftenSleep more deeply( they spend more time in stage < and > sleep Spend more time in the REM stage than other sleep stages Spend more time in stage 5$ &hich causes them to a&a'en easilySleep more than young adults but less than people over ?6-

<- :hich of the follo&ing is the best analogy for ho& psychologists vie& consciousness; A78DEThe onNoff s&itch on a computerA circuit brea'er that controls po&er to a houseA fuse that allo&s electricity to pass through until a short circuit occursA dimmer s&itch for a light fixture The ignition s&itch on a car

>- During the normal night*s sleep$ ho& many times do &e pass through the different stages of sleep; A78DE9 9#< >#B C#55 55#5?

?- :hich of the follo&ing is evidence supporting the role theory of hypnosis; A78DESome people are more hypnoti+able than others People &ill not behave under hypnosis in &ays they &ould not &ithout hypnosisEilgard*s experiment demonstrated the presence of a hidden observer"ur heart and respiration rates may differ &hile under hypnosis Some therapists successfully use hypnosis in therapy-

A- Activation#synthesis theory tries to explain A78DEho& consciousness emerges out of neural firingsEo& psychoactive drugs create euphoric effectsThe origin and function of dreamsEo& our mind a&a'ens us after &e pass through all the sleep stagesEo& our consciousness synthesi+es all the sensory information it receives-

B- Eilgard*s experiment that demonstrated the presence of a hidden observer is evidence for &hich theory;

A78DE-

role theory of hypnosis levels theory of consciousness recuperative theory of sleep dissociation theory of hypnosis state theory of hypnosis

C- :hich of the follo&ing t&o sleep disorders occur most commonly; A78DEinsomnia and narcolepsy apnea and narcolepsy night terrors and apnea somnambulism and insomnia apnea and insomnia

D- Mari2uana falls under &hat category of psychoactive drug; A78DEdepressant mood#elevator hallucinogen stimulant mood depressant

56- Night terrors and somnambulism usually occur during &hich stage of sleep; A78DEstage 5$ close to &a'efulness REM sleep REM sleep$ but only later in the night &hen nightmares usually occur Stage > Sleep onset

55- :hich neurotransmitter is affected by opiates; A78DEserotonin endorphins dopamine LA7A Acetylcholine

59- !n the context of this unit$ the term tolerance refers to A78DEtreatment of psychoactive drug addicts by peers and other members of societyThe amount of sleep a person needs to function normallyThe need for an elevated dose of a drug in order to get the same effectThe labeling of individuals automatically produced by the level of our consciousnessThe harmful side effects of psychoactive drugs-

5<- The information processing theory says that dreams A- are meaningless by#products of ho& our brains process information during REM sleep7- Are symbolic representations of the information &e encode during the day8- Are processed by one level of consciousness but other levels remain una&are of the dreamsD- "ccur as the brain deals &ith daily stress and events during REM sleepE- "ccur only after stressful events$ explaining &hy some people never dream5>- :hich level of consciousness controls involuntary body processes; A78DEpreconscious level subconscious level unconscious level autonomic level nonconscious level

5?- Professor 7ohi'e sho&s a group of participants a set of geometric shapes for a short period of time- ,ater$ Professor 7ohi'e sho&s the same group a larger set of shapes that includes the first set of geometric shapes randomly distributed among the other ne& images- :hen as'ed &hich shapes they prefer$ the participants choose shapes from the first group more often than the ne& images$ even though they cannot remember &hich images they had seen previouslyThis experiment demonstrates &hich concept; A78DEpriming mere#exposure effect shaping primary#attribution error primacy

5A- Mr- Spam is a <D#year#old male &ho has been brought into your neurology clinic by his &ifeShe has become increasingly alarmed by her husband*s behavior over the last four months=ou recommend a 8AT scan to loo' for tumors in the brain- :hich t&o parts of the brain &ould you predict are being affected by the tumors; ,ist of symptomsF vastly increased appetite$ body temperature fluctuations$ decreased sexual desire$ 2er'y movements$ poor balance &hen &al'ing and standing$ inability to thro& ob2ects$ and exaggerated efforts to coordinate movements in a tas' A78DEmotor cortex and emotion cortex motor cortex and hypothalamus hypothalamus and cerebellum cerebellum and medulla thalamus and motor cortex

RETKRN T" MENK

,EARN!NL
.earning- a relatively !ermanent change in behavior due to e-!erienceC.A"" CA. C2)D 1 2) )' % learning based on association of stimuli !van Pavlov Knconditioned stimulus Knconditioned response 8onditioned stimulus 8onditioned response Ac1uisition phase Delayed conditioning Simultaneous conditioning 7ac'&ard conditioning Lenerali+ation Discrimination Extinction Spontaneous recovery irst#order conditioning Second#order conditioning E1uipotentiality ,earned taste aversions Salient

Contiguity model % the Pavlovian model$ the more times t&o things are paired$ the greater the learning that &ill ta'e place Contingency model# Rescorla % rests of cognitive vie& of classical conditioning$ !f A is contingent on 7 and vice versa then one predicts the other$ learning more po&erful2P(+A)1 C2)D 1 2) )' % 'ind of learning based on the association of conse1uences &ith one*s behaviorEd&ard Thorndi'e ,a& of effect !nstrumental learning 7- - S'inner S'inner box Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement "mission training Punishment Escape learning Avoidance learning Shaping 8haining Primary reinforcers Secondary reinforcers Premac' principle % the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation !nstinctive drift +einforcement schedules differ in t&o &aysF :hat determines &hen reinforcement is delivered % the number of responses made .ratio/ or the passage of time .interval/ The pattern of reinforcement % either constant .fixed/ or changing .variable/ 2bservational learning % also 'no&n as modeling &as studied by Albert 7andura in formulating his social#learning theory A significant body of research indicates that children learn violent behaviors from &atching violent television programs and violent adult models .atent learning studied by Ed&ard Tolman

 is hidden learning experiment &ith ma+e running rats$ ones that didn*t initially get a re&ard didn*t seem to learn$ but &hen they started being re&arded their performance changed drastically Abstract learning involves understanding concepts such as tree or same S'inner box pigeons pic'ing out certain shapes nsight learning :olfgang Oohler did studies &ith chimpan+ees !nsight learning occurs &hen one suddenly reali+es ho& to solve a problem 8himps using boxes to reach banana What s .earning> R ,earning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience- ,earning resulting from conditioning depends on reinforcement- Reinforcement increases the probability that a particular response &ill occur

8lassical .or respondent/ conditioning and instrumental .or "perant/ conditioning are t&o basic types of learning!n classical conditioning$ a previously neutral stimulus begins to elicit a response through association &ith another stimulus- !n operant conditioning$ the fre1uency and pattern of voluntary responses are altered by their conse1uences-

How does classical conditioning occur>

8lassical conditioning$ studied by Pavlov$ occurs &hen a neutral stimulus.NS/ is associated &ith an unconditioned stimulus .KS/The KS causes a reflex called the unconditioned response .KR/- !f the NS is consistently paired &ith the KS$ it becomes a conditioned stimulus .8S/ capable of producing a response by itself- This response is a conditioned .learned/ response .8R/:hen the conditioned stimulus is follo&ed by the unconditioned stimulus$ conditioning is reinforced .strengthened/rom an informational vie&$ conditioning creates expectancies$ &hich alter response patterns- !n classical conditioning the 8S creates an expectancy that the KS &ill follo&Eigher order conditioning occurs &hen a &ell#learned conditioned stimulus is used as if it &ere an unconditioned stimulus$ bringing about further learning:hen the 8S is repeatedly presented alone$ conditioning is extinguished .&ea'ened or inhibited/- After extinction seems to be complete$ a rest period may lead to the temporary reappearance of a conditioned response- This is called spontaneous recoveryThrough stimulus generali+ation$ stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus &ill also produce a response- Lenerali+ation gives &ay to stimulus discrimination &hen an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but not to similar stimuli-

Does Conditioning affect emotions>

8onditioning applies to visceral or emotional responses as &ell as simple reflexes- As a result$ conditioned emotional responses .8ERs/ also occur!rrational fears called phobias may be 8ERs- 8onditioning of emotional responses can occur vicariously .secondhand/ as &ell as directly-

How does o!erant conditioning occur>

"perant conditioning occurs &hen voluntary action is follo&ed by a reinforcerReinforcement in operant conditioning increases the fre1uency or probability of a response- This result is based on the la& of effect8omplex operant responses can be taught by reinforcing successive approximations to a final desired response- This is called shaping- !t is particularly useful in training animals!f an operant response is not reinforced$ it may extinguish .disappear/- 7ut after extinction seems complete$ it may temporarily reappear .spontaneous recovery/-

Are there different *inds of o!erant reinforcement>

!n positive reinforcement$ a re&ard or pleasant event follo&s a response- !n negative reinforcement$ a response that ends discomfort becomes more li'elyPrimary reinforcers are SnaturalT$ physiologically based re&ards- !ntracranial stimulation of )pleasure centers* in the brain can also serve as a primary reinforcerSecondary reinforcers are learned- They typically gain their reinforcing value by direct association &ith primary reinforcers or because they can be exchanged for primary reinforcers- To'ens and money gain their reinforcing value in this &ayeedbac'$ or 'no&ledge of results$ aids learning and improves performance- !t is most effective &hen it is immediate$ detailed and fre1uentProgrammed instruction brea's learning into a series of small steps$ and provides immediate feedbac'- 8omputer#assisted instruction .8AT/ does the same but has the added advantage of providing alternate exercises and information &hen needed- our variations of 8A! are drill and practice$ instructional games$ educational simulations$ and interactive videodis' instruction-

How are we influenced by !atterns of reward>

delay of reinforcement greatly reduces its effectiveness$ but long chains of responses may be built up so that a single reinforcer maintains many responsesSuperstitious behaviors often become part of response chains because they appear to be associated &ith reinforcementURe&ard or reinforcement may be given continuously .after every response/ or on a schedule of partial reinforcement- Partial reinforcement produces greater resistance to extinctionThe four most basic schedules of reinforcement are fixed ratio$ variable ratio$ fixed interval$ and variable interval- Each produces a distinct pattern of responding-

Stimuli that precede a reinforced response tend to control the response on future occasions .stimulus control/- T&o aspects of stimulus control are generali+ation and discrimination!n generali+ation an operant response tends to occur &hen stimuli similar to those preceding reinforcement are present!n discrimination$ responses are given in the presence of discriminative stimuli associated &ith reinforcement .S4/ and &ithheld in the presence of stimuli associated &ith nonreinforcement .S#/

What does !unishment do to behavior>

Punishment decreases responding- Punishment occurs &hen a response is follo&ed by the onset of an aversive event or by the removal of a positive event .response cost/ Punishment is most effective &hen it is immediate$ consistent and intense- Mild punishment tends to only temporarily suppress responses that are also reinforced or &ere ac1uired by reinforcementThe undesirable side effects of punishment include the conditioning of fear to punishing agents and situations associated &ith punishment$ the learning of escape and avoidance responses$ and the encouragement of aggression-

What is cognitive learning>

8ognitive learning involves higher mental processes- such as understanding$ 'no&ing$ or anticipating- Even in relatively simple learning situations$ animals and people seem to form cognitive maps .internal representations or relationships/!n latent learning$ learning remains hidden or unseen until a re&ard or incentive for performance is offeredDiscovery learning emphasi+es insight and understanding$ in contrast to rote learning-

Does learning occur by imitation>

Much human learning is achieved through observation$ or modeling- "bservational learning is influenced by the personal characteristics of the model and the success or failure of the model*s behavior- Studies have sho&n that aggression is readily learned and released by modelingTelevision characters can act as po&erful models for observational learning- Televised violence increases the li'elihood of aggression by vie&ers-

How does conditioning a!!ly to !ractical !roblems>

"perant principles can be readily applied to manage behavior in everyday settings- :hen managing one*s o&n behavior$ self#reinforcement$ self#recording$ feedbac'$ and behavioral contracting are all helpfulour strategies that can help change bad habits are reinforcing alternate responses$ promoting extinction$ brea'ing response chains$ and avoiding antecedent cues-

!n school$ self#regulated learners typically do all of the follo&ingF They set learning goals$ plan learning strategies$ use self#instruction$ monitor their progress$ evaluate themselves$ reinforce successes$ and ta'e corrective action &hen re1uired-

How does biology influence learning>

Many animals are born &ith innate behavior patterns far more complex than reflexesThese are organi+ed into fixed action patterns . APs/$ &hich are stereotyped$ species# specific behaviors,earning in animals is limited at times by various biological constraints and species# typical behaviorsAccording to prepared fear theory$ some stimuli are especially effective conditioned stimuliMany responses are sub2ect to instinctive drift in operant conditioning- Euman learning is subtly influenced by many such biological potentials and limits

P"3CH2.2'3 2) 1H( )(1

Memory A short tutorial on classical conditioning$ operant conditioning$ and cognitive learning- httpFNN&&&-science-&ayne-eduNV&poffNmemory-html-"bservational ,earning# Presents 7andura*s original &or' on modeling$ &ith graphshttpFNN&&&-valdosta-peachnet-eduNV&huittNpsyB69NbehsysNsocial-html "ppatoons % 8artoons of rats undergoing conditioninghttpFNN&&&-thecroft-comNpsyNtoonsN"ppaToons-html

Mui+ % 8onditioningN,earning 5- Just before something scary happens in a horror film$ they often play scary sounding music:hen ! hear the music$ ! tense up in anticipation of the scary event- !n this situation$ the music serves as a A78DEKS8S KR 8R NR

9- Try as you might$ you are unable to teach your dog to do a somersault- Ee &ill roll around on the ground$ but he refuses to execute the gymnastic move you desire because of A- e1uipotentiality 7- preparedness8- !nstinctive drift DE8hainingShaping-

<- :hich of the follo&ing is an example of a generali+ed reinforcer; A78DEchocolate ca'e &ater money applause high grades

>- !n teaching your cat to 2ump through a hoop$ &hich reinforcement schedule &ould facilitate the most rapid learning; A78DEcontinuous fixed ratio variable ratio fixed interval variable interval

?- The classical conditioning training procedure in &hich the KS is presented first is 'no&n as A78DEbac'&ard conditioningor&ard conditioningSimultaneous conditioningDelayed conditioningRegular conditioning-

A- Tina li'es to play &ith slugs$ but she can find them by the shed only after it rains- "n &hat 'ind of reinforcement schedule is Tina*s slug hunting; A78DEcontinuous fixed interval fixed ratio variable interval variable ratio

B- Just before the doors of the elevator close$ ,ola$ a co&or'er you despise$ enters the elevator=ou immediately leave$ mumbling about having forgotten something- Exiting the elevator is an example of A78DEpositive reinforcement a secondary reinforcerPunishmentNegative reinforcement"mission training-

C- :hich researcher studied latent learning;

A78DE-

Oohler 7andura Tolman :atson S'inner

D- Many psychologists believe that children of parents &ho beat them are li'ely to beat their o&n children- "ne possible explanation for this phenomenon is A78DEmodeling,atent learningAbstract learning!nstrumental learning8lassical conditioning-

56- :hen Tito &as young$ his parents decided to give him a 1uarter every day he made his bedTito started to ma'e his siblings* beds also and help &ith other chores- 7ehaviorists &ould say that Tito &as experiencing A78DEinternal motivationSpontaneous recoveryAc1uisitionLenerali+ationDiscrimination-

55- A rat evidencing abstract learning might learn A78DEto clean and feed itself by &atching its mother perform these activitiesTo associate its handler*s presence &ith feeding timeTo press a bar &hen a light is on but not &hen its cage is dar'The layout of ama+e &ithout hurrying to get to the endTo press a lever &hen he sees pictures of dogs but not cats-

59- :ith &hich statement &ould 7- - S'inner most li'ely agree; A78DEPavlov*s dog learned to expect that food &ould follo& the bell7aby Albert thought the &hite rat meant the loud noise &ould soundAll learning is observablePigeons pec' dis's 'no&ing that they &ill receive food8ognition plays an important role in learning-

5<- 7efore his parents &ill read him a bedtime story$ 8harley has to brush his teeth$ put on his pa2amas$ 'iss his grandmother goodnight$ and put a&ay his toys- This example illustrates A- shaping7- Ac1uisition-

8- Lenerali+ationD- 8hainingE- A to'en economy5>- :hich of the follo&ing is an example of positive reinforcement; A78DE7uying a child a video game after she thro&s a tantrumLoing inside to escape a thunderstormAssigning a student detention for fightingLetting a cavity filled at the dentist to halt a toothacheDepriving a prison inmate of sleep-

5?- ,ily 'eeps po'ing Jared in Mr- 8layton*s third#grade class- Mr- 8layton tells Jared to ignore ,ily- Mr- 8layton is hoping that ignoring ,ily*s behavior &ill A78DEpunish herExtinguish her behaviorNegatively reinforce the behavior8ause ,ily to generali+eMa'e the behavior latent

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/(/2+3
Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time Several different models$ or explanations$ of ho& memory &or's have emerged from memory research- T&o of the most important modelsF the three#boxNinformation processing model and the levels of processing model- Neither model is perfectThree 7ox model proposes the three stages that information passes through before it is storedF "ensory memory # split#second holding tan' # the information your senses are processing right no& is held in sensory memory # less than a second # Leorge Sperling did experiments$ sho&ed iconic memory % a split#second perfect photograph of a scene # "ther experiments indicate echoic memory % split#second memory for sounds # Most of the information in sensory memory is not encoded # Selective attention determines &hich sensory messages get encoded "hort-termKWor*ing /emory # memories &e are currently &or'ing &ith # temporary$ they usually fade in 56 to <6 seconds

# # # # #

capacity is limited on average to around seven items Events are encoded as visual codes$ acoustic codes$ or semantic codes 8apacity can be expanded through chun'ing Mnemonic devices# memory aids$ really examples of chun'ing Rehearsal or simple repetition can hold information in short#term memory

.ong-term /emory # permanent storage # capacity is unlimited # memories can decay or fade # stored in three different formats (!isodic memory % memories of specific events stored in a se1uential series of events "emantic memory % general 'no&ledge of the &orld stored as facts$ meanings$ or categories rather than se1uentially Procedural /emory % memories of s'ills and ho& to perform them$ These are se1uential but might be very complicated to describe in &ordsMemories can also be implicit or explicit Explicit % also called declarative % conscious memories of facts or events !mplicit % also called nondeclarative# unintentional memories that &e might not even reali+e &e have ,E0E,S " PR"8ESS!NL M"DE, This theory explains &hy &e remember &hat &e do by examining ho& deeply the memory &as processed or thought about- Memories are neither short# nor long#term- They are deeply .or elaboratively/ processed or shallo&ly .or maintenance/ processedAccording to the levels of processing theory$ &e remember things &e spend more cognitive time and energy processing- This theory explains &hy &e remember stories better than a simple recitation of events and &hy$ in general$ &e remember 1uestions better than statementsRETR!E0A, # getting information # t&o different 'indsF recognition and recall There are several factors that influence &hy &e can retrieve some memories and &hy &e forget others# Primacy effect % more li'ely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list # +ecency effect# ability ot recall the items at the end of a list # Conte-t # semantic net&or' theory # lashbulb memories # /ood-congruent memory# ability to recall a memory is increased &hen current mood matches mood &hen stored # "tate-de!endent memory#

Constructive /emory % false memories$ leading 1uestions can easily influence us"RLETT!NL "ne cause is decay$ because &e do not use a memory or connection to a memory for a long timeRelearning effect indicates that it isn*t entirely gone Another factor is interference$ t&o types # # Retroactive interference % learning ne& information interferes &ith the recall of older information Proactive interference % older information learned previously interferes &ith the recall of information learned more recently

Eo& memories are physically stored in the brain# # the hippocampus is important in encoding ne& memories- Damage can cause anterograde amnesia .can*t encode any ne& memories/ long#term potentiation# studies of neurons indicate that they can strengthen connections bet&een each other through repeated firings$ this might be related to the connections &e ma'e in our long#term memory

.(A+) )' A)D /(/2+3

.earning # the process by &hich experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior Conditioning# the ac1uisition of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of &ell#defined stimuli Classical or Pavlovian conditioning # type of learning in &hich a response naturally elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different$ neutral stimulus 2!erant or instrumental conditioning # type of learning in &hich behaviors are emitted to earn re&ards to avoid punishments 5nconditioned stimulus 5" # stimulus that invariably causes an organism to respond in a specific &ay 5nconditioned res!onse 65+7 #response that ta'es place in an organism &henever an unconditioned stimulus occurs

Conditioned stimulus # originally neutral stimulus that is paired &ith an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the desired response in an organism &hen presented alone Conditioned res!onse # after conditioning$ the response an organism produces &hen only a conditioned stimulus is presented DesensitiDation thera!y # conditioning techni1ue designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a particular ob2ect or situation 1aste aversion # conditioned avoidance of poisonous food 2!erant behavior # behavior designed to operate on the environment in a &ay that &ill gain something desired or avoid something unpleasant +einforcer # a stimulus that follo&s a behavior and increases the li'elihood that the behavior &ill be repeated Punisher # a stimulus that follo&s a behavior and decreases the li'elihood that the behavior &ill be repeated .aw of effect # Thorndi'e*s theory that behavior consistently re&arded &ill be )stamped in* as learned behavior Positive reinforcer # Any event &hose presence increases the li'elihood that ongoing behavior &ill recur )egative reinforcer # Any event &hose reduction or termination increases the li'elihood that ongoing behavior &ill recur Avoidance training # ,earning a desirable behavior to prevent an unpleasant condition such as punishment from occurring +es!onse ac9uisition # )building phase* of the conditioning during &hich the li'elihood or strength of the desired response increases ntermittent !airing # pairing the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus on only a portion of the learning trials "*inner bo- # box that is often used in operant conditioning of animals- !t limits the available responses and thus increases the li'elihood that the desired response &ill occur "ha!ing # reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior (-tinction # decrease in the strength or fre1uency of a learned response due to failure to continue pairing the KS and 8S or the &ithholding of reinforcement

"!ontaneous recovery # the reappearance of an extinguished response after the passage of time "timulus generaliDation # transfer of a learned response to different but similar stimuli "timulus discrimination # learning to respond to only one stimulus and to inhibit the response to all other stimuli +es!onse generaliDation # giving a response that is some&hat different from the response originally learned to that stimulus Primary reinforcer # reinforcer that is re&arding in itself$ such as food$ &ater$ and sex "econdary reinforcer # reinforcer &hose value is learned through association &ith other primary or secondary reinforcers Contingency # a reliable )if#then* relationship bet&een t&o events such as a 8S and KS Bloc*ing # prior conditioning prevents conditioning to a second stimulus even &hen the t&o stimuli are presented simultaneously "chedule of reinforcement # in partial reinforcement$ the rule for determining &hen and ho& often reinforcers &ill be delivered #i-ed-interval schedule # reinforcement schedule that calls for reinforcement of a correct response after a fixed length of time Variable-interval schedule # reinforcement schedule in &hich a correct response is reinforced after varying lengths of time after the last reinforcement #i-ed-ratio schedule # reinforcement schedule in &hich the correct response is reinforced after a fixed number of correct responses Variable-ratio schedule # reinforcement schedule in &hich a varying number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement is presented Cognitive learning # learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable .atent learning #learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior change Cognitive ma! # a learned mental image of a spatial environment that may be called on to solve problems &hen stimuli in the environment change .earning set # ability to become increasingly more effective in solving problems as more problems are solved

"ocial learning theory # vie& of learning that emphasi+es the ability to learn by observing a model or receiving instructions$ &ithout firsthand experience by the learner 2bservational learning # learning by observing other people*s behavior Vicarious reinforcementK!unishment # performance of behaviors learned through observation that is modified by &atching others &ho are reinforced or punished for their behavior 1o*en economy % a behavioral techni1ue in &hich re&ards for desired acts are accumulated through to'ens$ &hich represent a form of money Cognitive ma! % a mental image of &here one is located in space Cognitive a!!roach % a &ay of learning based on abstract mental processes and previous 'no&ledge .earning curve % a gradual up&ard slope representing increased retention of material as the result of learning "tate-de!endent learning# the fact that material learned in one chemical state is best reproduced &hen the same state occurs again 1ransfer of training# a learning process in &hich learning is moved from one tas' to another based on similarities bet&een the tas's Positive transfer % a transfer of learning that results from similarities bet&een t&o tas's )egative transfer % an interference &ith learning due to differences bet&een t&o other&ise similar tas's nformation !rocessing % the methods by &hich &e ta'e in$ analy+e$ store$ and retrieve material "chema % an organi+ed and systematic approach to ans&ering 1uestions or solving problems (laboration % the process of attaching a maximum number of associations to a basic concept or other material to be learned so that it can be retrieved more easily /nemonic devices % unusual associations made to material to aid memory Princi!le learning % a method of learning in &hich an overall vie& .principle/ of the material to be learned is developed so that the material is better organi+ed Chun*ing % putting things into clusters or )chun's* so that items learned are in groups$ rather than separate #orgetting % an increase in errors &hen trying to bring material bac' from memory

2verlearning % the process of learning something beyond one perfect recitation so that the forgetting curve &ill have no effect( the development of perfect retention#orgetting curve % graphic representation of speed and amount of forgetting that occurs +ecall % the ability to bring bac' and integrate many specific learned details +ecognition % the ability to pic' the correct ob2ect or event from a list of choices nterference theory % the belief that &e forget because ne& and old material conflict &ith one another Amnesia % the bloc'ing of older memories andNor the loss of ne& ones "hort-term memory % the memory system that retains information for a fe& seconds to a fe& minutes .ong-term memory % the memory system that retains information for hours$ days$ &ee's$ months$ decades "ensory memory system % direct receivers of information from the environment % for example$ iconic$ acoustic conic memory % a very brief visual memory that can be sent to the STM Acoustic memory % a very brief sound memory that can be sent to the STM (idetic imagery % an iconic memory lasting a minute or so that 'eeps images )in front of the person* so ob2ects can be counted or analy+ed$ also called )photographic memory* RETKRN T" MENK

C2') 1 2)
,ANLKALE ,anguage is intimately connected to cognition Elements #phonemes #morphemes #syntax ,anguage Ac1uisition#

# # # say

irst stage % babbling babbling appears to be innate babies in this stage are capable of producing any phoneme from any language babbling progresses into utterances of &ords as babies imitate the &ords they hear caregivers Second stage % telegraphic speech # combine &ords into simple commands # begin to learn grammar and syntax rules during this stage

8ontroversy in language ac1uisition #7ehaviorists believe it is learned through operant conditioning and shaping #Noam 8homs'y % nativist theory of language ac1uisition$ says humans are born &ith a language ac1uisition device &hich allo&s them to learn language rapidly- There may be a critical eriod for learning language#Most psychologists no& agree that there is some combination of the t&o ,anguage and 8ognition 7en2amin :horf$ linguistic relativity hypothesis % the language &e use might control$ and in some &ays limit$ our thin'ing TE!NO!NL AND 8REAT!0!T= "chemata % cognitive rules &e use to interpret the &orld 8oncepts# similar to schemats$ rules that allo& us to categori+e and thin' about the ob2ects$ people$ and ideas &e encounter Prototy!es % the most typical example of a particular concept mages % mental pictures Problem Solving Algorithms % try every possible solution$$ an algorithm is a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or foolproof method$ may be impractical Heuristics %a rule of thumb$it limits the possible combinations drastically Availability heuristic# 2udging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially+e!resentativeness heuristic % 2udging a situation based on ho& similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mindKse of the heuristics can lead to specific problems in 2udgments- "verconfidence$ belief bias$ belief perseverance !mpediments to Problem Solving# # rigidity .mental set/ tendency to fall into established thought patterns # functional fixedness % the inability to see a ne& use for an ob2ect # not brea'ing the problem into parts

# #

confirmation bias % &e tend to loo' for evidence that confirms our beliefs raming % the &ay a problem is presented

8reativity # little correlation bet&een intelligence and creativity # difficult to define$ originality$ appropriateness$ novel$ someho& fits the situation # convergent thin'ing# thin'ing pointed to&ard one solution # divergent thin'ing# thin'ing that searches for multiple possible ans&ers to a 1uestion # divergent thin'ing is more closely associated &ith creativity-

8"LN!T!"N MK!3

5-

Mr- Orohn$ a carpenter is frustrated because he misplaced his hammer and needs to pound in the last nail in the boo'case he is building- Ee overloo's the fact that he could use the tennis trophy sitting above the &or'bench to pound in the nail- :hich concept best explains &hy Mr- Orohn overloo'ed the trophy;

A78DE9-

representativeness heuristic retrieval functional fixedness belief bias divergent thin'ing

Phonemes and morphemes refer to

A78DE<-

elements of telegraphic speech toddlers useElements of language7uilding bloc's of concepts7asic elements of memories stored in a long#term memoryT&o types of influences language has on thought according to the linguistic relativity hypothesis-

:hich example &ould be better explained by the levels of processing model than the information#processing model;

A- Someone says your name across the room and you s&itch your attention a&ay from the conversation you
are having-

7- =ou forget part of a list you &ere trying to memori+e for a test8- :hile visiting &ith your grandmother$ you recall one of your favorite childhood toys D- =ou are able to remember verbatim a riddle you &or'ed on for a fe& days before you figured out the
ans&er-

E- =ou pay less attention to the smell of your neighbor*s cologne than to the professor*s lecture in your college
class>8ontrary to &hat :horf*s linguistic relativity hypothesis originally predicted$ &hat effect does recent research indicate language has on the &ay &e thin';

A78DE?-

Since &e thin' in language$ the language &e understand limits &hat &e have the ability to thin' about,anguage is a tool of thought but does not limit our cognitonThe labels &e apply affect our thoughtsThe relative &ods in each langage afect our ability to thin' because &e are restricted to the &ords each langage usesThe linguistic relativity hypothesis predicts that ho& 1uic'ly &e ac1uire language correlates &ith our cognitive ability

:hich of the follo&ing is an example of the use of the representativeness heuristic;

A- Judging that a young person is more li'ely to be the instigator of an argument than an older person$ because 78DEAyou believe younger people are more li'ely to start fights7rea'ing a math story problem do&n into smaller$ representative parts$ in order to solve itJudging a situation by a rule that is usuly$ but not al&ays trueSolving a problem &ith a rule that guarantees the right$ more representative ans&erMa'ing a 2udgment according to past experiences that are most easily recalled$ therefore representative of experience-

:hich of the follo&ing is the most complete list of elements in the three#boxNinformation processing model;

A78DEB-

Sensory memory$ constructive memory$ &or'ing memory$ and long#term memoryShort#term memory$ &or'ing memory$ and long#term memoryShallo& processing$ deep processing$ and retrievalSensory memory$ encoding$ &or'ing memory$ and retrievalSensory memory$ &or'ing memory$ encoding$ long#term memory$ and retrieval-

:hich of the follo&ing is an effective method for testing &hether a memory is actually true or &hether it is a constructed memory;

A78DEC-

8hec'ing to see &hether it &as deeply processed or shallo&ly processedTesting to see if the memory &as encoded from sensory memory into &or'ing memoryKsing a PET scan to see if the memory is stored in the hippocampusKsing other evidence$ such as &ritten records$ to substantiate the memoryThere is no &ay to tell the difference bet&een a true memory and a constructed one-

"ne of the &ays memories are physically stored in the brain is by &hat process;

A78DED-

Deep processing$ &hich increases levels of neurotransmitters in the hippocampusEncoding$ &hich stimulates electric activity in the hippocampus,ong#term potentiation$ &hich strengthens connections bet&een neuronsSelective attention$ &hich increases myelination of memory neuronsRehearsal$ &hich causes the brain to devote more neurons to &hat is being rehearsed-

According to the nativist theory$ language is ac1uired

A- by parents reinforcing correct language use7- Ksing an inborn ability to learn language at a certain developmental stage8- 7est in the language and culture native to the child and parents-

D- "nly if formal language instruction is provided in the child*s native languageE- 7est through the phonics instructional method$ because children retain ho& to pronounce all the phonemes
re1uired for the language56According to the three#boxNinformation#processing model$ stimuli from our outside environment is first stored in

A78DE55-

&or'ing memoryThe hippocampusThe thalamusSensory memorySelective attention-

:hich of the follo&ing is the best example of the use of the availability heuristic;

A78DE59-

Judging a situation by a rule that is usually$ but not al&ays$ trueMa'ing a 2udgment according to past experiences that are most easily recalledJudging that a problem should be solved using a formula that guarantees the right ans&erMa'ing a 2udgment according to &hat is usually true in your experienceSolving a problem by brea'ing it into more easily available parts-

:hich sentence most accurately describes sensory memory;

A- -Sensory memory stores all sensory input perfectly accurately for a short period of time7- Sensory memory encodes only sensations &e are attending to at the time8- Sensory memory receives memories from the &or'ing memory and decides &hich memories to encode in
long#term memory-

D- Sensory memory records all incoming sensations and remembers them indefinitelyE- Sensory memory records some sensations accurately$ but some are recorded incorrectly$ leading to
constructive memory5<Recall is a more difficult process than recognition because

A- memories retrieved by recognition are held in &or'ing memory$ and recalled memories are in long#term 78DEmemoryMemories retrieved by recognition are more deeply processedThe process of recall involves cues to the memory that causes interferenceMemories retrieved by recognition are more recent than memories retrieved by recallThe process of recognition involves matching a person$ event$ or ob2ect &ith something already in memory

5>- :hich of the follo&ing &ould be the best piece of evidence for the nativist theory of language ac1uisition;

A- A child &ho ac1uires language at an extremely early age through intense instruction by her or his parents7- Statistical evidence that children in one culture learn language faster than children in another culture8- A child of normal mental ability not being able to learn language due to language deprivation at a young
age-

D- A child s'ipping the babbling and telegraphic speech stages of language ac1uisition-

E- A child deprived of language at an early age successfully learning language later5?A friend mentions to you that she heard humans never forget anything( &e remember everything that ever happens to us- :hat concept from memory research most directly contradicts this belief;

A78DE-

sensory memory selective attention long#term memory constructive memory recovered memory

RETKRN T" MENK

DE0E,"PMENT
DE%E#O&MENT
Ma2or issues$ methods$ prenatal development$ infancy

!-

De'elopment involves the processes and stages of gro&th from conception across the life span- !t encompasses changes in physical$ cognitive$ and social behaviors!!& /a,or issues
ANature versus nurture#are &e more affected by heredity or environment; 78ontinuity versus discontinuity#is developmental change gradual$ or do &e progress through distinct stages;

&

/ethods
A78Cross-sectional research involves studying a variety of ages at a given point in timeLongitudinal research follo&s the same group of sub2ects for many years!n cohort-sequential research$ several age groups are studied periodicallyDHistorical research revolves around the particular historical circumstances of an era Physical development Cephalocaudal .head to tail/ development Pro i!odistal .from the center out&ard/ development

V&

Prenatal develo!ment
A59-

7598-

Lenetics "enotype refers to the total genetic composition of a personPhenotype refers to the observable features of the person Teratogens are disease agents$ drugs$ and other environmental agents that can cause birth defects during the prenatal period

V&

nfancy APhysical development 5Lro&th rate declines throughout infancy but is faster than during any other postnatal period9-

Maturation and learning combine to determine skill development and replace reflexes-

7Social development 5Earry Earlo&Hs surrogate mother research &ith mon'eys demonstrated the importance of contact comfort9#ttach!ent style a$ecure attachment means the infant see's proximity$ contact$ and interaction &ith the caregiver after separationb%nsecure attachment means the infant cannot be calmed or ignores the caregiver after separation<$tranger an iety pea's at about A months( separation an iety pea's at about 5C months-

D- 8ognitive development 5- !nfants sho& a preference for face#li'e patterns 9- &isual cliff experiments suggest that infants perceive depth by the time they are able to cra&l8hildhood and adolescence !8hildhood A- Physical development 5-more extensive neural net&or's continue to develop in the brain
9 - Lro&th rate continues to decline 7- Social development 5- !nteraction &ith the environment provides a sense of gender identity' 9- A greater sense of independence develops as peer relationships begin to become more important8- 8ognitive development continues at a rapid rate- There are advances in the areas of 5- ,eaming 9-,anguage <- Thin'ing s'ills !!& Adolescence

7- PhysicalN sexual de(elop!ent-puberty

)' $ocial de(elop!ent 5- Peer groups ta'e on an increasingly important role9-"pposite#sex relationships gradually become less recreational and more intimate

8-- 8ognitive development 5- 8apability for logical$ hypothetical$ and introspective thin'ing develops 9- Lro&ing a&areness of oneHs o&n mental processes de(elops-metaco(nition -

Adolescent development relates to many important societal problems$ such as suicide$ teen pregnancy$ and eating disordersAdult and later years !- Adulthood A- Physical changes 5- Abilities pea' and begin a gradual .5Q a year/ decline9- :omen undergo !enopause* &ith its hormonal and reproductive changes7- Social changes center around such issues asF 5- Mate selection 9- Parenting <- 8areer selection 8- 8ognitive changes vary significantly &ith some people sho&ing declines and others not5- Reaction time appears to decline9- Some adults sho& a decline in memory-

&.ater years

A& Physical changes :; 1here is a general decline in muscle tone and sensory abilities )*Senile dementia and Al+heimer,s disease are two disorders that may develo!& "ocial issues includeA :& +etirement
9- Social isolation$ &hich may be caused by loss of spouse and others$ lac' of mobility and declining health 8- 8ognitive declines are li'ely to continue- -

Piaget and Hohlberg !- PiagetHs theory of cognitive development

A& Sensorimotor sta(e- birth to :J months

5- 8haracteristics a- o(niti'e structures or schema are the means by &hich humans ac1uire and apply 'no&ledge about their &orldb- Assimilation is the use of available cognitive structures to gain ne& informationc- Accommodation is the process of modifying cognitive structures in the face of 5# ne&ly reali+ed complexities in the environment9- Developmental achievements a- ircular reactions are repetitive motions babies engage in as they gradually learn to explore their environment nonreflexivelyFb- o./ect perman*ence is the understanding that ob2ects continue to exist even &hen ##hidden from vie&-

B& &reoperational sta(e- :J months to C years

5- 8haracteristics a- E(ocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from a perspective one has not experiencedb- Animism is the tendency to attribute life to inanimate thingsc- Artificialism is the tendency to believe everything is the product of human action9- Developmental achievements a- Symbolic representation and language b- Readiness for operational thought

C& oncrete0operational sta(e- C years to early adolescence

5- 8haracteristics a- Kse of simple logic

b- Kse of simple mental manipulations 9- Developmental achievements

a- onser'ation is the principle that matter does not increase or decrease because of a change in formb- Re'ersi.ilit1 is the understanding that mathematical operations can be undonec- CIass inclusion is the ability to understand the hierarchical nature of classification groups-+ 5- 8haracteristicsa- Eypothetical and deductive reasoningb- Propositional logic

D& $ormal0operations sta(e- adolescence and adulthood

9-Developmental achievement indicates a readiness for adult intellectual tas's<- Not all adolescents or adults achieve formal operational reasoning ability-

(& Criti9ue of Piaget

5- Development may be more gradual than PiagetHs stages imply9-The nature of PiagetHs tas's may have underestimated cognitive s'ills of children-

A- &recon'entional le'el 5- Stage 5$ characteri+ed by avoidance of punishment 9- Stage 9$ characteri+ed by a desire to further oneHs o&n interests 7- on'entional le'el 5- Stage <$ characteri+ed by living up to the expectations of others 9- Stage >$ characteri+ed by a sense of conscience and Gdoing oneHs dutyG 8& &ostcon'entional le'el 5- Stage ?$ characteri+ed by an understanding that values and rules are relative but generally need to be upheld 9- Stage A$ characteri+ed by universal ethical principles D& Criti9ue of Hohlberg 5- Development may be more gradual and less se1uential than OohlbergHs stages imply9- Lilligan and others have critici+ed the theory for undervaluing traditional female traits$ &hich focus on interpersonal issues-

& HohlbergLs theory of moral develo!ment

(ri*sonLs !sychosocial theory of develo!ment

!- 7ac'ground A- Eri'son &as trained in the reudian tradition$ and the first four stages borro& from reudHs psychosexual stages7- The developmental tas' of each stage involves resolving the tension bet&een t&o opposite outcomes!!- 1he stages A Trust (ersus mistrust #infants 7- #utono!y (ersus sha!e and doubt -toddlers C' %niati(e (ersus guilt -young children D- %ndustry (ersus inferiority -older children E- %dentity (ersus role confusion -adolescents ,' %nti!acy (ersus isolation -young adults L- "enerati(ity (ersus stagnation -adults H' -go integrity (ersus despai r-elderly %%%' riti2ue of Eri3son A- There is no agreed#upon set of measures for the various stages7- The stages imply a rigidity of development that may not exist8- The theory may not reflect differences in personality development bet&een men and &omen-

DE0E,"PMENT Develo!mental Psychology# Study of the changes that occur in people from birth through old ageCross sectional study# Method of studying developmental changes by examining groups

of sub2ects &ho are of different agesCohort# Lroup of people born during the same period in historical time .ongitudinal study# Method of studying developmental changes by examining the same group of sub2ects t&o or more times$ as they gro& olderBiogra!hical or retros!ective study# Method of studying developmental changes by reconstructing sub2ect*s past through intervie&s and investigating the effects of events that occurred in the past on current behaviorsPrenatal# Development from conception to birth (mbryo#Developing human bet&een 9 &ee's and < months after conception #etus- Developing human bet&een < months after conception and birth Placenta# "rgan by &hich an embryo or fetus is attached to its mother*s uterus and that nourishes it during prenatal developmentCritical !eriod- Time &hen certain internal and external influences have a ma2or effect on development( at other periods$ the same influences &ill have little or no effect )eonate # Ne&born baby +ooting refle-# Reflex that causes a ne&born to turn its head to&ard something touching its chee' and to grope around &ith its mouth "wallowing refle-# Reflex that enables the ne&born baby to s&allo& li1uids &ithout cho'ing 'ras!ing refle-# Reflex that causes ne&born babies to close their fists around anything that is put in their hands "te!!ing refle-# Reflex that causes ne&born babies to ma'e little stepping motions if they are held upright &ith their feet 2ust touching a surface tem!erament# Term used by psychologists to describe the physicalNemotional characteristics of the ne&born child and young infant( also referred to as personality /aturation- Automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of the passage of time Develo!mental norms#Ages by &hich an average child achieves various developmental milestones "ensorimotor stage# !n Piaget*s theory$ the stage of cognitive development bet&een birth and 9 years of age$ in &hich the indiv- Develops ob2ect permanence and ac1uires the ability to form mental representations 2b,ect !ermanence #The concept that things continue to exist even &hen they are out of sight /ental re!resentation# Mental image or symbol used to thin' about or remember an ob2ect$ a person$ or an event Preo!erational stage# !n Piaget*s theory the stage of cognitive devel- 7et&een 9 and B$ in &hich the individual becomes able to use mental representations and language to describe remember and reason (gocentric# Knable to see things from another*s point of vie& #ormal o!erations# !n Piaget*s theory$ the state bet&een 55 and 5?$ in &hich the indiv-becomes capable of abstract thought Holo!hrase# "ne#&ord sentences$ commonly used by children under 9 .anguage ac9uisition device- An internal mechanism for processing speech that is )&ired !n to* all humans m!rinting- orm of primitive bonding seen in some species of animals* the ne&born animal has a tendency to follo& the first moving thing it sees after it is born or hatched Attachment# Emotional bond that develops in the first year of life that ma'es human babies

cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort Autonomy- Sense of independence( desire not to be controlled by others "ocialiDation# Process by &hich children learn the behaviors and attitudes appropriate to their family and their culture solitary !lay# A child engaged in some activity alone( the earliest form of play Parallel !lay# T&o children playing side by side at the same activities$ paying little or no Attention to each other( the earliest 'ind of social interaction bet&een toddlers Coo!erative !lay# T&o or more children engaged in play that re1uires interaction "e- role awareness# A little girl*s 'no&ledge that she is a girl and a little boy*s 'no&ledge that he is a boy 'ender constancy# The reali+ation by a child that gender cannot be changed "e- role awareness- Ono&ledge of &hat behavior is appropriate for each gender "e--ty!ed behavior# Socially prescribed &ays of behaving that differ for boys and girls Puberty# "nset of sexual maturation$ &ith accompanying physical development /enarche# irst menstrual period maginary audience- El'ind*s term for adolescents( delusion that they are constantly being observed by others Personal fable# El'ind*s term for adolescents( delusion that they are uni1ue$ very important and invulnerable dentity formation# Eri'son*s term for the development of a stable sense of self necessity to ma'e the transition from dependence on others to dependence on oneself dentity crisis# Period of intense self#examination and decision ma'ing* part of the process of identity formation Peer grou!# A net&or' of same#aged friends and ac1uaintances &ho give one another emotional and social support Cli9ue- Lroup of adolescents &ith similar interests and strong mutual attachment Anore-ia nervosa# A serious eating disorder that is associated &ith an intense fear of &eight gain and a distorted body image Bulimia# An eating disorder characteri+ed by binges of eating follo&ed by self induced vomiting midlife crisis# A time &hen adults discover they no longer feel fulfilled in their 2obs or personal lives and attempt to ma'e a decisive shift in career or lifestyle /idlife transition# According to ,evinson$ a process &hereby adults assess the past and formulate ne& goals for the future /eno!ause- Time in a &oman*s life &hen menstruation ceases AlDheimerIs disease# A disorder common in late adulthood that is characteri+ed by progressive losses in memory and changes in personality- !t is believed to be caused by a deterioration of the brain*s structure and functionDE0E,"PMENT MK!3 5Some researchers consider developmental psychology an applied research topic because A- it is more easily applied to people*s lives than research such as behaviorism7- Researchers apply findings and theories from other areas of psychology to the specific topic of human development

8- !t is more commonly studied by a graduate student rather than an undergraduate because of the applications for other researchD- Doing original research in this area is difficult$ so most of the research is about applicationE- Pure research is difficult to gain support for$ especially &hen a researcher needs to recruit children as participants9=ou read in your philosophy class textboo' that humans are born STabula RasaT or Sblan' slates-T As a student of psychology$ &hich of the follo&ing responses &ould you have; A- The statement is incorrect- Eumans may be bon &ithout reflexes and instincts$ but &e are born &ith the ability to learn them7- The statement is correct- Eumans are born &ithout instincts or other mechanisms in place to help us survive8- The statement is correct- Eumans are born &ith a certain number of neurons$ but most develop later as &e learnD- The statement is incorrect- Eumans are born &ith a set of reflexes that help us surviveE- The statement is impossible to prove since &e cannot infer &hat babies 'no& or do not 'no& due to their lac' of language<:hich of the follo&ing statements is most true about ho& a ne&born*s senses function; A- A ne&born*s senses function the same as an adult*s since the sensory apparatus develops in the &omb7- All of our senses function normally &hen &e are ne&borns except taste due to lac' of stimulation in the &omb8- All of our senses function normally &hen &e are ne&borns except touch due to lac' of stimulation in the &ombD- A ne&born*s senses function at a very lo& level but develop very 1uic'ly &ith experienceE- Most senses function normally$ but sight develops slo&ly &ith experience>Most prenatal influences on humans are genetic or hormonal in origin except for A78DEteratogensStress on the motherParents* level of education about fetal developmentamily history of mental illness"perant conditioning occurring before birth-

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/21 VA1 2) A)D (/21 2)

Dar&in*s theory of natural selection caused many psychologists to try and explain all human behaviors through instincts$ most agree that our behavior is motivated by other biological and psychological factorsDrive reduction theory % behavior is motivated by biological needs- A need is one of our re1uirements for survival$ a drive is our impulse to act in a &ay that satisfies this need Eomeostasis# balanced internal state Drives are primary and secondary# Primary# biological needs li'e thirst and hunger Secondary % learned drives li'e money Drive reduction theory cannot explain all our motivations-

Arousal 1heory# states that &e see' an optimum level of excitement or arousal$ most of us perform best &ith an optimum level of arousal=er'es#Dobson la& %high level of arousal may cause us to perform &ell at easy tas's but poorly on difficult tas'sncentive 1heory % sometimes behavior is pulled by a desire$ incentives are stimuli that &e are dra&n to due to learning

/aslowIs Hierarchy of )eeds % Abraham Maslo& pointed out that not all needs are created e1ual Hunger /otivation % :hy do &e become hungry 7iological 7asis % There are several biological factors # # # Stomach sensation of being full Eypothalamus$ specifically the lateral and ventomedial parts if destroyed or stimulated determine hunger Set#point theory$ says hypothalamus &ants to maintain a certain optimum body &eight

Psychological factors # external cues$ attractiveness or availability of food Larcia effect$ learned taste aversions # 8ulture and bac'ground

(ating Disorders % different cultures have drastically different rates of eating disorders$ rates are highest in the K-S- The three most common areF 7ulimia % 7ulimics eat large amounts of food in a short period of time and then get rid of the food by vomiting$ excessive exercise$ or the use of laxatives- .7inge then Purge/ 7ulimics are obsessed &ith food and their &eight$ the ma2ority of bulimics are &omen Anorexia Nervosa # Anorexics starve themselves to belo& C? percent of their normal body &eight and refuse to eat due to their obsession &ith &eight$ the vast ma2ority are &omen "besity % People &ith diagnosed obesity are severely over&eight$ often over 566 pounds$ and the excess &eight threatens their health- "bese people typically have unhealthy eating habits rather than the food obsessions of the other t&o disorders- Some people may also be genetically predisposed to obesity Social Motivation % Achievement /otivation % Eumans seem to be motivated to figure out our &orld and master s'ills$ sometimes regardless of the benefits of the s'ills or 'no&ledgeStudies involve loo'ing at differences in ho& people set and meet personal goals and go about ac1uiring ne& 'no&ledge or s'ills-

(-trinsicK ntrinsic /otivation# (-trinsic motivators are rewards that we get for accom!lishments from outside ourselves (-& 'rades; salary; etc& ntrinsic motivators are re&ards &e get internally$ such as en2oyment or satisfaction Ono&ing &hat type of motivation an individual responds best to can give managers insight into &hat strategies &ill be most effective- Extrinsic motivators are effective for a short period of time but studies sho& that if &e &ant a behavior to continue$ intrinsic motivation is most effective/anagement 1heory % studies of management styles sho& t&o basic attitudes that affect ho& managers do their 2obsF &ith good Theory W % managers believe that employees &ill &or' only if re&arded benefits or threatened &ith punishment Theory = % managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do &or' and policies should encourage this internal motive-

1H(2+ (" AB251 (/21 2) % $ames-.ange % They theori+ed that &e feel emotion because of biological changes$ physiological change causes emotion Cannon-Bard % They doubted this order$ they demonstrated that similar physiological changes correspond &ith drastically different emotional states- 7iological change and the cognitive a&areness of the emotional state occur simultaneously 1wo #actor 1heory % Stanley Schacter explains emotional experiences in a more complete &ay than either previous- Ee pointed out that both our physical responses and our cognitive labels combine to cause any particular emotional response- Emotion depends on the interaction bet&een t&o factors$ biology and cognition-

"1+("" % stress and emotion are intimately connected concepts- The term stress can refer to either certain life events .stressors/ or ho& &e react to these changes in the environment .stress reactions/ /easuring stress % Thomas Eolmes and Richard Rahe designed one of the first instruments to measure stress- Their social read2ustment rating scale .SRRS/ measured stress using life#change

units .,8Ks/- Any ma2or life change increases the score on the SRRS$ a person &ho scored very high on the SRRS is more li'ely to have stress#related diseases than a person &ith a lo& score'eneral Ada!tation "yndrome .LAS/ % Eans Seyle describes the general response in humans and animals to stressful events- There are three stagesF Alarm reaction % Eeart rate increases$ blood is diverted a&ay from other body functions to muscles needed to react- The organism readies itself to meet the challenge through activation of the sympathetic nervous system+esistance % The body remains physiologically ready- Eormones are released to maintain this state of readiness- !f the resistance stage lasts too long$ te body can deplete its resources(-haustion % The parasympathetic nervous system returns our physiological state to normal:e can be more vulnerable to disease in this stage especially if our resources &ere depleted by an extended resistance stage-

0arious studies sho& that a perceived lac' of control over events exacerbates the harmful effects of stress$ control over events tends to lessen stressM"T!0AT!"N AND EM"T!"N MK!3 5Eo& &ould drive reduction theory explain a person accepting a ne& hob &ith a higher salary but that re1uires more &or' and responsibility; A78DE9Money is a more po&erful incentive for this individual than free timeThis person see's a higher activity level and ta'es the 2ob in order to satisfy this driveor this person$ money is a higher level need than free timeThe person ta'es the 2ob to satisfy the secondary drive of increased salaryEumans instinctively see' greater resources and control over their environment-

:hich aspects of hunger are controlled by the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus; A- contraction and expansion of the stomach$ indicating too much or too little food7- 7ody temperature and desire to eat8- Desire to eat and physiological processes needed for eating$ and digestion .such as salivation/D- The binge and purge cycle in bulimicsE- The desire to eat and the feeling of satiety or fullness$ that ma'es us stop eating-

<-

All of the follo&ing are identified by researchers as important factors in the causes of eating disorders EW8EPT A- cultural attitude to&ard &eight

7- lac' of &illpo&er8- Lenetic tendenciesD- amily history of eating disordersE- ood obsessions >Research is dispelling many popular myths about the so#called causes of homosexuality$ all of the follo&ing are factors research has eliminated as possible causes EW8EPT A78DE?traumatic childhood experiences7eing raised by homosexual parents Prenatal hormone levelsParenting stylesRelationship &ith same#sex parent

:hat is the principle difference bet&een ho& achievement motivation theory and arousal theory explain human motivation; A- Achievement motivation is a specific example of arousal motivation 7- Arousal theory describes the optimum level of general arousal an individual see's$ &hile achievement motivation describes &hat goals the individual is motivated to achieve8- Arousal theory describes motivation by referring to stages in our responses to stress .the general adaptation syndrome/- Achievement motivation is not used to describe motivation due to stress D- A person &ith a lo& optimum level of arousal according to arousal theory &ould have a high achievement motivationE- Arousal theory is an older$ outdated precursor to achievement motivation theory-

A-

:hich of the follo&ing are reasons &hy intrinsic motivation might be more advantageous than extrinsic motivation; A- !ntrinsic motivation might be more enduring since extrinsic motivations are usually temporary7- !ntrinsic motivations are easier and more convenient to provide8- !ntrinsic motivations are higher on Maslo&*s hierarchy of needs$ so &e are motivated to meet them before extrinsic needsD- !ntrinsic motivations are more li'ely to be primary drives- Extrinsic motivations are secondary drivesE- !ntrinsic motivations are more effective &ith a &ider range of individuals-

B-

:hich sentence most closely describes the difference bet&een theory W and theory = types of management; A- Theory W managers are more active in &or' groups- Theory = managers are more hands# off$ letting groups &or' out problems on their o&n7- The management theories differ in regard to &hat tas's they delegate to &or'ers8- Theory = managers regard employees as intrinsically motivated$-

D- Management theory W is dominant in collectivist cultures- Theory = is more prevalent in individualist culturesE- Theory = is used &ith &or'ers &ho have high optimum levels of arousal- Theory W is used &ith those &hose arousal levels are lo&C:hat does Schacter*s t&o#factor theory state about the relationship bet&een emotion and physiological reaction; A- Emotions are caused by physiological reactions- or example$ &e feel excited because our heart begins to race7- Physiological reactions are caaused by emotions- or example$ our experience of fear causes our breathing rate to increase8- A combination of physiological reactions and our cognitive interpretation of an event produces emotionD- Physiological reactions and emotional response occur simultaneouslyE- 8ognitive emotions occur independently of physiological states and are unrelatedDExcessive time spent in the resistance phase of Seyle*s general adaptation syndrome can contribute to A78DEincreased time needed to adapt to ne& emotional situationsDecreased motivation to perform novel tas's Stress#related diseases li'e ulcers or heart conditions A reduction in the drive to achieve goals Resistance to learning s'ills needed for novel tas's-

56- Perceived control over a stressful event results in A78DEless reported stressMore frustration regarding the stressful event More motivation to solve the stressful problem !ncreased arousal Eigher heart and respiration rates

55-The balanced physiological state &e are driven to attain by satisfying our needs is called A- e1uilibrium 7- homeostasis 8- self#actuali+ation D- primary satisfaction E- secondary satisfaction 59- The Larcia effect describes A- the increased motivation felt by individuals &ith high levels of arousal7- The increased susceptibility to illness experienced in the exhaustion phase of the stress response

8- 8lassical conditioning associating nausea &ith food or drin' D- The effect of a theory = management styleE- The effect the hypothalamus has on perceiving hunger 5<- :hich of the follo&ing factor does research indicate may influence sexual orientation; A78DE5>A78DEparenting styles degree of masculinity or femininity expressed in childhood traumatic childhood experiences genetic influences being raised by homosexual parents

Seyle*s general adaptation syndrome describes ho& the central nervous system processes emotionsThe effect of lo& levels of arousal on emotion"ur reactions to stress"ur reactions to the different levels of Maslo&*s hierarchy of needsThe sexual response cycle in humans

5?- A high score on Eolmes and Rahe*s social read2ustment rating scale correlates &ith A78DEhigh optimum levels of arousal level of need reduction incidence of eating disorders incidence of stress#related illness levels of perceived control-

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P(+"2)A. 13
Personality is the uni1ue attitudes$ behaviors$ and emotions that characteri+e a person-

P"3CH2D3)A/ C 1H(2+ (" Sigmund reud# personality &as essentially set in early childhood$ psychosexual stages Three parts to personality# id$ ego$ superego !d contains instincts and energy- T&o types of instinctsF Eros# life instinct( often evidenced as a desire for sex Thanatos % the death instinct(( seen in aggression Defense Mechanisms# Carl $ung# proposed unconscious consists of t&o different parts Personal unconscious# similar to reud*s idea$ contains painful memories and thoughts the person does not &ish to confront$ complexes 8ollective unconscious# passed do&n through the species$ explains certain similarities &e see bet&een all cultures$ contains archety!es .universal concepts &e all share Shado&# the evil side of personality Persona# people*s creation of a public image Alfred Adler % ego psychologist$ do&nplayed the importance of the unconscious$ Thought people are motivated by the fear of failure$ inferiority( and the desire to achieve$ superiorityAlso 'no&n for his &or' on the importance of birth order-

1+A 1 1H(2+ (" Trait theorists believe &e can describe people*s personalities by specifying their main characteristics or traits)omothetic a!!roach& Theorists that believe that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people*s personalities Hans (yesenc*# believed could classify all people along introversion#extraversion scale and a stable#unstable scale +aymond Cattell# 5AP .personality factor/ 5A basic traits in all people in varying degrees A number of contemporary trait theorists believe that personality can be described using the big five personality traits# extraversion$ agreeableness$ conscientiousness$ openness to experience$ emotional stability The number of traits is derived from factor anal1sis# a statistical techni1ue that allo&s researchers to use correlations bet&een traits-

!diographic theorists# argue that each person should be seen in terms of the fe& traits that best characteri+e their uni1ueness 'ordon All!ort# created a measure to identify each person*s )central traits* RETKRN T" MENK

TEST!NL AND !ND!0!DKA, D!

EREN8ES

)1(.. '()C(
!ntelligence is often defined as a measure of general mental ability- "f the standardi+ed intelligence tests$ those developed by David :echsler are among those most &idely used- :echsler defined intelligence as Sthe global capacity to act purposefully$ to thin' rationally$ and to deal effectively &ith the environment-T :hile psychologists generally agree &ith this definition$ they don*t agree on the o!erational definition of intelligence .that is$ a statement of the procedures to be used to precisely define the variable to be measured/ or ho& to accomplish its measurementTest 8onstruction# To be useful must use established criteria of standardi+ation$ reliability$ and validity "tandardiDation % process of ma'ing uniform and ob2ective both testing procedures and scoring procedures in order to obtain meaningful scores +eliability % refers to the consistency of results- Different typesF # test and retest reliability % comparison of original test scores &ith retest scores # alternate form reliability % comparison of scores obtained on alternate forms

of a test # s!lit-half reliability % comparison of scores obtained on t&o halves of tests Validity % refers to the extent that a test measures &hat it is supposed to measure- Types includeF # content validity % the extent to &hich a test reflects a sample of the behavior to be measured # !redictive validity % the extent to &hich a test can predict a person*s behavior in another situation # face validity % ho& appropriate a test )appears* to be$ 2ust from the &ay the items read # construct validity % ho& &ell a test assesses the construct for &hich it &as designed # concurrent validity % ho& &ell the results of a test agree &ith those of a ne& test or a different form of the test measuring for the same construct Measures of !ntelligence- Several individual tests have been used to test intelligence 1he Binet-"imon intelligence scale$ Developed by renchmean Alfred 7inet$ &as administered to children to evaluate their performance .mental age/ at a given chronological age$ this measure called a mental 9uotient$ &as used to evaluate a child*s learning potential ,e&is 1erman of Stanford Kniversity revised the 7inet scale$ called the Stanford#7inet intelligence scale$ it introduced the concept of intelligence 9uotient David Wechsler developed the :A!S and the :!S8$ the revised forms of these tests are still &idely used- They contain t&o subscales$ verbal and performanceTests of aptitude and achievement- Lroup tests$ li'e the SAT measure a!titude$ or the capacity to learn and achievement$ &hat has been learnedRanges of intelligence scores- The t&o extremes of levels of intellectual functioning are 'no&n as developmentally disabled and gifted Those identified as mentally retarded or develo!mentally disabled have !M scores of B6 or belo&- Mild .?6#B6/$ moderate .<?#?6/$ severe .96#<?/$ profound .belo& 96/- 8auses include Do&n syndrome$ a genetic disorder( phenyl'etonuria$ a metabolic disorder( and developmental disability due to anoxia .lac' of oxygen/ during gestation The gifted usually fall &ithin the upper 9Q to <Q of the !M score

distribution .bet&een 5<6 and 5>?/- ,ouis 1erman*s study of the gifted found they possess high !M but also superior potential in any of six areas( general intelligence$ specific aptitudes$ creativity$ leadership$ performing arts$ and athletics"ther concepts of intelligence# "!earmanIs two-factor theory- 8harles Spearman believed intelligence &as made up of t&o components( a g-factor .general intelligence/ and sfactors .a collection of specific cognitive intellectual s'ills/

1hurstoneIs !rimary mental abilities- ,-,- Thurstone proposed seven categories of primary mental abilitiesF verbal comprehension$ number$ spatial relations$ perceptual speed$ &ord fluency$ memory$ inductive reasoning or general reasoning- Each ability could be measured separately and the sum composes intelligence 'uilfordIs three#dimensional model- Proposed three dimensions of mental abilityF # # # operations# the act of thin'ing contents % the terms used in thin'ing products of thin'ing % ideas

Each dimension is subdivided and the combinations can lead to over 566 separate factors #luid and crystalliDed intelligence- Raymond 8attell and John Eorn suggested that the g#factor should be divided intoF # #luid intelligence# reasoning ability$ memory capacity$ and speed of information processing- !nvolves such s'ills as those re1uiring spatial and visual imagery and is generally believed to be much less affected by experience and education than crystalli+ed intelligenceCrystalliDed intelligence % concerns the application of 'no&ledge to problem solving- !ncludes abilities such as reasoning and verbal and numerical s'ills and is generally believed to be affected by experience and education-

VernonIs hierarchical model- Suggests that intelligence consists of factors and s'ills arranged hierarchically- The cognitive factor$ at the top$ is composed of t&o s'ills$ verbalNacademic and practicalNmechanical "ternbergIs triarchic theory- 8oncerned &ith ho& intelligence is used$ theory deals &ithF # # # com!onential intelligence$ includes components essential to ac1uisition of 'no&ledge and use of problem#solving strategies e-!eriential intelligence$ reflected in creatively dealing &ith ne& situations and combining different experiences in insightful &ays conte-tual intelligence$ reflected in the management of day#to#day affairs

'ardnerIs seven intelligences$ Eo&ard Lardner divided intelligence into seven abilitiesF # linguistic ability # logical#mathematical # spatial ability # musical ability # bodily#'inesthetic ability # interpersonal ability # intrapersonal ability

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AB)2+/A.

Defining abnormal behavior is difficult- !t generally has the follo&ing characteristics# it is maladaptive andNor disturbing to the individual # it is disturbing to others # it is atypical$ not shared by many members of the population # it is irrational

Different schools of thought have different perspectives on the causes of disorders Perspective PsychoanalyticNpsychodynamic Eumanistic out 7ehavioral 8ognitive Sociocultural 7iomedical 8ause of disorder !nternal$ unconscious conflicts ailure to strive to&ard one*s potential or being of touch &ith one*s feelings Reinforcement history$ the environment !rrational$ dysfunctional thoughts or &ays of thin'ing Dysfunctional society "rganic problems$ biochemical imbalances genetic predispositions

8ATEL"R!ES " D!S"RDERS An-iety Disorders % share the common symptom of anxiety # phobia # generali+ed anxiety disorder$ often referred to as LAD .previously called anxiety state/ # obsessive#compulsive disorder # posttraumatic stress disorder# involves flashbac's or nightmares follo&ing a person*s involvement in or observation of an extremely troubling even Somatoform Disorders# &hen a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological symptom # # hypochondriasis conversion disorder

Dissociative Disorders

# # #

psychogenic amnesia fugue multiple personality disorder Mood or Affective Disorders# involves extreme or inappropriate emotions # Ma2or depression also 'no&n as unipolar depression# the most common mood disorder- Oey factor is the length of the depressive episode- "ther symptoms# loss of appetite$ fatigue$ change in sleeping patterns$ lac' of interest in normally en2oyable activities$ feelings of &orthlessness Seasonal Affective Disorder .SAD/ % experience depression only in certain parts of the year$ &inter$ treated &ith light therapy 7ipolar disorder$ also 'no& as manic depression# involves both depressed and manic episodes

# #

Theories on causes # Aaron 7ec'$ cognitive theorist says comes from unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves$ their &orld$ and their futures# cognitive triad- Also attributional theory applies Eas been found to correlate &ith feelings of learned helplessness Evidence suggests a biological component# lo& levels of serotonin

# #

Schi+ophrenic Disorders % fundamental symptom is disordered$ distorted thin'ing often demonstrated through delusions andNor hallucinations- There are four 'inds # # # # Disorgani+ed schi+ophrenia# evidence odd uses of language$ ma'e up their o&n &ords .neologisms/$ ma'e clang associations$ inappropriate affect or flat affect Paranoid schi+ophrenia# delusions of persecution 8atatonic schi+ophrenia# engage in odd movements$ stupor$ move 2er'ily and 1uic'ly for no apparent reason$ &axy flexibility- !ncreasingly rare Kndifferentiated schi+ophrenia# exhibit disordered thin'ing but no symptoms of one of the other types of schi+ophrenia

8auses# most popular ideas is biological$ dopamine hypothesis$ people &ith schi+ophrenia have high dopamine levels- Also$ enlarged ventricles and brain asymmetries$ also seems to be genetic predisposition

Who has schiDo!hrenia>

Schi+ophrenia is one of the most common mental illnesses- About 5 of every 566 people .5Q of the population/ is affected by schi+ophrenia- This disorder is found throughout the &orld and in all races and cultures- Schi+ophrenia affects men and &omen in e1ual numbers$ although on average$ men appear to develop schi+ophrenia earlier than &omen- Lenerally$ men sho& the first signs of schi+ophrenia in their mid 96s and &omen sho& the first signs in their late 96sSchi+ophrenia has a tremendous cost to society$ estimated at X<9-? billion per year in the KS .statistic from )rain ,acts$ Society for Neuroscience$ 5DDB/or more information on schi+ophrenia go to httpFNNfaculty-&ashington-eduNchudlerNschis-html

Personality Disorders

or and exercise chec' out &&&-rider-eduNusersNsulerNperdis-html

Antisocial personality disorder Dependent personality disorder Narcissistic Eistrionic "bsessive#compulsive personality disorder

How is normality defined; and what are the ma,or !sychological disorders>

Psychopathology refers to maladaptive behavior and to the scientific study of mental$ emotional$ and behavioral disordersDefinitions of normality usually ta'e into account the follo&ing( sub2ective discomfort$ statistical abnormality$ social nonconformity$ and the cultural or situational context of behaviorT&o 'ey elements in 2udgments of disorder are that a person*s behavior must be maladaptive and it must involve a loss of controlMa2or mental disorders include psychotic disorders$ dementia$ substance related disorders$ mood disorders$ anxiety disorders$ somatoform disorders$ dissociative disorders$ personality disorders$ and sexual or gender identity disordersTraditionally$ the term neurosis has been used to describe milder$ anxiety#related disorders- Eo&ever$ the term is fading from use!nsanity is a legal term defining &hether a person may be held responsible for his or her actions- Sanity is determined in court on the basis of testimony by expert &itnesses-

What is a !ersonality disorder>

Personality disorders are deeply ingrained maladaptive personality patternsSociopathy is a common personality disorder- Antisocial people seem to lac' a conscience- They are emotionally unresponsive$ manipulative$ shallo&$ and dishonest-

What !roblems result when a !erson suffers high levels of an-iety>

Anxiety disorders$ dissociative disorders$ and somatoform disorders are characteri+ed by high levels of anxiety$ rigid defense mechanisms$ and self#defeating behavior patternsThe term nervous brea'do&n has no formal meaning- Eo&ever$ )emotional brea'do&ns* do correspond some&hat to ad2ustment disordersAnxiety disorders include generali+ed anxiety disorder$ panic disorder &ith or &ithout agoraphobia$ agoraphobia .&ithout panic/$ specific phobias$ social phobia$ obsessive# compulsive disorders$ post#traumatic stress disorder$ and acute stress disorderDissociative disorders may ta'e the form of dissociative amnesia$ dissociative fugue$ or dissociative identity disorderSomatoform disorders center on physical complaints that mimic disease or disabilityour examples of somatoform disorders are hypochondriasis$ somati+ation disorder$ somatoform pain disorder$ and conversion disorders-

How do !sychologists e-!lain an-iety-based disorders>

The psychodynamic approach emphasi+es unconscious conflicts as the cause of disabling anxietyThe humanistic approach emphasi+es the effects of a faulty self#imageThe behaviorists emphasi+e the effects of previous learning$ particularly avoidance learning8ognitive theories of anxiety focus on distorted thin'ing$ 2udgment$ and attention-

What are the general characteristics of !sychosis>

Psychosis is a brea' in contact &ith reality that is mar'ed by delusions$ hallucinations$ sensory changes$ disturbed emotions$ disturbed communication$ and$ in some cases$ personality disintegrationAn organic psychosis is based on 'no&n in2uries or diseases of the brain- "ther problems of un'no&n origin are termed functional psychosesSome common causes of organic psychosis are untreated syphilis$ poisoning$ drug abuse$ and dementia .especially Al+heimer*s disease/-

How do delusional disorders differ from other forms of !sychosis>

A diagnosis of delusional disorder is almost totally based on the presence of delusions of grandeur$ persecution$ infidelity$ romantic attraction$ or physical diseaseThe most common delusional disorder is paranoid psychosis- Paranoids may be violent if they believe they are threatened-

What forms does schiDo!hrenia ta*e> What causes it>

Schi+ophrenia involves a split bet&een thought and emotion$ delusions$ hallucinations$ and communication difficultiesDisorgani+ed schi+ophrenia is mar'ed by extreme personality disintegration and silly$ bi+arre$ or obscene behavior- Social impairment is usually extreme8atatonic schi+ophrenia is associated &ith stupor$ mutism and odd postures- Sometimes violent and agitated behavior also occurs!n paranoid schi+ophrenia .the most common type/$ outlandish delusions of grandeur and persecution are coupled &ith psychotic symptoms and personality brea'do&nKndifferentiated schi+ophrenia is the term used to indicate a lac' of clear#cut patterns of disturbance8urrent explanations of schi+ophrenia emphasi+e a combination or early trauma$ environmental stress$ inherited susceptibility$ and abnormalities in the brainEnvironmental factors that increase the ris' of schi+ophrenia include viral infection or malnutrition during the mother*s pregnancy$ birth complications$ early psychological trauma and a disturbed family environmentEeredity is a ma2or factor in schi+ophreniaRecent biochemical studies have focused on the brain transmitter dopamine and its receptor sitesThe dominant explanation of schi+ophrenia$ and other problems as &ell$ is the stress vulnerability model-

What are mood disorders> What causes de!ression>

Mood disorders primarily involve disturbances of mood or emotion$ producing manic or depressive states,ong#lasting$ though relatively moderate$ depression is called a dysthymic disorder8hronic though moderate s&ings in mod bet&een depression and elation are called a cyclothymic disorder- Reactive depressions are triggered by external events7ipolar disorders combine mania and depression- !n a bipolar ! disorder the person alternates bet&een mania and depression- !n a bipolar !! disorder$ the person is mostly depressed$ but also has periods of mild maniaThe problem 'no&n as ma2or depressive disorder involves extreme sadness and despondency but no evidence of maniaA ma2or mood disorder accompanied by psychotic symptoms is called an affective psychosisSeasonal affective disorder .SAD/ &hich occurs during the &inter months$ is another common form of depression- SAD is typically treated &ith phototherapy7iological$ psychoanalytic$ cognitive$ and behavioral theories of depression have been proposed- Eeredity is clearly a factor in susceptibility to mood disorders- Research on the causes and treatment of depression continues-

Why do !eo!le commit suicide> Can suicide be !revented>

Suicide is statistically related to such factors as age$ sex$ and marital status-

!n individual cases$ the potential for suicide is best identified by a desire to escape$ unbearable psychological pain$ frustrated psychological needs$ and a constriction of optionsSuicide can often be prevented by the efforts of family$ friends$ and mental health professionals-

What does it mean to be McraDyI> What should be done about it>

!n :estern la&$ the insanity defense evolved from the McNaghten rule!nsanity is closely related to claims of diminished capacity or claims that a person had an irresistible impulse!nconsistencies in the application of the insanity defense have fueled debate about its validityThomas S+as+ has raised 1uestions about the nature of abnormal behavior and its relationship to personal responsibility and civil rightsPublic policies concerning treatment of the chronically mentally ill continue to evolve as authorities try to stri'e a balance bet&een providing help and ta'ing a&ay personal freedoms-

P"3CH2.2'3 2) 1H( )(1

Anxiety Disorders# !nformation and lin's to sites about anxiety disordershttpFNN&&&-adaa-orgNconsumerresourcesNlin'sN DSM#!0 Muestions and Ans&ers to common 1uestions about the DSM#!0httpFNN&&&-psych-orgNclin@resN1@a-html Personality Disorders % Multiple lin's to information on personality disorders and their treatment- httpFNN&&&-health#center-comNbrainNpersonalityNdefault-htm Knderstanding Schi+ophrenia % An extensive loo' at schi+ophreniahttpFNN&&&-mhsource-comNschi+ophreniaNindex-html

or more info- on abnormal and other psychology topics chec' out &&&-rider-eduNusersNsulerNpsylin's-html

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TREATMENT " PS=8E","L!8A, D!S"RDERS

Mental illnesses are brought on by a variety of causes therefore therapists must use a variety of methods to treat themResearch sho&s that about t&o#thirds of adults &ho undergo psychotherapy sho& mar'ed improvement or recover ho&ever about the same number improve &ithout treatment also-

PS=8E"D=NAM!8 APPR"A8EES #also 'no&n as insight therapies$ based on reud*s ideas #goal is to uncover the material in the unconscious mind #psychoanalysis #hypnosis #free association #dream analysis #symptom substitution #transference

EKMAN!ST!8 TEERAP= #emphasi+e peoples* positive capacities$ ability to self#actuali+e #8arl Rogers$ client#centered therapy$ Knconditional positive regard #Lestalt therapy #Existential therapies 8"LN!T!0E TEERAP= #attempts to directly manipulate the client*s thin'ing and reasoning processes #Rational#emotive therapy

#Attributional style #7ec' cognitive triad LR"KP TEERAP= #family therapy #encounter groups #self#help groups S"MAT!8 TEERAP= #The most common somatic therapy is drug therapy or psychopharmacology #electroconvulsive therapy$ shoc' treatment #psychosurgery
How do !sychothera!ies differ> How did !sychothera!y originate>

Psychotherapies may be classified as insight$ action$ directive$ nondirective$ or supportive therapies$ and combinations of theseTherapies may be conducted either individually or in groups$ and they may be time limitedPrimitive approaches to mental illness &ere often based on belief in supernatural forcesTrepanning involved boring a ho& in the s'ullDemonology attributed mental disturbance to demonic possession and prescribed exorcism as the cure!n some instances$ the actual cause of bi+arre behavior may have been ergot poisoningMore humane treatment began in 5BD< &ith the &or' of Philippe Pinel in Paris-

s #reudian !sychoanalysis still used>

reud*s psychoanalysis &as the first formal psychotherapy- Psychoanalysis see's to release repressed thoughts and emotions from the unconsciousThe psychoanalyst uses free association$ dream analysis$ and analysis of resistance and transference to reveal health#producing insightsSome critics argue that traditional psychoanalysis receives credit for spontaneous remissions of symptoms- Eo&ever$ psychoanalysis has been sho&n to be successful for many patients7rief psychodynamic therapy .&hich relies on psychoanalytic theory but is brief and focused/ is as effective as other ma2or therapies-

What are the ma,or humanistic thera!ies>

8lient#centered .or person#centered/ therapy is nondirective and is dedicated to creating an atmosphere of gro&th-

Knconditional positive regard$ empathy$ authenticity$ and reflection are combined to give the client a chance to solve his or her o&n problemsExistential therapies$ such as ran'l*s logotherapy$ focus on the end result of the choices one ma'es in life- 8lients are encouraged through confrontation and encounter to exercise free &ill and to ta'e responsibility for their choicesLestalt therapy emphasi+es immediate a&areness of thought and feelings- !ts goal is to rebuild thin'ing$ feeling$ and acting into connected &holes and to help clients brea' through emotional bloc'agesMedia psychologists$ telephone counselors$ and cybertherapists may$ on occasion$ do some good- Eo&ever each has serious dra&bac's$ and the effectiveness of telephone counseling and cybertherapy has not been establishedTherapy by videoconferencing sho&s more promise as a &ay to provide mental health services at a distance-

What is behavior thera!y>

7ehavior therapists use various behavior modification techni1ues that apply learning principles to change human behavior!n aversion therapy$ classical conditioning is used to associate maladaptive behavior .such as smo'ing or drin'ing/ &ith pain or other aversive events in order to inhibit undesirable responses-

How is behavior thera!y used to treat !hobias; fears; and an-ieties>

8lassical conditioning also underlies systematic desensiti+ation$ a techni1ue used to overcome fears and anxieties- !n desensiti+ation$ gradual adaptation and reciprocal inhibition brea' the lin' bet&een fear and particular situationsTypical steps in desensiti+ation areF 8onstruct a fear hierarchy$ learn to produce total relaxation$ and perform items on the hierarchy .from least to most disturbing/Desensiti+ation may be carried out &ith real settings$ or it may be done by vividly imagining the fear hierarchyDesensiti+ation is also effective &hen it is administered vicariously % that is$ &hen clients &atch models perform the feared responses!n some cases$ virtual reality exposure can be used to present fear stimuli in a controlled mannerA ne& techni1ue called eye movement desensiti+ation and reprocessing .EMDR/ sho&s promise as a treatment for traumatic memories and stress disorders- At present$ ho&ever$ EMDR is highly controversial-

What role does reinforcement !lay in behavior thera!y>

7ehavior modification also ma'es use of operant principles$ such as positive reinforcement$ nonreinforcement$ extinction$ punishment$ shaping$ stimulus control$ and time out- These principles are used to extinguish undesirable responses and to promote constructive behavior-

Nonre&ard can extinguish troublesome behaviors- "ften this is done by simply identifying and eliminating rein forcers$ particularly attention and approvalTo apply positive reinforcement and operant shaping$ symbolic re&ards 'no&n as to'ens are often used- To'ens allo& immediate reinforcement of selected target behaviorsull#scale use of to'ens in an institutional setting produces a to'en economy- To&ard the end of a to'en economy program$ patients are shifted to social re&ards such as recognition and approval-

Can thera!y change thoughts and emotions>

8ognitive therapy emphasi+es changing thought patterns that underlie emotional or behavioral problems- !ts goals are to correct distorted thin'ing andNor teach improved coping s'ills!n a variation of cognitive therapy called rational#emotive behavior therapy .RE7T/$ clients learn to recogni+e and challenge their o&n irrational beliefs-

Can !sychothera!y be done with grou!s of !eo!le>

Lroup therapy may be a simple extension of individual methods$ or it may be based on techni1ues developed specifically for groups !n psychodrama$ individuals enact roles and incidents resembling their real#life problems!n family therapy$ the family group is treated as a unitAlthough they are not literally psychotherapies$ sensitivity and encounter groups attempt to encourage positive personality change- !n recent years$ commercially offered large# group a&areness trainings have become popular- Eo&ever$ the therapeutic benefits of such programs are 1uestionable-

What do various thera!ies have in common>

To alleviate personal problems$ all psychotherapies offer a caring relationship$ emotional rapport$ a protected setting$ catharsis$ explanations for the client*s problems$ a ne& perspective$ and a chance to practice ne& behaviorsMany basic counseling s'ills underlie a variety of therapies- These include listening actively$ helping to clarify the problem$ focusing on feelings$ avoiding the giving of un&anted advice$ accepting the person*s perspective$ reflecting thoughts and feelings$ being patient during silences$ using open 1uestions &hen possible$ and maintaining confidentiality-

How do !sychiatrists treat !sychological disorders>

Three medical$ or somatic$ approaches to treatment are pharmacotherapy$ electroconvulsive therapy .E8T/$ and psychosurgery- All three techni1ues are controversial to a degree because of 1uestions about effectiveness$ and side effects8ommunity mental health centers see' to avoid or minimi+e mental hospitali+ationThey also see' to prevent mental health problems through education$ consultation$ and crisis intervention-

How are behavioral !rinci!les a!!lied to everyday !roblems>

8ognitive techni1ues can be an aid to managing personal behavior!n covert sensiti+ation$ aversive images are used to discourage un&anted behaviorThought stopping uses mild punishment to prevent upsetting thoughts8overt reinforcement is a &ay to encourage desired responses by mental rehearsalDesensiti+ation pairs relaxation &ith a hierarchy of upsetting images in order to lessen fears-

How could a !erson find !rofessional hel!>

!n most communities$ a competent and reputable therapist can be located &ith public sources of information or through a referralPractical considerations such as cost and 1ualifications enter into choosing a therapistEo&ever$ the therapist*s personal characteristics are of e1ual importance-

Do cultural differences affect counseling and !sychothera!y>

Many cultural barriers to effective counseling and therapy have been identifiedA&are therapists are beginning to see' out the 'no&ledge and s'ills needed to intervene successfully in the lives of clients from diverse cultural bac'groundsThe culturally s'illed counselor must be able to establish rapport &ith a person from a different cultural bac'ground and adapt traditional theories and techni1ues to meet the needs of clients from non#European ethnic or racial groups-

PS=8E","L= "N TEE NET

7asics of 8ognitive Therapy % An overvie& of cognitive therapy &ith suggesting readings- httpFNNmindstreet-comNcbt-html Types of Therapies % Describes four different approaches to therapy- Also has information about choosing a therapist- httpFNN&&&-grohol-comNtherapy-htm

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"2C A. P"3CH2.2'3
#The scientific study of the &ays in &hich the thoughts$ feelings$ and behaviors of one individual are influenced by the real$ imagined$ or inferred behavior or characteristics of other people"2C A. P"3CH2.2'3 How does grou! membershi! affect individual behavior>

Eumans are social animals enmeshed in a complex net&or' of social relationships- Social psychology studies ho& individuals behave$ thin'$ and feel in social situations8ulture provides a broad social context for our behavior- "ne*s position in groups defines a variety of roles to be playedSocial roles$ &hich may be achieved or ascribed$ are particular behavior patterns associated &ith social positions- :hen t&o or more contradictory roles are held$ role conflict may occur- The Stanford prison experiment sho&ed that destructive roles may override individual motives for behaviorPositions &ithin groups typically carry higher or lo&er levels of status- Eigh status is associated &ith special privileges and respectLroup structure refers to the organi+ation of roles$ communication path&ays$ and po&er &ithin a group- Lroup cohesiveness is basically the degree of attraction among group membersNorms are standards of conduct enforced .formally or informally/ by groups- The auto'inetic effect has been used to demonstrate that norms rapidly form even in temporary groups-

What uns!o*en rules govern the use of !ersonal s!ace>

The study of personal space is called proxemics- our basic spatial +ones around each person*s body are intimate distance .6 to 5C inches/$ personal distance .5 Y to > feet/$ social distance .> to 59 feet/$ and public distance .59 feet or more/-

How do we !erceive the motives of others and the causes of our own behavior>

Attribution theory is concerned &ith ho& &e ma'e inferences about behavior- A variety of factors affect attribution$ including consistency$ distinctiveness$ situational demands$ and consensusThe fundamental attributional error is to ascribe the actions of others to internal causes7ecause of actor#observer differences$ &e tend to attribute our o&n behavior to external causesSelf#handicapping$ involves arranging excuses for poor performance as a &ay to protect one*s self#image or self#esteem-

Why do !eo!le affiliate>

The need to affiliate is tied to additional needs for approval$ support$ friendship$ and information- Additionally$ research indicates that affiliation is related to reducing anxiety and uncertaintySocial comparison theory holds that &e affiliate to evaluate our actions$ feelings$ and abilities- Social comparisons are also made for purposes of self#protection and self# enhancement-

What factors influence inter!ersonal attraction>

!nterpersonal attraction is increased by physical proximity .nearness/$ fre1uent contact$ physical attractiveness$ competence$ and similarity- A large degree of similarity on many dimensions is characteristic of mate selection Self#disclosure occurs more &hen t&o people li'e one another- Self#disclosure follo&s a reciprocity normF ,o& levels of self#disclosure are met &ith lo& levels in return$ &hereas moderate self#disclosure elicits more personal replies- Eo&ever$ overdisclosure tends to inhibit self#disclosure by othersAccording to social exchange theory$ &e tend to maintain relationships that are profitable % that is$ those for &hich perceived re&ards exceed perceived costsRomantic love has been studied as a special 'ind of attitude- ,ove can be distinguished from li'ing by the use of attitude scales- Dating couples li'e and love their partners but only li'e their friends- ,ove is also associated &ith greater mutual absorption bet&een peopleAdult love relationships tend to mirror patterns of emotional attachment observed in infancy and early childhood- Secure$ avoidant$ and ambivalent patterns can be defined on the basis of ho& a person approaches romantic and affectionate relationships &ith othersEvolutionary psychology attributes human mating patterns to the differing reproductive challenges faced by men and &omen since the da&n of time-

What have social !sychologists learned about conformity; social !ower; obedience; and com!liance>

!n general$ social influence refers to alterations in behavior brought about by the behavior of others- 8onformity to group pressure is a familiar example of social influence 0irtually everyone conforms to a variety of broad social and cultural norms- 8onformity pressures also exist &ithin smaller groups- The famous Asch experiments demonstrated that various group sanctions encourage conformityLroupthin' refers to compulsive conformity in group decision ma'ing- 0ictims of groupthin' see' to maintain each other*s approval$ even at the cost of critical thin'ingSocial influence is also related to five types of social po&erF re&ard po&er$ coercive po&er$ legitimate po&er$ referent po&er$ and expert po&er"bedience to authority has been investigated in a variety of experiments$ particularly those by Milgram- "bedience in Milgram*s studies decreased &hen the victim &as in the same room$ &hen the victim and sub2ect &ere face to face$ &hen the authority figure &as absent$ and &hen others refused to obey8ompliance &ith direct re1uests is another means by &hich behavior is influencedThree strategies for inducing compliance are the foot#in#the#door techni1ue$ the door#it# the#face approach$ and the lo&#ball techni1ueRecent research suggests that$ in addition to excessive obedience to authority$ many people sho& a surprising passive compliance to unreasonable re1uests-

How does self-assertion differ from aggression>

Self#assertion$ as opposed to aggression$ involves clearly stating one*s &ants and needs to others- ,earning to be assertive is accomplished by role#playing$ rehearsing assertive actions$ over#learning$ and using specific techni1ues$ such is the )bro'en record*-

What is a social tra!>

A social trap is a social situation in &hich immediately re&arded actions have undesired effects in the long run"ne prominent social trap occurs &hen limited public resources are overused$ a problem called the tragedy of the commons-

P"3CH2.2'3 2) 1H( )(1

R Social Psychology Net&or' % A comprehensive site &ith many lin's to information about social psychology- httpFNN&&&-&esleyan-eduNspnN R Social Psychology Eumor % ,in's to cartoons that relate to principles of social psychologyhttpFNNmiavxl-muohio-eduNVshermarcNp<9>cart-html

1(+/"
Primacy effect # early information about someone &eights more heavily that later information in influencing one*s impression of that person "elf-fulfilling !ro!hecy - !rocess in which a !ersonIs e-!ectation about another elicits behavior from the second person that confirms the expectation "tereoty!e # set of characteristics presumed to be shared by all members of a social category Attribution theory # theory that addresses the 1uestion of ho& people ma'e 2udgments about the causes of behavior #undamental attribution error # tendency of people to overemphasi+e personal causes for other people*s behavior and to under emphasi+e personal causes for their o&n behavior Defensive attribution # tendency to attribute our successes to our o&n efforts or 1ualities and our failures to external factors $ust-world hy!othesis # attribution error based on the assumption that bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people Pro-imity # ho& close t&o people live to each other (-change # concept that relationships are based on trading re&ards among partners (9uity # fairness of exchange achieved &hen each partner in the relationship receives the same proportion of outcomes to investments

ntimacy - the 1uality of genuine closeness and trust achieved in communication &ith another person Attitude # relatively stable organi+ation of beliefs$ feelings$ and behavior tendencies directed to&ard something or someone#the attitude ob2ect "elf-monitoring # tendency for an individual to observe the situation for cues about ho& to react Pre,udice # an unfair$ intolerant$ or unfavorable attitude to&ard a group of people Discrimination - an unfair act or series of acts ta'en to&ard an entire group of people or individual members of that group #rustration-aggression theory # theory that under certain circumstances people &ho are frustrated in their goals turn their anger a&ay from the proper$ po&erful target to&ard another$ less po&erful target it is safer to attac' Authoritarian !ersonality # a personality pattern characteri+ed by rigid conventionality$ exaggerated respect for authority$ and hostility to&ard those &ho defy society*s norms Cognitive dissonance # perceived inconsistency bet&een t&o cognitions "ocial influence # process by &hich others individually or collectively affect one*s perceptions$ attitudes$ and actionsCulture # All the goods$ both tangible and intangible$ produced in a society Cultural truism # 7elief that most members of a society accept as self#evidently true )orm # A shared idea ore expectation about ho& to behave Cultural norm # A behavioral rule shared by an entire society Conformity # 0oluntarily yielding to social norms$ even at the expense of one*s o&n preferences Com!liance # 8hange of behavior in response to an explicit re1uest from another person or group 2bedience # 8hange of behavior in response to a command from another person$ typically an authority figure Deindividuation # ,oss of personal sense of responsibility in a group Altruistic behavior - Hel!ing behavior that is not lin*ed to !ersonal gain

Bystander effect # Tendency for an individual*s helpfulness in an emergency to decrease as the number of bystanders increases+is*y shift #Lreater &illingness to ta'e ris's in decision ma'ing in a group than as independent individuals PolariDation # Shift in attitudes by members of a group to&ard more extreme positions than the ones held before group*s discussion 'reat !erson theory #Theory that leadership is a result of personal 1ualities and traits that 1ualify one to lead others ndustrialKorganiDation !sychology # Division of psychology concerned &ith the application of psychological principles to the problems of human organi+ations$ especially &or' organi+ations Hawthorne effect # Principle that sub2ects &ill alter their behavior because of researcher*s attention and not necessarily because of any specific experimentation

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(""A3 45("1 2)"

- ree#Response 1uestions from past AP exams- There are t&o 1uestions and you must ans&er both in >? minutes- !t is not enough to ans&er a 1uestion by merely listing facts- =ou should present a cogent argument based on your critical analysis of the 1uestion posed:EE4 5- Design an experiment to determine &hether a ne& drug that is supposed to reduce hyperactivity in children actually does- =our essay should include an identification and description of all of the components of your experimental design$ including sampling$ independent and dependent variables$ controls$ and the method that you &ould employ to evaluate the outcome9- "ne of the most useful generali+ations in psychology is that Sbehavior is adaptive-T Explain this generali+ation and then identify each of the follo&ing and describe ho& each could be adaptiveA78DERepression 8onformity !mprinting Displaced aggression ,oss of information from short#term memory

:EE@ 5- 8ompare and contrast the experimental method and the survey method in terms of their suitability for investigating the hypothesis that frustration leads to aggressive behavior!n comparing and contrasting the t&o methods$ be sure to identify and discuss each of the follo&ingA78DE!ndependent variable Dependent variable 8ontrol Experimenter and response bias Ethical issues

9- Define each of the follo&ing concepts and explain ho& each contributes to the phenomenon of pre2udiceA78DEStereotyping Self#fulfilling prophecy undamental attribution error Pro2ection Schema

:EEC 5- Discuss ho& social and biological factors have an impact on each of the follo&ing in the individualA78DE97ody &eight Perception Alcoholism Extraversion Schi+ophrenia

Professor Jac'son believes that frustration increases the need for achievement- She decides to test her hypothesis &ith her introductory psychology class of about 566 studentsThe first ?6 students &ho arrive for class one day are ta'en to a separate room and given a series of easy pu++les to complete- Professor Jac'son then as's each student about his or her professional goals- She rates the statement of each on a B#point scale for strength of achievement motivation-

:hen they arrive$ the remaining students are ta'en to another room and given a series of difficult pu++les by Professor Jac'son*s teaching assistant$ Jim- Jim also as's each student about his or her professional goals and$ li'e Professor Jac'son$ then rates the statement of each on a B#point scaleThe group given the difficult pu++les has$ on the average$ higher achievement motivation scores than the group given the easy pu++les- Professor Jac'son concludes that her hypothesis is supported-

Sho& ho& each of the follo&ing aspects of Professor Jac'son*s experimental design is fla&ed- !ndicate ho& you &ould correct each problem-

A78DE-

Sampling Assignment of participants Dependent variable 8ontrol for experimenter bias 8ontrol of confounding variables .=ou need cite only one-/

:EEF 5- Many People are concerned about the effects of the use of physical punishment to modify the undesirable behavior of childrenA- 7asing your ans&er on psychological 'no&ledge$ apply each of the follo&ing in an argument against the use of physical punishmentModeling 8lassical conditioning of fear Displacement 7- Eo& &ould psychologists use the follo&ing processes to modify children*s undesirable behavior; Positive reinforcement Extinction

9- Although personality is generally consistent throughout the life span$ some people exhibit ma2or personality changesA- Eo& do each of the follo&ing help to explain 7"TE continuity and change in personality; 7iological factors ,earning factors Situational factors 8ognitive factors 7- Eo& &ould any T:" of the above interact to produce change in the trait of shyness;

:EEJ 5- Read the follo&ing abstract of a student research pro2ect on bystander intervention and then ans&er the 1uestions that follo&The ten participants in the study .ere una.are of its purpose' The first fi(e .ho signed up to be tested .ere assigned to the #lone condition and the ne t fi(e .ere assigned to the With /thers condition' The #lone condition .as run in the !orning and the With /thers condition in the afternoon' %n the #lone condition* each of the fi(e participants .as asked to .ait alone in a roo!' While the participant .aited* a fe!ale (oice in the ne t roo! screa!ed out* asking for help' %n the With /thers condition* each one of the fi(e participants .as asked to .ait in a roo! .ith se(eral confederates of the researcher' 0uring this .aiting period* a !ale (oice in the ne t roo! screa!ed out* asking for help' %n each condition* the percentage of participants .ho responded to the cry for help .as recorded' A- !dentify the independent and dependent variables in this study7- !dentify four fla&s in the design of this study and the recommendations you &ould ma'e to correct these fla&s8- Discuss an ethical issue raised by the design of this studyD- Kse your 'no&ledge of research in social psychology to describe the li'ely results of this study if correct methodology had been used-

9- A- Describe fully the distinctive emphasis of the cognitive approach to human behavior and mental processes- !n your essay$ be sure to specify ho& the cognitive approach differs from the follo&ing psychological approachesPsychodynamicNpsychoanalytic 7ehavioral 7iological 8- Live an example of the contribution of cognitive theory to the understanding of each of the follo&ingMemory Depression

PRA8T!8E EWAM
The follo&ing 1uestions are the released multiple choice 1uestions from the 5DD> examAfter you ta'e it you can e#mail me and ! &ill send you the ans&ers tmorfordZ&oodford-'59$'y-us
PS=8E","L= Time#5 hour and 5? minutes 566 Muestions DirectionsF Each of the 1uestions or incomplete statements belo& is follo&ed by five suggested ans&ers or completions- Select the one that is best in each case and then fill in the corresponding oval on the ans&er sheet!- The painful experience associated &ith termination of the use of an addictive substance is 'no&n as .A/ discontinuance .7/ tolerance .8/ &ithdra&al .D/ forced independence .E/ transduction 9- :hen parents refuse to accept several psychologistsH diagnosis of a childHs mental illness$ they are using &hich of the follo&ing defense mechanisms; .A/ Denial .7/ Displacement .8/ Pro2ection .D/ Rationali+ation .E/ Regression

<- After several trials during &hich a dog is given a certain 'ind of food at the same time that a specific tone is sounded$ there is evidence of conditioning if the dog salivates &hen .A/ the tone only is presented .7/ the food only is presented .8/ the food and tone are presented together .D/ a different tone is presented &ith the food .E/ a different 'ind of food is presented &ithout a tone 4& A com!le- !attern of organiDed; unlearned behavior that is s!ecies-s!ecific is called 6A 7a drive 6B 7a need 6C7 a motive 6D7 an emotion 6(7 an instinct @& Which of the following correctly describes the firing of neurons> 6A7 A !roto!lasmic transfer of ions 6B7 A finely graded res!onse 6C7 An all-or-none res!onse 6D7 An osmotic !rocess 6(7 A symbiotic function A- Distrust of others is symptomatic of .A/ mania .7/ dementia .8/ catatonia .D/ paranoia .E/ hebephrenia B- Sigmund reud believed that dream analysis &as a useful device for .A/ decreasing repression .7/ sublimating the id .8/ strengthening the superego .D/ displacing instinctual forces .E/ gaining insight into unconscious motives C- :hen rehearsal of incoming information is prevented$ &hich of the follo&ing &ill most li'ely occur; .A/ The information &ill remain indefinitely in short#term memory.7/ There &ill be no transfer of the information to long#term memory.8/ The sensory register &ill stop processing the information.D/ Retrieval of the information from long#term memory &ill be easier- .E/ !nformation already in long#term memory &ill be integrated &ith the incoming informationD- :hich of the follo&ing behavior#therapy techni1ues is typically used to reduce fear of heights; .A/ Time#out .7/ Punishment .8/ Discrimination learning .D/ To'en economy .E/ Systematic desensiti+ation 56- Pain'illing substances produced by the brain are 'no&n as .A/ cortisols .7/ endorphins

.8/ glucocorticoids .D/ pheromones .E/ hormones 55- Receptors that are especially important for helping a person maintain balance are located in the .A/ gyrus cinguli .7/ inner ear .8/ tendons .D/ ossicles .E/ ligaments 59- !n terms of the effect on the central nervous system$ alcohol is most accurately classified as &hich of the follo&ing types of drug; .A/ Depressant .7/ Narcotic .8/ Psychoactive .D/ Stimulant .E/ Eallucinogen 5<- Research findings in the area of interpersonal attraction indicate that individuals are most li'ely to be attracted to others &ho are .A/ critical of them .7/ similar to them in attitudes and values .8/ li'e their parents .D/ &illing to do favors for them .E/ indulgent of their failings 5>- "n a fishing trip$ Ed reali+es that he has mista'enly pac'ed the se&ing box instead of the tac'le box- Ee &ants to fish but returns home because he does not have any line or hoo's- EdHs failure to reali+e that se&ing thread can be used as fishing line and that a bent needle can be used as a hoo' is an example of .A/ poor problem representation .7/ cognitive accommodation .8/ bac'&ard mas'ing .D/ functional fixedness .E/ proactive interference 5?- :hich of the follo&ing responses &as most li'ely ac1uired through classical conditioning; .A/ The startle response of a baby the first time the baby hears thunder .7/ A childHs fear of dogs after the child has been bitten by a dog .8/ The cry of pain expressed by a man &hose hand has been cut on a piece of bro'en glass .D/ The uncontrollable blin'ing of a &oman &ho has 2ust gotten dust in her eye .E/ The salivation of a dog that is half&ay through a bo&l of its favorite food :C& !f a man who is a heavy smo*er is given an electric shoc* every time he ta*es a !uff on a cigarette; which of the following behavior-moditication techni9ues is being used> !A" "ystematic desensitiDation 6B7 /odeling 6C7 Aversive conditioning 6D7 Homogeneous reinforcement 6(7 nterloc*ing reinforcement 5B- The failure of bystanders to give victims of automobile accidents needed assistance is sometimes explained as an instance of

.A/ group polari+ation .7/ deindividuation .8/ situational attribution .D/ diffusion of responsibility .E/ mere exposure effect Muestions 5C#5D refer to the situation described belo&!n an experiment designed to determine &hether &atching violent scenes on television increases the fre1uency of aggressive behavior in children$ one group of sub2ects sa& a nonviolent cartoon and another group sa& a violent cartoon- !n the play period that follo&ed the vie&ing of the cartoons$ researchers observed the t&o groups of children together and counted instances of aggressive behavior5C- The control group in the experiment is the group that .A/ the researchers thought &ould be most aggressive .7/ performed the larger number of aggressive acts .8/ performed the smaller number of aggressive acts .D/ &atched the violent cartoon .E/ &atched the nonviolent cartoon 5D- The dependent variable in the experiment is the .A/ amount of aggressive behavior exhibited by the children .7/ amount of time that each child spent interacting &ith the other children .8/ group in &hich each child &as originally placed .D/ violent cartoon .E/ nonviolent cartoon 96- :hich of the follo&ing is most characteristic of individuals &ith chronic schi+ophrenia; .A/ Extreme mood s&ings .7/ Disordered thin'ing .8/ Profound sadness .D/ Knaccountable loss of body function .E/ ,oss of memory 95- Activation of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system results in .A/ an increase in salivation .7/ an increase in digestion .8/ an increase in respiratory rate .D/ a decrease in heart rate .E/ a decrease in pupil dilation 99- The terms GmodelingG and GimitationG are most closely associated &ith &hich of the follo&ing; .A/ 8lassical conditioning .7/ Lestalt theory .8/ Eypothesis testing .D/ "perant conditioning .E/ Social learning theory 9<- !n a famous series of experiments conducted by Earry Earlo&$ infant mon'eys &ere separated from their mothers at birth- The infants &ere then given t&o surrogate mothers .a terry#cloth GmotherG and a &ire GmotherG/$ each of &hich alternately had a nursing bottle that provided food to the infants- The experimental results sho&ed that in frightening situations the infant mon'eys .A/ &ere more li'ely to become aggressive to&ard the &ire mother than to&ard the terry#cloth mother .7/ failed to see' out either of the mothers because of their lac' of experience in see'ing contact comfort .8/ preferred the &ire mother$ even &hen the terry#cloth mother had the nursing bottle

.D/ preferred the terry#cloth mother$ even &hen the &ire mother had the nursing bottle .E/ &ould run and cling to &hichever mother had the nursing bottle 9>- According to Sigmund reud$ a childHs early experience in coping &ith external demands leads to the development of the .A/ unconscious .7/ preconscious .8/ "edipus complex .D/ id .E/ ego 9?- According to Albert 7andura$ people &ho believe i that their efforts &ill be successful and that they are in control of events have a high level of .A/ insight .7/ self #efficacy .8/ social responsibility .D/ reciprocal determinism .E/ self#monitoring s'ill 9A- 7ecause studies of learning sho& that events occurring close together in time are easier to associate than those occurring at &idely different times$ parents should probably avoid &hich of the follo&ing; .A/ 8orporal punishment .7/ Mild punishment .8/ 8onsistent punishment .D/ !nescapable punishment .E/ Delay of punishment 9B- According to Abraham Maslo&Hs hierarchy of needs$ &hich of the follo&ing statements is true; .A/ !ndividuals may have pea' experiences &hen meeting physiological needs.7/ Self#actuali+ation &ill al&ays precede the meeting of needs for esteem.8/ There are cultural differences in the rate at &hich individuals attain self#actuali+ation.D/ :omen are more li'ely to reach self#actuali+ation than men are.E/ Physiological needs must be met before an individual achieves self #actuali+ation9C- A teen#ager &ould most probably dra& on &hich of the follo&ing to recall her tenth birthday party; .A/ Episodic memory .7/ Semantic memory .8/ Echoic memory .D/ Eidetic imagery .E/ State#dependent learning 9D- ,eadership$ 2ob satisfaction$ and employee motivation are all studied in &hich of the follo&ing psychological disciplines; .A/ Euman factors psychology .7/ !ndustrial#organi+ational psychology .8/ 8ommunity psychology .D/ 8ounseling psychology .E/ Experimental psychology <6- According to the ethical guidelines set by the American Psychological Association .APA/$ &hich of the follo&ing is true of psychological research in &hich animals are used as sub2ects; .A/ !t must not involve the use of surgical procedures.7/ !t is no longer permitted by the APA &ithout special authori+ation-

.8/ !t should conform to all APA ethical guidelines for animal research.D/ !t must be limited to investigations that use correlational procedures.E/ !t may not be conducted by psychologists &ho do not have a license<5- :hich of the follo&ing is !N8"RRE8T,= matched &ith the hormone that it secretes; .A/ Thyroid gland--thyroxine .7/ Adrenal gland--epinephrine .8/ Pituitary gland--prolactin .D/ Pancreas--insulin .E/ "vary--testosterone <9- Eunger and eating are primarily regulated by &hich of the follo&ing; .A/ Androgens .7/ Estrogens .8/ The hypothalamus .D/ The 'idneys .E/ The medulla oblongata <<- Elena is presented &ith a list of 96 numbers- :hen as'ed to recall this list$ she remembers more numbers from the beginning than from the end of the list- This phenomenon demonstrates &hich of the follo&ing types of effect; .A/ Mnemonic .7/ Primacy .8/ Recency .D/ Secondary .E/ 8lustering RThis 1uestion &as not scored because recent research has invalidated option E as the correct ans&er<>- A prototype is best defined as .A/ an example of habituation .7/ an example of bottom#up processing .8/ the e1uivalent of feature abstraction .D/ the hypothetical Gmost typicalG instance of a category .E/ an essential element of category membership <?- Theories of motivation that assert the existence of biological motives to maintain the body in a steady state are called .A/ mechanistic .7/ homeostatic .8/ reductionistic .D/ genetic .E/ instinctual <A- According to attribution theory$ Pablo is most li'ely to attribute his high score on a difficult exam to 1#2 good luc' .7/ his intelligence .8/ his instructorHs teaching ability .D/ the lo& level of difficulty of the exam .E/ his classmatesH inade1uate preparation for the exam <B- n &hich of the follo&ing types of research are the same children tested periodically at different points in their development; .A/ 8linical case study .7/ 7et&een sub2ects

.8/ 8ross#sectional .D/ Ethnographic .E/ ,ongitudinal <C- The occipital lobes contain .A/ the primary visual cortex .7/ the prefrontal cortex .8/ the somatosensory cortex .D/ the pons .E/ sensory and motor connections to other brain regions <D- Eleanor Libson and her colleagues have used the visual cliff to measure an infantHs ability to perceive .A/ patterns .7/ depth .8/ si+e constancy .D/ shape constancy .E/ different hues >6- The most &ell#ad2usted and socially competent children tend to come from homes &here parents employ &hich of the follo&ing parental styles; .A/ Minimal supervision .7/ Authoritarian .8/ Authoritative .D/ !ndulgent .E/ Permissive >5- :hich of the follo&ing approaches to psychology emphasi+es observable responses over inner experiences &hen accounting for behavior; 1#2 7ehaviorist .7/ 8ognitive .8/ Existentialist .D/ Psychodynamic .E/ Structuralist >9- 8arla tutors other students because she li'es to be helpful$ &hereas Jane tutors classmates strictly for pay- Their behaviors demonstrate the difference bet&een .A/ primary and secondary drives .7/ instinctive and derived drives .8/ appetitive and aversive motivation .D/ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation .E/ positive and negative reinforcement ><- The vie& that human emotions are universal has been supported by studies of .A/ facial expressions .7/ body language .8/ linguistic structures .D/ hedonic relevance .E/ biological symmetry >>- Dopamine$ norepinephrine$ and acetylcholine are all .A/ hormones excreted by the endocrine glands .7/ secretions of the exocrine glands .8/ drugs used in the therapeutic treatment of memory disorders

.D/ en+ymes involved &ith the degradation of interneuron signals .E/ neurotransmitters that excite or inhibit a neural signal across a synapse >?- The cognitive theory of depression states that depression results from .A/ anger directed to&ard the self and significant others .7/ an excess of certain neurotransmitters in the brain .8/ failure in adult love relationships .D/ maladaptive interpretations of life events .E/ oral fixations from disturbed mother#infant relationships >A All of the follo&ing infant behaviors are usually considered by developmental psychologists to be reflexes EW8EPT .A/ rooting .7/ reaching .8/ suc'ing .D/ grasping .E/ smiling >B- The most common form of color blindness is related to deficiencies in the .A/ blue#yello& system .7/ red#green system .8/ process of visual summation .D/ bipolar cells .E/ secretion of rhodopsin >C- A person is as'ed to listen to a series of tones presented in pairs$ and as'ed to say &hether the tones in each pair are the same or different in pitch- !n this situation the experimenter is most li'ely measuring the individualHs .A/ sound locali+ation ability .7/ dichotic listening ability .8/ difference threshold .D/ echoic memory .E/ attention span >D- A survey sho&s that children &ho have encyclopedias in their homes earn better grades in school than children &hose homes lac' encyclopedias- The researcher concludes that having encyclopedias at home improves gradesThis conclusion is erroneous primarily because the researcher has incorrectly .A/ failed to allo& for experimenter bias .7/ identified the independent variable .8/ identified the dependent variable .D/ inferred correlation from causation .E/ inferred causation from correlation ?6- The release of those &ith mental disorders from mental hospitals for the purpose of treating them in their home communities is called .A/ deinstitutionali+ation .7/ milieu therapy .8/ primary prevention .D/ secondary prevention .E/ noncrisis intervention ?5- ,a&rence OohlbergHs theory of moral reasoning is best described by &hich of the follo&ing; .A/ Personal conscience is innate and all human beings develop it at the same rate.7/ 7y adulthood$ all people 2udge moral issues in terms of self#chosen principles-

.8/ Ethical principles are defined by ideals of reciprocity and human e1uality in individualistic societies$ but by ideals of la& and order in collectivistic societies.D/ 8hildren gro& up &ith morals similar to those of their parents.E/ 8hildren progress from a morality based on punishment and re&ard to one defined by convention$ and ultimately to one defined by abstract ethical principles?9- The intelligence 1uotient .!M/ has traditionally been based on the relationship bet&een an individualHs mental age and his or her .A/ stage of cognitive development .7/ level of physiological development .8/ reading ability .D/ chronological age .E/ 1uantitative aptitude @=& !n van PavlovLs e-!eriments in classical conditioning; the dogLs salivation was 6A7 an unconditioned stimulus only 6B7 an unconditioned res!onse only 6C7 a conditioned res!onse only 6D7 both an unconditioned and a conditioned stimulus 6(7 both an unconditioned and a conditioned res!onse RThis 1uestion &as not scored because results of recent research indicate that more than one ans&er may be correct?>- :hich of the follo&ing is a characteristic common to all individuals &ith a narcissistic personality disorder; .A/ A domineering attitude to&ard others .7/ An un&arranted sense of self#importance .8/ Restricted ability to express &armth and affection .D/ !nability to form social relationships .E/ "versensitivity to re2ection or possible humiliation ??- Eypnosis has been found useful in the treatment of 1#2 pain .7/ autism .8/ dementia .D/ paranoia .E/ schi+ophrenia ?A- !n a normal distribution of test scores$ the percentage of scores that fall at or belo& the mean score is .A/ 5B-? .7/ 9? .8/ ?6 .6/ AA-A .E/ D? ?B- Persistent repetitive thoughts that cannot be controlled are 'no&n as .A/ compulsions .7/ obsessions .8/ phobias .6/ delusions .E/ sublimations

?C- :hich of the follo&ing statements is true of behaviorism; .A/ !t &as formulated to account for cognitive development.7/ !t is rooted in Sigmund reudHs vie& of the importance of early experiences.8/ !t focuses on the development of thought processes and 'no&ledge.D/ !t holds that development is largely a product of learning.E/ !t emphasi+es the dominance of heredity over environment?D- :hich of the follo&ing best characteri+es individuals diagnosed as having personality disorders; .A/ They are typically afraid to leave their homes.7/ They are consistently psychotic in their cognition and affect.8/ They may function reasonably &ell in society.D/ Their symptoms are characteri+ed by sudden onset and short duration.E/ They developed their problems as a result of drug abuseA6- The mean &ill be higher than the median in any distribution that .A/ is symmetrical .7/ is not normal .8/ is positively s'e&ed .D/ represents measures for a random sample .E/ represents measures for a biased sample A5- :hich of the follo&ing is typically cited as a characteristic of autistic children; .A/ Minor developmental delays in academic achievement .7/ Above#average performance on tests of creativity .8/ Severely impaired interpersonal communication .D/ Tendency to see' younger playmates .E/ Paranoia comparable &ith that experienced in schi+ophrenia A9- The goal of rational#emotive therapy is to help clients .A/ focus on the significance of childhood events for current feelings of self#&orth .7/ correct self#defeating thoughts about their lives .8/ avoid putting themselves in ris'y situations .D/ practice relaxation techni1ues and autohypnosis to reduce anxiety .E/ use introspection to alleviate their feelings of self#doubt A<- A person &ith sight in only one eye lac's &hich of the follo&ing visual cues for seeing in depth; .A/ Retinal disparity .7/ ,inear perspective .8/ Motion parallax .D/ Relative si+e .E/ Texture gradient A>- Multiple personality is a type of .A/ dissociative disorder .7/ schi+ophrenia .8/ dementia praecox .D/ bipolar disorder .E/ manic#depressive psychosis A?- The intensity at &hich a sound becomes audible for a given individual is 'no&n as the individualHs .A/ contrast sensitivity .7/ absolute threshold

.8/ response threshold .D/ critical fre1uency .E/ 2ust noticeable difference AA- A teacher as's students to thin' of as many uses for a bric' as possible- 7y listing ?6 uses$ most of &hich the class finds ne& and unusual$ Susan is displaying .A/ computational learning .7/ paired#associate learning .8/ hypothetical thin'ing .D/ divergent thin'ing .E/ convergent thin'ing AB- The primary effect of the myelin sheath is to .A/ increase the velocity of conduction of the action potential along the axon .7/ increase the velocity of conduction of the action potential across the synapse .8/ facilitate the incoming stimulus signals at sensory receptors .D/ reduce the amount of unused neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft .E/ protect the terminal buttons of the neuron from destruction by en+ymes AC- :hich of the follo&ing &as true of Solomon AschHs experiments on conformity; .A/ People conformed if they 'ne& and respected the authority figure present.7/ An increase from B to 59 confederates increased conformity by experimental sub2ects.8/ Experimental sub2ects conformed less fre1uently &hen their 2udgments &ere made 'no&n to the group.D/ About DDQ of the 2udgments made by the experimental sub2ects &ere &rong.E/ !f the confederatesH 2udgments &ere not unanimous$ the degree of conformity by experimental sub2ects decreasedAD- :hich of the follo&ing concepts &as advanced by social psychologists to help explain &hy people &ho are part of a cro&d sometimes commit aggressive$ antisocial acts that they &ould not commit if they &ere alone; .A/ Lroupthin' .7/ 8ognitive dissonance .8/ Social facilitation .D/ Deindividuation .E/ 8atharsis B6- A somatoform disorder is best described as an illness that .A/ results from inade1uate parenting in childhood .7/ occurs &hen defense mechanisms are used inappropriately .8/ is psychological in nature &ith no physical symptoms .D/ is physical in nature &ith no psychological symptoms .E/ is physical in nature and caused by psychological factors B5- t is &idely 'no&n in JerryHs social circle that he is the most stubborn and inflexible member of the group- =et Jerry complains that all his friends are opinionated and rigid- JerryHs complaints are most clearly a sign of .A/ displacement .7/ repression .8/ pro2ection .D/ reaction formation .E/ rationali+ation

B9- :hich of the follo&ing is a genetic disorder that results in a deficiency of a liver en+yme &hich$ if not treated soon after birth$ may eventually lead to profound mental retardation; .A/ Do&n syndrome .7/ Tay#Sachs disease .8/ etal alcohol syndrome .D/ Toxoplasmosis .E/ Phenyl'etonuria .POK/ B<- Electroconvulsive therapy has been most successful in the treatment of .A/ phobias .7/ schi+ophrenia .8/ psychogenic amnesia .D/ multiple personality .E/ clinical depression B>- :hich of the follo&ing is most useful in under# standing an employerHs interpretation of an employeeHs poor performance; .A/ 8annonHs theory .7/ Reinforcement theory .8/ Attribution theory .D/ Arousal theory .E/ 8ognitive dissonance B?- :hich of the follo&ing accurately describes a ma2or change in perspective in the field of developmental psychology over the past t&enty#five years; .A/ A shift from an emphasis on childhood and adolescence to an interest in development over the life span .7/ A shift from a cognitive to a psychoanalytic interpretation of developmental phenomena .8/ A shift in research focus from cognitive to personality development .D/ A decrease in interest in the physiological factors affecting gro&th and development .E/ A decrease in interest in the study of the cognitive components of intellect BB- :hich of the follo&ing allo&s the examination of living brain tissue visually &ithout performing surgery; .A/ 8omputeri+ed axial tomography .7/ Stereotaxic examination .8/ Retrograde degeneration .D/ 7iofeedbac' .E/ Ablation BC- The change in the curvature of the lens that enables the eye to focus on ob2ects at various distances is called .A/ accommodation .7/ adaptation .8/ conduction .D/ convergence .E/ consonance BD- The hypothesis that intelligence is in part inherited is best supported by the fact that the !M correlation for .A/ pairs of t&ins reared together is greater than the correlation for pairs of t&ins reared apart .7/ pairs of identical t&ins is greater than for pairs of fraternal t&ins .8/ pairs of fraternal t&ins is greater than the correlation for other pairs of siblings .D/ adopted children and their adoptive parents is greater than +ero .E/ adopted children and their adoptive parents is greater than the correlation for the same children and their biological parents

C6- The techni1ue of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations is called .A/ positive reinforcement .7/ negative reinforcement .8/ distributed practice .D/ modeling .E/ shaping BA- :hich of the follo&ing has been most effective in the treatment of schi+ophrenia; .A/ Administration of ,#dopa .7/ Prefrontal lobotomy .8/ Psychoanalytic therapy .D/ Drug therapy that bloc's neurotransmitter sites .E/ Drug therapy that increases the activity of limbic system neurons C5- According to Jean Piaget$ &hat is the earliest stage at &hich a child is capable of using simple logic to thin' about ob2ects and events; .A/ Sensorimotor .7/ Preoperational .8/ Symbolic .D/ 8oncrete operational .E/ ormal operational C9- 7ipolar disorders are most effectively treated &ith a combination of tricyclic antidepressants and .A/ acetaminophen .7/ antianxiety drugs .8/ beta#bloc'ers .D/ amphetamines .E/ lithium carbonate C<- The tendency of most people to identify a three# sided figure as a triangle$ even &hen one of its sides is incomplete$ is the result of a perceptual process 'no&n as .A/ closure .7/ proximity .8/ similarity .D/ feature analysis .E/ shape constancy C>- According to 8arl Rogers$ the role of the therapist in person#centered psychotherapy is to .A/ accept the client unconditionally so that the clientHs o&n desire for mental health and positive gro&th &ill flourish .7/ express &armth and empathy and suppress negative feelings that arise in the relationship &ith the client .8/ use a didactic approach to teach the client to correct maladaptive behavior .D/ establish behavior#change programs to alter the problematic behavior that is often learned in early childhood .E/ define ideal characteristics of mental health for the client and to encourage the client to incorporate these elements in his or her personality C?- "ne criticism of Sigmund reudHs psychosexual theory of development is that it .A/ emphasi+es developmental changes in the oral and anal stages .7/ vie&s adult disorders as ad2ustments to the environment .8/ vie&s fear of loss as a motivating drive .D/ is based on empirically unverifiable constructs .E/ is based on ethnographic studies CA- or most people$ &hich of the follo&ing is an activity based in the right hemisphere of the brain; .A/ Muscular control of the right hand

.7/ Simple spatial reasoning .8/ Arithmetic reasoning .D/ ,anguage comprehension .E/ Speech CB- :hich of the follo&ing are the stages in Eans SelyeHs general adaptation syndrome; .A/ Appraisal$ stress response$ coping .7/ Shoc'$ anger$ self#control .8/ Anxiety$ fighting$ adapting .D/ Alarm$ resistance$ exhaustion .E/ Attac'$ flight$ defense CC- The defense mechanism of reaction formation is best exemplified in &hich of the follo&ing situations; .A/ A college student spea's sharply to her room# mate after 1uarreling &ith her professor about her grades.7/ A &oman &ho is una&are of her anger to&ard her friend expresses affection for that friend.8/ A runner forgets the name of the opponent &ho 2ust defeated her in an event for &hich she held the record.D/ A man &ho disli'es his supervisor believes that his supervisor disli'es him.E/ An elderly man lights up a cigarette 2ust after learning that he has been cured of a respiratory ailmentCD- :hich of the follo&ing is true of the reticular activating system; .A/ !t is the ma2or system in the brain for controlling emotions.7/ !t functions primarily in the control of motor responses.8/ !t regulates levels of arousal.D/ !t regulates body temperature.E/ !t controls the upta'e of pituitary hormonesD6- :hich of the follo&ing types of test is designed to measure an individualHs 'no&ledge of a sub2ect; 1#2 Achievement .7/ Attitude .8/ Aptitude .D/ Pro2ective .E/ !nterest inventory D5- A &ord or part of a &ord that is in itself meaningful$ but that cannot be bro'en into smaller meaningful units$ is called a .A/ grapheme .7/ morpheme .8/ phoneme .D/ performative .E/ holophrase D9- :hich of the follo&ing studies has had the most profound impact on ethical issues in psychological research; .A/ Stanley MilgramHs study of obedience .7/ Solomon AschHs study of conformity .8/ Daryl 7emHs study of self#perception .D/ :illiam McLuireHs study of self#concept .E/ ,eon estingerHs study of cognitive dissonance D<- 7ehaviorally oriented therapists see' to modify a clientHs behavior by .A/ repressing the clientHs deviant thoughts .7/ relating past events to the clientHs current behavior .8/ removing the underlying causes of the clientHs behavioral problems

.D/ explaining the significance of the clientHs dreams .E/ changing the contingencies of reinforcement for the client D>- !f 8arrnelita stares at a red spot for one minute and then shifts her ga+e to a &hite piece of paper$ she is li'ely to experience an afterimage that is .A/ green .7/ red .8/ blue .D/ violet .E/ blac' D?- The place in the retina &here the optic nerve exits to the brain is called the .A/ lens .7/ sclera .8/ fovea .D/ blind spot .E/ a1ueous humor DA- Responses extinguish fastest &hen they are learned through &hich type of reinforcement schedule; .A/ 8ontinuous .7/ Negative .8/ 0ariable#interval .D/ 0ariable#ratio .E/ ixed#interval DB- According to 7en2amin :horfHs linguistic relativity hypothesis$ &hich of the follo&ing is true; .A/ !ndividuals have a natural predisposition to learn language.7/ !ndividuals learn positive instances of concepts faster than they learn negative instances.8/ 8hildren learn their first language from their relatives and their peer group.D/ Different languages predispose those individuals &ho spea' them to thin' about the &orld in different &ays.E/ 8hildren learn 1uantifying &ords such as GmoreG and GfurtherG sooner than they do absolutes such as GeveryG and Gall-G DC- n their discussions of the process of development$ the advocates of nature in the nature#nurture controversy emphasi+e &hich of the follo&ing; .A/ Sociali+ation .7/ 8ognition .8/Maturation .D/ Experience E/ !nformation processing DD- :hich of the follo&ing is an example of metacognition; .A/ Memori+ing 566 &ords in a foreign language .7/ Recogni+ing the faces of people after meeting them once .8/ Solving a complex problem in a slo&$ deliberate &ay .D/ Knderstanding the role of various parts of the brain in memory .E/ Ono&ing the effectiveness of different strategies for learning statistical formulas 566- The debate over &hether development occurs gradually$ &ithout discernible shifts$ or through a series of distinct stages is termed 1#2 nature (s' nurture .7/ developmental (s' cognitive

.8/ cross#sectional (s' longitudinal .D/ continuity (s' discontinuity .E/ maturation (s' learning